Assessing Efficiency of Functional Performance in Bahrain Shopping Malls

Volume 5 Issue 3
(July 2014)
ISSN 2228-9860
eISSN 1906-9642
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In This Issue
Assessing the Efficiency of Functional Performance of Shopping Malls in the Kingdom of Bahrain
Mud-Brick High-Rise Buildings Architectural Linkages for Thermal Comfort in Hadhramout Valley, Yemen
Rainfall and Chemical Weathering of Basalt Facade at Puebla Cathedral, Mexico
Impact of Flexibility Principle on the Efficiency of Interior Design
Slum Upgrading Without Displacement at Danukusuman Sub-District Surakarta City
Cover Photos are from published article ITJEMAST V5(3) of Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa (2014) “Assessing the Efficiency of Functional Performance of Shopping Malls in the Kingdom of Bahrain.” Photos show justified permeability graphs (Gamma analysis method) of shopping mall layouts in the Kingdom of Bahrain.

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:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies
Volume 5 Issue 3 (July, 2014) ISSN 2228-9860
http://TuEngr.com eISSN 1906-9642
FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES
 Assessing the Efficiency of Functional Performance of Shopping Malls in the Kingdom of Bahrain 143
 Mud-Brick High-Rise Buildings Architectural Linkages for Thermal Comfort in Hadhramout Valley, Yemen 167
 Rainfall and Chemical Weathering of Basalt Facade at Puebla Cathedral, Mexico 183
 Impact of Flexibility Principle on the Efficiency of Interior Design 195
 Slum Upgrading Without Displacement at Danukusuman Sub-District Surakarta City 213
2014 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.
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Assessing the Efficiency of Functional Performance of Shopping Malls in the Kingdom of Bahrain
Udai Ali Al-Juboori a, Faris Ali Mustafa b*
a Department of Design and Art, University of Applied Sciences, BAHRAIN
b Department of Architectural Engineering, Salahaddin University, Erbil, KURDISTAN-IRAQ
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received 08 January 2014
Received in revised form
24 February 2014
Accepted 27 February 2014
Available online
03 March 2014
Keywords:
Functional Efficiency;
Spatial Configuration, Circulation;
Space Syntax;
Interior Design.
The functional efficiency of the internal spaces of shopping malls considered one of the most important criteria underlying the success of the interior design process for such complexes, as well as its success in economic terms that constitute a destination in itself. The process of distribution of internal activities and building a network connecting linkages between them are important factors that affect the properties of the spatial configuration and functional efficiency of malls. Study the impact of spatial configuration of shopping malls on the efficiency of functional performance of such complexes in the kingdom of Bahrain has formed a research problem sought to be solved through identifying the characteristics of the spatial configuration of malls to explore their ability in providing greater opportunities for optimal functional efficiency by applying the methodology of Space Syntax in measuring the syntactical properties concerning the functional efficiency for each of these malls. Results show that Giant mall offers better design solutions in terms of the functional efficiency in comparing with the rest of malls, in accordance to the indicators and measurements of space syntax methodology. Conclusion reveals variation in the spatial configuration characteristics of malls being studied led to variation in the level of functional efficiency of these malls. The data collected will be valuable in the design process of future malls in the Kingdom of Bahrain.
2014 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH. 2014 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
farisyali@yahoo.com. 2014. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management,
& Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 5 No.3 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642.
Online available at http://tuengr.com/V05/0143.pdf.
143

1. Introduction
In recent years, the shopping malls imposed a civilized and cultural role it was impossible to imagine in the past. This is evidenced by the trend towards internal spaces in order to organize such complexes to achieve the desired objectives of the shopping malls in a real competitive environment. The “Urban Land Institute” defines the shopping malls as “a group of commercial establishments planned, developed, owned, and managed as a unit related in location, size, and type of shops to the trade area it serves; it provides onsite parking relating to the types and sizes of its stores” (ULI, 2002; Vernor et al., 1993). Shopping malls play the role of a monolithic commercial facility subject to a unified commercial and administrative system depends on the properties of the commercial area that serves it. It represents a closed space performs the function of merchandise trade (Dawson, 1970). The history of the first enclosed shopping malls linked to Greek civilization, where the structural composition built for the market appeared in city centers and has gained increasing importance with the passage of time (Mumford, 1971). In Islamic civilization, this kind of buildings can be returned to a form of Bazaars, as in the Grand Bazaar in Isfahan, Iran, the tenth century AD, and the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul, which includes under its roof 4000 shop and 58 street, in the fifteenth century. These examples represent the first covered markets in the modern history (Sedlmaier, 2005). The form of the market in the Islamic civilization has taken different patterns varied between an extended commercial bars within the fabric of the city, were sometimes covered to protect pedestrians from the external environment, and in other cases where the shops gather around an open courtyard. The emergence of commercial centers in the modern era goes back to the period after the Second World War, which devastated by the economic recession, led to the creation of new outlets for selling through organizing it in line with the concept of the new shopping; followed by the emergence of markets known (department store) which was characterized by wide and large areas, to display different merchandise within an environment fit with the shopping process (Beddington, 1991). In the mid-twentieth century with the spread of suburbs cities and cars in the United States, huge shopping centers have been built away from urban centers. Victor Gruen was one of the first centers created by Gruen; he built and developed many of them in America which began to grow and grow to include many diverse shops (Sedlmaier, 2005). These centers contained a variety of indoor environments with a sophisticated appearance along with fountains, trees and termination precious materials. Thus, these centers have evolved from one level to two levels, lower level was used for parking and then a third level added to serve the purposes of shopping; this in turn has led to the high cost of establishing such centers but it provided the possibility of the establishment of such centers in the cities in the other hand (Rybczynski, 2003). 144 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

Thus, a new generation of these centers has emerged known under the title of shopping centers aims to attract the attention of consumers by providing a regulated environment climatically, visually, and psychologically allow the performance of the activities of shopping and jobs associated with them effectively, as well as serve evolution in the production and competition of modern propaganda (Beddington, 1991). Gruen has contributed through transferring the concept of shopping centers being established for the purposes of profit only to being represented community centers. He considered that the shopping mall is a place for the meeting includes interactive facilities provides an environment for social interactions as well as its marketing function. This concept has been inspired in many of the shopping centers established in Europe at a later time, where these centers included many sculptures, fountains and seating facilities. Its role is not confined only in trade but also extended to include social, cultural and entertainment at the same time (Sedlmaier, 2005).
In the light of the changed perception of the concept of shopping centers, these centers have evolved to include among its walls, in addition to shopping function on other activities such as theaters, restaurants and post offices, banks, hotels, public libraries, health clubs and health centers. In the nineties, several shopping centers appeared which were marked by the architectural complexities and upscale constructions raised the cost to a large extent, accompanied by an increase in the number of shoppers and family gatherings enjoying in their meetings in these buildings; which in turn impact on the number of hours spent by people walking inside these buildings (Rybczynski, 2003). In general, the shopping malls have faced two major challenges: How can these centers to include the largest possible number of shoppers; and how to gather them in one building so as to achieve the best functional efficiency of the building.
2. Movement and Shopping in Shopping Malls
The interior design of shopping malls showing great interest in the process of planning and organization of movement paths accompanied by visual effects and psychological impact lead the shopper to enjoy during the performance of the shopping activity, and pay for the survival of a longer period of time, achieving efficiency in the economic factor of the building (Gruen & Smith, 1965). The planning of shopping malls sees that the kinetic axis is the main generator of the system, as the clarity of gradient between the various axes that constitute the building is the basis for the visibility of these axes (Malnar and Vodvarka, 1992). As for the movement of shoppers, it contributes to enrich the experience of movement relay within the shopping spaces, *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
145

providing a relaxed atmosphere allows consumers to take decisions effectively without hesitation, and achieves success for its intended commercial activity (Maitland, 1991). The organization of the internal spaces of shopping malls incorporates several areas along the kinetic planning and the overall organization, including by understanding the act of shopping itself, where studies have indicated that the act of shopping is built on three different cases, including:
1. Non- intentionality: a lack of clarity of purpose as a result of not setting goals, and this results in the length of stay in order to gain experience and see the exhibits before purchase.
2. The clarity of purpose to some extent: where corresponds to provide a simple experience to the shopper; this type of shoppers are vulnerable to the surrounding environmental effects, which contribute to the strengthening or reverse what they were carrying of a mental image in their minds.
3. Spontaneous response: a shopper has clarity of intent, whether to buy or choose a shopping place, therefore, this type of shoppers will head to the specified location to pick and sell (Howard, 1973).
Understanding the act of shopping in various cases offset by three perceptions of the kinetic configuration for users of the building:
Firstly, the theory of kinetic determinism: it indicates that the spatial configuration determines the kinetic behavior within that space. This theory assumes that it is possible to achieve fundamental changes in human behavior and therefore his movement and method of interaction inside spaces through a change in the organizational pattern of space.
Secondly, the theory of spatial possibility: it indicates that the internal environment provides possibilities and constraints on the behavior of users and their movement depending on other criteria.
Thirdly, the theory of spatial probability: it assumes that the spatial environment provides the potential for multiple options for users' movement, which is non-binding, but some options are more likely to occur in a certain physical surroundings (Al-Hankawi, 1993).
Based on the foregoing, it can be said that the sequence of movement on planned paths may expose the recipient to a greater number of physical effects which increases the sensory data as a result of the continuous reproduction of scenes and emotions. This in turn provides durability in the emotional sense, which is an effective element in attracting shoppers to their various destinations of the different parts in the shopping mall and thus contribute to the achievement of an efficient functional performance. 146 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

3. The Shopping Process and Spatial Configuration
The process of shopping refers to the meaning of a deeper and more comprehensive than shopping or buying process that is due to the need or demand. It is a process that includes everything can be practiced by human motives may be multiple instinctive exceed the motives of the need and demand (Beddington, 1982). Based on this understanding, we find that shopping complexes tend to be spaces for social gatherings where people congregate, and spend their leisure time and create friendships in these spaces increase the time spent by people inside the complex (Aktas, 2012). Thus, the act of shopping is a state of dynamic change over time, influenced by various humanitarian needs and social concepts (Beddington, 1991). In other words, the interior design of shopping malls plays an important role in interweaving various aspects, achieving high performance with a shopping trip through successful concepts (Northen & Haskoll, 1977). Thus, the purpose of the building is to organize the internal space, and the physical element is a way to reach that goal (Kent, 1993); where the space creates a special relationship between the function and the building, as the encapsulation of the relationship between things (Malnar and Vodvarka, 1992). Accordingly, the space can take its distinctive
shape by doing two senses: firstly, organizing individuals (people) in space through the
organization of their relations with each other, depending on the degree of separation or
aggregation, and secondly, self organization of spaces through buildings, paths, zones and so
on; thus, the physical environment of the society takes a particular style. In both senses, society
acquires a definite and recognizable spatial order (Hillier, 1984).
Spatial configuration of shopping malls has allowed convergence of many desires and humanitarian needs within a balanced and protected environment helps to perform the activities of shopping and allow the participation of consumers in the life of this environment (Gruen, 1973). It means that there is a social logic of space and spatial logic to the community, and through that we can realize and distinguish the presence of the cultural differences between social environment and others (Hillier, 1984). Bullough (1970) refers to five factors may affect the process of interior design and spatial configuration of shopping malls, namely: functional zoning of the mall's activities as a whole, effective facts and the responsiveness design to it, spaces allocated to the components of shopping mall, the organization of internal movement, and finally the internal environment and design styles that reflect the strength of business activity that takes place within the space of the building (Bullough, 1970). This process of organization invests the principle of cumulative attraction, which refers to the accumulation of activities similar to the shopping activities but not identical, such as the *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
147

activities of restaurants or fast food outlets or furniture shops near the shopping activities so that there is a relationship between consumer expectations and prospects for competition. This type of relationship invested for organizing internal activities and forming the attractions within the shopping mall (Vernor et al., 1993). Spatial configuration of the internal spaces of shopping malls includes the harmonization of the physical components and displays them more efficient and enjoyable within different design possibilities.
On the other hand, the process of linking shopping spaces across the kinetic paths inside shopping malls constitutes an essential point in the spatial configuration. The process of formation and planning of circulation paths, which includes within them both necessary and optional activities for shoppers, based on linking kinetic routs starting from the point of entry to these activities with each other in an interconnected fabric to achieve the flow for shoppers from one place to another. Moreover, it provides a simple and balanced movement for shopper, enabling him to review the overall exhibits through the formation of visual breakpoints represented by attraction points that contribute to stimulate the shopper to pass multiple points slowly down to the end of the kinetic paths that can be reflected positively on the functional performance of any shopping mall (Northen & Haskoll, 1977).
3.1 Spatial Configuration and Functional Efficiency
Configuration is defined in general as, at least, the relation between two spaces in any building layout taking into account a third, and at most, as the relation among spaces in the complex, taking into account all the other spaces in the complex. In other words, we can say: put simply, relations taking into account other relations (Hillier et al., 1987a; Hillier, 2007). The relations between the various interior spaces have an influential role on the nature of spatial configuration of the building layout in general. In addition, the method used in the treatment and the locating of the internal spaces also affect the nature of spatial relationships, which in turn affect the degree of the functional efficiency of these spaces (Rapoport, 1990; Hillier et al., 1984; Kent, 1993). A building achieves its function not through its built form but mainly within its layout spaces. Accordingly, buildings create and order the empty spaces in which their purpose and function take place. Social meanings in buildings take place within the spaces of the buildings, and the ordering of spaces in buildings is really about the ordering of relations between people (Zako, 2006; Reveron, 2009). The determinants of internal spaces in shopping mall layouts, including horizontal (floors) and vertical (walls) in particular, which contains the openings (doors and windows), create kinetic and visual axes, leading the space to possess functional and visual relationship.
148 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

The functional relationships in the shopping mall layouts can be achieved through the physical elements that separate adjacent spaces. The visual relations can be determined through other spaces (transitional spaces) located between the main spaces. Thus, the functional relationships generated between the spaces reflect the existence of human, way of life and his pattern of thinking in dealing with such building spaces (Schulz, 1979; Nesbitt, 1996; Voordt et al., 1997). The functional relationships reflect the characteristics of spatial configuration of the building based on the characteristic of integration as an indicator to measure the degree of functional efficiency of space, because the structure of spatial relations of any building depends on the way of handling the determinants of space (walls and floors) which include joints of the kinetic links, on the one hand. On the other hand, the magnitude of kinetic penetrations in these parameters reflects the permeability of space within the spatial system (shopping mall layout), which in turn reflects the flexibility and accessibility of shopping spaces (Hillier and Hanson, 1988; Meiss, 1996; Nesbitt, 1996; Franz et al., 2005).
3.2 Functional Efficiency of Shopping Mall Layouts
One of the most important approaches that carry the imprint of society is the manner by which space is organized for human purposes, which lies in achieving the appropriate and efficient functions of building layouts (Aspinall, 1993; Voordt et al., 1997). A product or process is considered functional when the product or process used is suitable for the purpose. For buildings, functionality may be defined as the degree in which activities are supported by the built environment. Functionality is related to the amount and form of space, the spatial relationship between spaces (functional zoning), and the routing through the building for the distribution of people (Voordt et al., 1997). In architectural design, function is approached mainly as a sequence of human actions coupled with equipment to satisfy specific practical requirements on a daily basis inside a given spatial unit (Reveron, 2009). Hillier defines functionality: “as the ability of a complex to accommodate functions in general and therefore potentially a range of different functions, rather than any specific function” (Hillier, 2007). Functional factors such as the relationships between spaces and activities, appropriate axes of movement, flexibility, suitability, and safety are the key aspects of a building layout design. These factors are closely related to the activities and organizational performance of the occupant. Functional considerations play an important role in the success of a building. Thus, incorrect configurational decisions will result in inefficient and unacceptable functions (Al-Nijaidi, 1985; Karlen, 2009). Therefore, functionality is the overall viability of a building in accommodating functions (multifunctionality and diversity) and achieving a range of different functions rather than a specific function (Hanson, 2003). The built space is considered *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
149

efficient when everyday users, shoppers, and visitors can participate in various activities without experiencing difficulties. The spatial–functional features that are relevant to efficiency include the spatial clustering of functionally related activities, short distances (spatial depth), and prevention of physical barriers between frequently used spaces in mall layouts. The degree of efficiency achieved by building layouts can be determined by indicators such as the availability of interior spaces for individual and communal use and the openness or closeness of physical partitions. Thus, the two following components are important:
1. Psychological Efficiency: refers to the extent in which a building “invites” the potential user or shopper to enter by using the appearance of and activities in a building. The relevant spatial aspects include a recognizable entrance; clear transitions and circulation from the public to private sectors; syntactical characteristics that facilitate spatial–functional orientations, such as a clear outline of a building layout, visual axes, points of recognition, and differentiation in the use of spaces.
2. Physical Efficiency: refers to the ease in which users and shoppers can reach, enter, and move through a building to use various spaces. A particular focal point is integral accessibility, that is, people with physical disabilities can also enter and move through the building independently. “Access for all” can be determined from the floor plans based on indicators such as the type of space, degree of integration of each space within the spatial layout, depth of space, manner of distribution of functional spaces into zones, and variety of internal arrangements of spaces in terms of flexibility, freedom, inclusiveness, and other design devices. These indicators provide opportunities to improve the physical efficiency of a building (Voordt et al., 1997; Habraken, 1998). Spaces are usually connected in ways that modify the distribution of integration throughout a structure, thus causing a number of areas to become more accessible than the rest. This sequence of integration regulates the interactions among users/shoppers and causes spatial–functional relationships to become efficient and flexible (Dawson, 2002).
4. The Sample and the Case Studies
This part of the research aims to identify and measure the syntactic characteristics of different types of spatial configurations. For this purpose, five shopping malls in the Kingdom of Bahrain adopted as case studies to give the possibility of comparison and evaluation between spatial configurations. The methodology of space syntax and its parameters has been applied for analysing and measuring, due to its ability to analyze and describe the spatial systems as 150 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

well as the process of assessing and modeling different patterns (layout design). The analysis included the following shopping malls (case studies):
City Center: the largest and most modern shopping mall in the Kingdom of Bahrain, opened in 2008, located in downtown Manama, the most vital site in the Kingdom. The complex covers an area 140,000 square meters, provides enough space for more than 300 retail stores and international trading centers spread over three floors, as well as the largest water park in a roofed area, gymnasium and the largest cinema complex in the Middle East, a 20-screen cinema (Figure 1a).
Figure 1 (a, b, c, d, e): The sample of study consists of five shopping mall layouts (case studies)
Al-Saif Mall: the second largest commercial complex in Bahrain. The complex located in the Al-Saif district to the north of Bahrain complex and to the west of the Al-Aali complex. It contains more than 200 shops, 2 cinema complexes, restaurants, entertainment center for children and adults, and hotel. It was opened in 1997 (Figure 1b).
Al-Aali Complex: one of the biggest shopping complexes in the Kingdom of Bahrain after the Al-Saif Mall. This complex is characterized by unique architecture and beautiful form, contains a distinct complex for Bahraini and Gulf Heritage. It was opened in 1996, has added two expansions, the last expansion ended in April 2007. The complex includes many of the famous brands on an international level (Figure 1c).
a. City Center b. Al-Saif Mall
c. Al-Aali Mall d. Giant Mall e. Dana Mall *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
151

Bahrain Mall (Giant Mall): The complex includes more than 120 global brand, and covers an area of 750,000 square feet, includes a Giant center, a division of a multinational corporation, specialized in a series of business centers, where the headquarters in France. Currently owns about 113 huge marketing centers around the world. The goal of this complex is to provide all supplies such as household utensils, food, computers, and home entertainment devices. This series is the fifth-largest chain retailer in the world and the second largest in France after the chain Carrefour (Figure 1d).
Dana Mall: the complex is located directly opposite the City Center complex separated by Sheikh Khalifa Street in the city of Manama, the advantage of the complex that combines shopping, entertainment, and the best restaurants in the medium-sized compound (Figure 1e).
5. Space Syntax Method for Interpreting Shopping Mall Layouts
Space syntax is a theory of space and contains a set of analytical, quantitative, and descriptive tools that can be used to analyze the spatial formations of building layouts, cities, and landscapes (Hillier & Hanson, 1988; Hillier, 2007). Space syntax reveals the relationship between human beings and their occupied spaces. The distinctive characteristics of societies exist within spatial systems and are conveyed through space and the organization of spaces (Osman & Suliman, 1993). Space syntax refers to this relational characteristic of space as configuration; this characteristic forms human behavior and contains social knowledge (Dursun, 2007). Space syntax research aims to develop strategies for describing the configurations of occupied/inhabited spaces to articulate underlying social meanings. This process allows the development of secondary theories or practical explanations regarding the effects of spatial configuration on various social or cultural variables. A related theme in space syntax research is the comprehension of configured/functioned space itself, particularly the formative process and social meaning of space (Bafna, 2003). Space syntax attempts to formulate a configurational theory in architecture by generating a theoretical understanding of how people create and use spatial configurations (such as mall layouts). Thus, space syntax attempts to identify how spatial configurations express a social or cultural meaning and how spatial configurations generate the social interactions in built environments. A considerable variety of research and publications have shown that previous space syntax studies focus on real environments and identify the intrinsic nature of man-made environments.
By developing consistent techniques to represent and analyze spatial patterns, recent space syntax studies have attempted to simulate spatial designs in mall layout proposals and predict how these designs will work (Fong, 2005; Hillier et al., 1984, 1987a, 1987b; Hillier & Hanson, 152 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

1988; Hillier, 1999; Hillier, 2007; Kuribayashi & Kishimoto, 2009; Min et al., 2012; Peponis & Wineman, 2002; Ratti, 2004; Steadman, 1983; Verdil, 2009). Space syntax research and application have demonstrated that the spatial arrangements in any building layout (such as mall layouts) have a discernible and measurable influence on human (shopper) behavior. Considering that these effects can be modeled, predicted, and improved prior to construction, designers must understand the relationship between layout design and human behavior (Bafna, 2003). The space syntax method is an approach developed to analyze spatial configuration. Space syntax aims to describe spatial models (mall layouts) and represent these models in numerical and graphical forms, thereby facilitating scientific interpretation (Franz et al., 2005; Hanson, 2003; Manum, 2009). This method was adopted in dealing with the syntactical characteristics of the spatial configuration of mall layouts because of the following reasons:
i. This method combines physical and social indicators in explaining the spatial– functional systems to identify configurations in terms of differences and similarities, thereby allowing the diagnosis of the strengths and weaknesses of structures (mall layouts), types, and patterning.
ii. This method adopts the syntactical characteristics of spatial configuration (such as symmetry–asymmetry, distributedness–non-distributedness) in interpreting the structures of different mall layouts.
iii. This method facilitates the analysis, evaluation, and comparison of various spatial systems.
iv. This method can assess, understand, describe, and model various formal and spatial systems, thus providing sufficient credibility and reality.
5.1 Space Syntax Analysis of Shopping Mall Layouts
Space syntax indicates that the organization of architectural space in mall layouts can result from two keys syntactic characteristics, namely, symmetry–asymmetry and distributedness– non-distributedness, which are directly linked to the functionality of the mall layout. The symmetry–asymmetry property expresses the kinetic-visual depth of various spaces within the spatial system (mall layout) in terms of the main space (main gate/entrance). If the depth of the space within the mall layout is lower than the depth of the other spaces in the system, the space is more symmetric and vice versa. Space segregation increases when the number of kinetic-visual steps between the spaces in the mall layout increases, thus resulting in the weakening of the functional relationship (efficiency). This phenomenon is caused by the inverse relationship between segregation and functional efficiency. This relationship refers to *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
153

the degree of symmetry of any space in the spatial system. Thus, when any space in the mall layout moves away from the main space (for instance, the entrance) by one kinetic-visual step, space separation will not occur. However, the link will be direct, and the space will be symmetrical. Increasing the space symmetry decreases the space segregation, thus resulting in an efficient functional relationship. When the space moves away by more than one kinetic-visual step from the main space, the space will become asymmetrical (Fong, 2005; Hillier & Hanson, 1988; Hillier, 2007; Min et al., 2012).
The distributedness–non-distributedness property reflects the available options for accessing all spaces in the system (mall layout). By increasing the number of methods of accessing a particular space, the distributedness of a space in a system will increase, thus suggesting that the kinetic permeability of a space is in a high level with little segregation and vice versa. A non-distributed space has simple permeability, thus suggesting the existence of one kinetic method to enter another space. Permeability (i.e., distributedness– non-distributedness) reflects the movement of shopper within the spatial system in terms of smoothness, efficiency, and flexibility and represents a certain organizational behavior of shoppers and its circulation. Thus, depth-maximizing plans (mall layouts) are functionally inflexible and unsuitable for most types of functional patterns compared with depth-minimizing plans, which allow the efficient function of a mall (Hillier, 2007).
5.2 Space Syntax Indicators and Measurements
The syntactical characteristics of spatial interior configurations (symmetry–asymmetry and distributedness–non-distributedness), which affect the functional efficiency of the mall layout, can be measured by numerical values by the following benchmarks and indicators.
5.2.1 Indicator of Integration Degree (Real Relative Asymmetry-RRA)
The integration degree of a space is an indicator that is related to the property of symmetry–asymmetry. This indicator reflects the relative depth of space in relation to the rest of the spaces in any spatial system (Hillier & Hanson, 1988). The mean depth of a space (MD) from all other spaces in the configuration (mall layout) is the integration (i.e., real relative asymmetry (RRA)) that describes the extent of permeability of that particular space. Low values correspond to high integration, whereas high values correspond to high segregation (Manum, 2009). The integration degree of space can be calculated as follows.
a. Calculating MD
i. A justified graph is created by designating the intended space as the key space (root space) at the base of a mall layout to measure the relative depth of the intended space. The 154 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

remaining spaces are then aligned above the root space according to the number of spaces that must be taken to arrive at each space from the root space. Each space in the system is represented by a small circle, whereas the permeability between spaces is represented by linked lines.
ii. The depth of each space is calculated in the graph from the root space, wherein the depth of each space is represented by the number of spaces that is needed to transition from the root space to any space in the system (Figure 2).
1-Al-Aali Mall
2-Al-Saif Mall
3-City Center
4-Dana Mall
5-Giant Mall
Figure 2: Justified permeability graphs (Gamma analysis method) of shopping mall layouts (5 case studies) in the kingdom of Bahrain
The least depth can be achieved when all spaces are directly connected to the original space (root space), whereas the greatest depth exists when all spaces are arranged in a linear sequence away from the original space. The space is symmetric in the former case with respect to the other spaces in the system, whereas the space is asymmetric in the latter case (Hillier & Hanson, 1988; Hillier, 2007), (Figure 3).
a- Spaces connect directly to the root space; b- Linear sequence of spaces;
minimum depth: symmetric system maximum depth: asymmetric system
Figure 3: (a)Symmetric spatial system; (b) asymmetric spatial system
(Hillier et al., 1987a) *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
155

MD can be calculated as follows:
1. − =ΣKDDM (1),
where M.D is the mean depth of space from the root space, ΣD is the total magnitude of depth for all spaces in the system from the root space, and K is the total number of spaces in the graph.
b. Calculating the Integration Value of Space (Relative Asymmetry-RA)
The relative depth of a space from all other spaces in the graph can be expressed as follows:
2)1.(2. − − = KDMAR (2),
where R.A. is the relative asymmetry integration value of space, M.D. is the mean depth of space, and K is the total number of spaces in the graph.
Therefore, relative asymmetry (RA) numerically expresses a key aspect of the shape of the justified graph from that space. RA varies between zero and one; zero indicates maximum integration, that is, no depth (high functional efficiency), whereas one indicates maximum segregation, that is, maximum depth (low functional efficiency) (Hillier et al., 1987a; Zako, 2006). The measurements of integration and depth are obtained by using the exterior space (of the mall) as the root space in relation to the rest of the spaces in the spatial system (mall layout). The depth from the root is considered the number of steps that separate a determined space from the front the gate/main entrance. Describing the sequence of activities from the mall entrance is of particular interest because this sequence describes the primary experience in buildings, that is, movement from the entrance to any specific place in the structure. Therefore, RA is a useful measurement for understanding front and back notions, as well as the relationship between spaces that are open to shoppers and spaces that are specifically for shopping.
Figure 4: Diamond-shaped graph used to calculate integration of spaces
(Hillier et al., 1987a; Hillier & Hanson, 1988; Asami et al., 2003)
c. Calculating the RRA
The RA value resulting from Equation (2) must be adjusted to facilitate the numerical comparison between spaces of different systems. The RA value for each space in the system is adjusted with its value in the depth graph with a diamond-shaped or pyramid-shaped pattern
156 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

(Hillier et al., 1987a; Hillier & Hanson, 1988; Asami et al., 2003), (Figure 4).
The depth of the diamond-shaped graph represents an intermediate situation between the maximum mean depth of space when the spaces are organized in a linear sequence with respect to the root space (as previously mentioned) and the least mean of depth when all spaces are linked directly to the root space (Hillier & Hanson, 1988). Thus, RRA can be calculated as follows:
KDARARR...= (3),
where R.R.A. is the real relative asymmetry of space, R.A. is the relative asymmetry of space, and DK is the RA of space from a diamond-shaped graph.
RRA is a sensitive measure of building layouts. This value varies around the number one; values less than one correspond to the most integrated and least segregated spaces in the system, whereas values greater than one correspond to the most segregated spaces. The relations among functional activities are expressed in space through the spatial relationships between the spaces of any spatial system under the assumption that the properties of integration and segregation indicate space efficiency (Hillier et al., 1987a; Zako, 2006) and the type of functional use of spaces occupied by shoppers.
5.2.2 Difference Factor of Space (H*)
Integration values indicate the permeability of a configuration in quantitative terms. Extensive research has demonstrated that integration values are highly predictive of the use of space. The degree of variance in integration values is considered an indication of the strength or weakness of social relations with respect to spatial ordering, that is, the amount of interchangeable space. The difference factor is used to quantify this difference as a proportion of the sum of integration values of spaces under consideration (Guney, 2005; Bellal, 2007). In most spatial complexes, different functions and activities are assigned to spaces, thus integrating complexes to different degrees (numerical values). If the integration values of these spaces are consistent across a sample, a cultural pattern is assumed to be expressing itself spatially. This particular type of consistency in spatial patterning is called “inequality genotypes.” The strength or weakness of the inequality between integration values expresses the degree of cultural importance placed on the integration or segregation (Hillier et al., 1987a; Al-Jaff, 1989; Hanson, 2003). An entropy-based measure called a difference factor is used to *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
157

quantify the degree of difference between the integration values of any three spaces (or more with a modified formula) or functional activities. This measure is essentially an adaptation of Shannon’s H-measure for transition probabilities, wherein the integration values of the spaces are substituted for transition probabilities (Zako, 2006):
(4),
where H is the unrelativized difference factor for three spaces; a, b, and c are the integration values of any three spaces in the configuration (ma layout); t is the sum of the three spaces, that is, t = Σ (a + b + c).
Thus, Equation (4) describes the variance in the integration within each spatial structure, and this variance may be a result of the functional differentiation in the use of space (Bustard, 1999). H can be “relativized” between Ln2 and Ln3 to obtain the “relative difference factor” (H*), which varies between zero and one. H* = 0 corresponds to maximum difference, that is, strong functional differentiation, which refers to the real functional efficiency of the space. H* = 1 corresponds to minimum or no difference, that is, no functional differentiation, thus indicating that no real difference exists in the values of integration and that no real functional efficiency exists for the space (Hillier et al., 1987a). Therefore, H* can be calculated according to the following modified formula:
(5),
A low H* value indicates the existence of a “strong” genotype. By contrast, values close to one indicate the existence of “weak” genotypes, thus suggesting that no functional differentiation and weakness exist in the functional efficiency of a space. These simple measures, as clarified by Zako (2006), can express culturally significant typological differences among various mall layouts over time, because such measures are based on concepts founded on intrinsic “social logic.”
5.2.3 Indicator of (Space - Link Ratio) of the Spatial System
Integration has been proposed as a syntactical measure to assess the symmetry-asymmetry properties of a spatial system; whereas the relative “ringiness” measure was proposed to assess the distributedness–non-distributedness properties. Distributedness reflects the existence of more than one non-intersecting route from a given point in a system to another point. If only one route exists for any two points in the system, the system is considered a non-distributed system with a tree-like structure (Figure 5a). In a tree-like structure, p-1 lines connect the 158 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

structure together, where p is the number of nodes in the spatial system (Guney, 2005; Bellal, 2007).
Any increase in the number of lines in the system will indicate the existence of rings in the system, that is, such a system has a ringy structure (Figure 5b). Thus, this indicator is used to measure the distributedness–non-distributedness property of each space and the entire spatial system (mall layout). Measuring the degree of “ringiness” of a spatial system, i.e., space–link ratio R represents the extent of permeability of the spatial system. The space–link ratio is the ratio between the number of links located between the spaces plus one and the number of spaces in a spatial system of a mall.
Figure 5: (a) Tree-like structure; (b) Ringy structure
The R values vary around the number one, where the values greater than one correspond to a high degree of “ringiness” and distributedness of a spatial system (ringy structures). This distributedness property indicates a high degree of flexibility (functional efficiency) in using the space, thus enabling the user to change the layout to adapt to different circumstances by closing or opening doors. Values less than one indicate that the spatial system has a tree-like structure, thus suggesting the lack of distributedness and the increase in the depth of spaces within the layout (Guney, 2005; Bellal, 2007). R can be calculated as follows:
KLR1+ = (6),
where R is the space–link ratio of spaces in a spatial system (mall layout), L is the number of lines of the link between spaces in the justified graph, and K is the number of spaces in the system.
6. Discussion of Results
When the results of the analyses are examined, the following data are obtained. The MD
a
b
*Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
159

value is 3.2 for Al-Aali mall, 3.02 for Al-Saif mall, 3.32 for City Center, 2.77 for Dana mall, and 2.21 for Giant mall. The overall spaces in the Giant mall layout are more integrated than the overall spaces in the remaining mall layouts. This finding is supported by the high mean value of RRA (0.18) for the Giant mall. This finding demonstrates the tendency of the system (layout) to be significantly integrated (more accessible, efficient, and flexible) compared with other cases that have low mean RRA values. Thus, the spatial configuration of layouts with low mean RRA values tend to be segregated, controlled, and less efficient in terms of function.
The justified graphs (gamma maps) reveal that overall mall layouts having “ringy” structures (having a different numbers of rings within their configurations). The overall mall layouts having “ringy" structures; the mean value of R is greater than 1, suggesting that these layouts are spatially and functionally distributed structures. The mean R value is 1.04 for Al-Aali mall, 1.15 for Al-Saif mall, 1.04 for City Center, 1.07 for Dana mall, and 1.12 for Giant mall; these values suggesting that both layouts of Al-Saif mall and Giant mall are generally more distributed comparing with other mall layouts. The values of H* for all cases can be obtained from the values of RRA. These values are presented as follows: H* is 0.78 for Al-Aali mall layout, 0.86 for Al-Saif mall, 1 for City Center mall, 0.91 for Dana mall, and 0.64 for Giant mall. These findings indicate that the Giant mall layout has the lowest difference factor value among overall mall layouts (Table 1).
Table 1: MD, RRA, R, H* values of the case studies (shopping malls).
Mosque layout pattern
Mean Depth
(MD)
Real Relative Asymmetry (RRA)
Space Link Ratio
(R)
Difference Factor
(H*)
Al-Aali mall
3.20
0.38
1.04
0.78
Al-Saif mall
3.02
0.24
1.15
0.86
City Center
3.32
0.33
1.04
1.00
Dana mall
2.77
0.35
1.07
0.91
Giant mall
2.21
0.18
1.12
0.64
7. Conclusion
Results of analysis reveal that the indicators of the methodology of space syntax and its techniques adopted in this research have contributed effectively in identifying the preference of case studies (mall layouts). Based on these results, it can be concluded that the Giant mall layout represents the best among the mall layouts, in terms of functional efficiency with respect to the indicators of spatial depth (MD) and the degree of integration (RRA). The values of the indicator of difference factor (H*) reveal that a Giant mall layout has the highest difference, thus indicating strong distinction and functional differentiation compared with the other mall layouts. This finding confirms the need to adopt such layout and its interior spaces in any future 160 Udai Ali Al-Juboori, and Faris Ali Mustafa

mall layout designs, because the difference factor demonstrates the independence of space (for instance, the main lobby or the main part/space of the mall) with other spaces. A strong independence corresponds to a high level of functionality and efficiency. The R values reveal that the Al-Saif mall layout has a high distributedness, thus indicating the importance (efficiency) of this type of layout at the spatial – functional level. This high distributedness is due to the presence of large number of rings in its configuration, which provide high accessibility to the system. Based on justified graphs (Gamma maps), the study shows that (100%) of the mall layouts are “ringy” structures. This points that the entire case studies are distributed structures spatially and functionally (having different numbers of rings within their configurations). Despite the fact that all cases of study appeared distributed configurations (ringy structures), but it can be concluded that the Al-Saif mall layout and Giant mall layout appeared more integrated, accessible, and distributed spatially and functionally in comparison to other cases, which means that both of these cases are considered more efficient in terms of function.
The results of analysis reported positively the relationship between the process of spatial configuration and the level of functional efficiency of mall layouts according to their different configurations and patterns, through an analytical comparative approach adopted in discussing and interpreting these resulted data. Overall indicators contributed effectively in defining the impact of the spatial configuration process on the mall layouts, which paved the way in determining and assessing its level of functional efficiency. The results clearly show that the efficiency of mall layout changes due to the change in the spatial configuration of these layouts. Conclusions reveal variation in the spatial configuration characteristics of mall layouts led to variation in the level of functional efficiency of the cases being studied. Consequently, this study confirms the following:
• Shopping is the integration between marketing strategies and design of shopping venues, in other words, the study in this regard is consistent with what has been inferred by (Bullough,1964,) and (Vernor,1993).
• The process of spatial configuration for shopping malls is built on the basis of the zoning or the distribution of activities within a comprehensive spatial configuration to achieve functional and economic efficiency as well as encourage the provision of a fun activity performance. *Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
161

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Dr. Udai Ali Al-Juboori is currently a senior lecturer (Assistant Professor) at the department of Design & Art, college of Arts & Science, in Applied Science University, Bahrain, Manama. He is Head of Quality Assurance Unit at the College of Arts & Science from 2011. He was appointed as consultant engineering Affairs for president University, 2008- present. He was also a consultant architect and the founding member of Al-Taqadum Co. for architecture in Mosul city in 1999. A registered architect in the Iraqi engineers union since 1994. His specialization is architectural design. His researches particularly address interior design. His research interests in Interior Design, Space Syntax, and Architectural Design.
Dr. Faris Ali Mustafa is a senior lecturer and a member of post graduate studies committee at the Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Salahaddin University, Iraqi Kurdistan Region, Erbil. He was Head of Quality Assurance Committee at the same department from 2011-2013. He is a member of the Commission on Certificate Equivalency in the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Kurdistan Region, Erbil, Iraq. He was appointed as a deputy head of the department of the architectural engineering, at the same university in 2004-2005. He was also a consultant architect and the founding member of Nvar center for architecture in Erbil city in 2000. A registered architect in the Iraqi engineers union (IEU) and Kurdistan engineers union (KEU) since 1994. His specialization is architectural design. His researches particularly address building design and its functional efficiency and performance applying space syntax theory and its techniques and methods. His research interests in Space Syntax, Interior Design, Building Performance Evaluation (BPE), and Architectural Design.
Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication according to the guidelines in the journal’s website.
*Corresponding author (Faris Ali Mustafa). Tel/Fax: +964-7504524659. E-mail address:
165

http://TuEngr.com
Mud-Brick High-Rise Buildings Architectural Linkages for Thermal Comfort in Hadhramout Valley, Yemen
Anwar Ahmed Baeissa a*
a Department of Architecture & Environmental Planning, Faculty of Engineering & Petroleum, Hadhramout University of Science & Technology, YEMEN
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T RA C T
Article history:
Received 05 August 2013
Received in revised form
20 January 2014
Accepted 04 March 2014
Available online
10 March 2014
Keywords:
Sustainable building;
Planning;
architectural identity;
Likert scale;
Shibam City
The Hadhrami master builders have successfully played a great role in sustaining architectural identity of their cities with linkage to the local culture. They could build up to eight storey’s high- rise mud buildings using local and traditional materials. Today, reestablishing this architectural identity is rather more challenging due to the modern, social, political and economical changes that created poor linkage to the present city’s identity. This paper investigates this issue and searches for guidelines for the sustainable city’s development in Hadhramout, Yemen. The paper analyses the qualitative values of the city planning and architectural linkage compared with the city’s development and how the past generations created and sustained it. Shibam city with its traditional five to eight storey’s buildings is one of the best examples for this study. All buildings in that city are linked from one to another through roads, doors and openings of the high rises facing these roads and passageways to form unique urban setting and to provide shades and ventilations to the roads and passages and reduces temperature in these areas. This study is important to guide us in the analysis to search for better definitions of the linkage.
2014 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.
1. Introduction
Planning and architectural linkages play a crucial role in providing the identity of the city settlement areas for the people who live in the city. Today, the city experiences a high growth economic development in Yemen. This can be seen in the urban development in most Yemeni 2014 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. *Corresponding author (Anwar Ahmed Baeissa). Tel/Fax: +967734066823. E-mail address:
dr.anwarbaesa@gmail.com. 2014. International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 5 No.3 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN
1906-9642. Online available at http://tuengr.com/V05/0167.pdf.
167

cities due to the increasing population. The motivation of the government of Yemen to develop strategic master plan is manifested in the on-going governmental activities in the concerned areas. All geographical regions in Yemen (Figure1), including Shibam City, can be characterised by a diverse settlement of traditional houses from region to another due to the geographical variations, diversity of climate and topography which have influenced the use of the construction technique and materials. The city is the man's location in a specific geographical and social framework through which he expresses the ideologies he believes in and his opinions about the world. The city is the product of man's awareness, which he utilises to create civilisation and produces creative ideas to establish and develop cities in order to communicate with other civilisations. On the other hand, the city responds to man's social, political, and economical requirements bearing in mind that the city is the society's materialistic expression of beauty and local intellectual features that may be exhibited in its purposive special planning and organisation. Overtime, traditional housing and settlements have developed a unique design, planning, technology, and the use of available local construction materials for the traditional houses. This was possible by transferring the experience of one generation to another and applying trial and error method as well as developing the construction techniques.
Figure 1: Map of Yemen
2. Problem Statement
Community is a part of the decision makers in creating forms of settlement. The community has arranged spaces for their activities based on mutual agreement, in order to 168 Anwar Ahmed Baeissa

accommodate these functions and its spatial termation on the arrangements. The Hadhrami is strongly bond to his land and city and at the same time, the city is bond to civilization that man produced. Some consider the city as the civilization itself. However, the man is the creator of civilisation and he establishes new elements and utilizes his creativity to contribute and to produce and develop the civilization's entire products in order to communicate with other civilisations. The old ancient Hadhrami realised the various functions of the housing units with thermal comfort and its relation to the outside neighbouring areas such as streets and public places; this in turn led to the fulfillment of the social integration, (Al-Shibany, 2000). The present private ordinary houses and public buildings (shops, mosques, offices, schools, etc) in the same vicinity enforce indirect security in the urban environment. Urban communication and development can generally be achieved when man succeeds in linking his past history and heritage to his present time. Based on the accumulation of architectural knowledge, the Hadhrami architects have sufficient experience, which qualifies them to deal with various circumstances of time, space and shape in functions of the spaces that suit Hadhramout environment, and architectural heritage. Today, high-rise buildings are deteriorating and the features of the cities are changing in Hadhramout valley, so this architectural identity is rather more challenging and difficult because this development is confronted by the modern, social, political and economic changes and challenges.
3. Study Methodology
The methodology of the case study derives from the paper objectives. The study methods adopted on analysis method and case study to explain the relation between qualitative values of the city planning and architectural linkages with comparison to the stages of the city’s sustainable development. This methodology based on physical survey (which concerned with the layout of sample areas) and site observation (this measure adopted to record the physical conditions of the residential environment).
4. Shibam City and Houses
There is an ancient city in the middle of Wadi Hadhramout called Shibam (Figure 2), It is existence is virtually comparable to the ancient Babylonian and Sumerian cities. It is located approximately 600–700 meters/1900–2300 feet above sea level. Villages and cities located in the valley are surrounded by tress. A clay-brick for trees wall (sur) ranging between 5 and 9 meters and 29 feet in height; was built along its southern part that runs through Wadi Hadhramout, which separates it from the coast (sahil) of the city Shibam. During the 4th *Corresponding author (Anwar Ahmed Baeissa). Tel/Fax: +967734066823. E-mail address:
169

century BC the city of Shibam played a key role as the capital of Wadi Hadhramout. In addition, it is distinguished by being an important commercial center in the area during the pre-Islamic period, having the wall (sur) of the city, being commercial capital, and a assembly-point for the caravans of the tribes of the valley as well as the tribes from the north. Today Shibam City enlisted to UNESCO heritage lists, (Lewcock, 1986).
Figure 2: Map of Shibam City
The architectural design of Shibami houses, which reflects its heritage, has succeeded in achieving this communication through the vicinity of urban utilities, housing units, and public facilities, which provides more security and prevents any threat to the urban area and its neighbouring regions. However, old houses that may collapse are abolished and then the new buildings are to be reconstructed it in the same location as per the original design. Other construction activities in the city are limited to repair and maintenance works, and to some extent modifying the existing buildings. Therefore, it is difficult to date precisely any of the houses in the city.
4.1 Shibam City Plans and its Architecture
Among other features that make Shibam a unique city is that this city has huge concentrations of tall houses built upon the elevated mound that rises out in the valley floor; a fortified city wall around the city at its base surrounds the mound (Figure 3). There are many natural factors combined to mould the plan of Shibam into its present, mainly due to the nature of the ground on which it is built. Archaeological evidence has yet able to support the
Old Zone
Outer Zone 170 Anwar Ahmed Baeissa

argument that this city was built on top of the ruins of an ancient Shibam. This would explain why it rises above the ground level of the surrounding valley. Furthermore, according to historian (Sabban), the area of land which Shibam occupied in the past was larger than the land it occupies now, since part of this site was eroded by the torrential flood streams (Suyul), particularly in the years AD 1298/ AH 698 ,1532 / AH 939 and 1562 / 970. The dimensions of its present site are 355 meters (388 yards) to the south of the center, and 295 meters (322 yards) to the north, with 230 meters (250 yards) to west and east. The city lies along rocky maintain of the south, making it expand to that direction. Moreover, on its northern, western and eastern borders, the city is surrounded by palm trees and fields reserved for cultivation. Hence, we find that the horizontal expansion of the city consisted merely of the construction of a few building outside its southern walls, (Damluji, 1992).
Figure 3: Map of Shibam City (Source: Aga Khan Award for Architecture, 2007)
Therefore, the citizens of Shibam had to resort to the construction of close-knit, narrow but high buildings, rising up to seven or eight storey's, with ceiling-heights ranging from 2 to 6 meters / 6.5 to 19.5 feet. The tallest house rises 29.15 m above its entrance on street level and 36.5 meters above the Wadi bed. It has nine floors, mean while many others have eight, or seven storey's if they are on low-lying ground, but the average number of storey's is normally five. The highest houses are mostly found in the edge of the mound. They are composed of more or less solid for trees walls facing east, south, west and north. The north and south sides are the longest. The city is surrounded by the date plantations at east, west, *Corresponding author (Anwar Ahmed Baeissa). Tel/Fax: +967734066823. E-mail address:
171

and north sides, whereas, the south side, lies on the Wadi bed.
The erection of several long houses on the Wadi bed outside the walls constructed during the last few years have marred the visual effect of the city. One of the proposals submitted to the plan of action of the international campaign for the safeguarding of Wadi Hadhramout is that the most recent buildings are to be demolished or reduced in height, to single-storeyed or at most double-storeyed buildings, so that will set off, rather than mar, the extreme height of the buildings within the town.
Across the Wadi lies the suburb city, which was earlier a garden suburb, but has become concentrated into an urban area in the last twenty years. It is not intended that this garden suburb should be included in the conservation area. Amongst other reasons for the unfeasibility of horizontal expansion are the political unrest. The city had been through that had a negative impact on architecture and planning. In addition, a hot climate has made the houses to be close-packed, and the streets are to be shaded to avoid the scorching heat of the sun. Shibam, like other cities in the Wadi, has a dry desert climate; extremely hot in summer and moderate in winter, with a sharp fall in the temperature at night. In addition, due to its closeness to the equator, heavy seasonal rain falls sometimes during the summer, sometimes causing floods which may last for days.
Figure 4: City of Shibam – View Expansion 172 Anwar Ahmed Baeissa

4.2 The Effects of Population Growth and Architecture
The official census carried out in 1973 shows contradictory figures between the population of Shibam and the low land of Shibam (Figure 4). However, according to the unofficial census carried out by the local 'Popular Defence Committee in 1976', the population of Shibam was 3491 and the number of houses 500, ten of which required reconstruction. The plan of the city is concentrated along a high rocky mountain and along its surrounding wall. This means that the design has a limited, fixing number of buildings, which can be constructed, on its ground, and thus limiting the possibilities of change in its basic architectural structure over years. Thus, we find that the number of buildings in the city, still 500, the same as recorded in the last century by the early western travellers. It may have been the same ever since the city and its walls were the first to be constructed. According to a report by the still outdated Ministry of Local Rule, the population of Shibam was estimated at around 5000 in 1980, putting the number of inhabitants per personal. On the other hand, in this study on Shibam Abdul Qadir al-Sabban estimated the population at around 6000 people making the ratio of inhabitants to each houses around 12 persons.
Figure 5: Map of Walled City of Shibam
4.3 The City Wall and Entrance (Sur and Siddah)
The old walled city of Shibam is located on an elevated land to the north of the main wadi bed, which is quite close to the point where a number of tributary wadis converge. Mud-
*Corresponding author (Anwar Ahmed Baeissa). Tel/Fax: +967734066823. E-mail address:
173

brick wall (sur) surrounds the city (Figure 5). The height of the wall varies between 6 and 9 meters (19 to 30 feet). There exists only one main gate to the city. When closed during the night and wartime, it isolates the city from the outside world. It occupies a non-central position at a distance of a few meters from the main road of the valley on the southern edge of the city near to its eastern facade. The roads surrounding the southern and eastern sections of the city wall are separated from the public commercial centre of the city by the wall. It also separates the road from the fortress (husn) from the administrative centre of the city and the place of the Sultan. A few mud buildings have been constructed between the (sur) and its (siddah) and the main road. These buildings, which ones upon a time served as commercial and public places, are currently utilized to serve other purposes such as stores, cafes, inns, garages, etc.
The dimension and style of these buildings are different from those of the typical Shibam ones. They are either one or only a few storey’s high. The siddah represents the main defensive position in Shibam. Its southern and northern facades are congruous. It is prominent from the rest of sur’s structure because of its dimensions and characterised by three arches: the main central arch and two smaller arches. The central arch contains a large wooden gate that is used at present by cars whereas it was used by caravans and camels in the past. The smaller arches are located one on each sides of the main arch, each having a gate smaller than the main and are used by the pedestrians.
Figure 6: Public Squares and City Wall of Shibam
4.4 The Public Squares (Sahat)
The plan of the city of Shibam with its narrow sheets with limited available land area incorporates five public squares (Figure 6). Closed packed houses with public buildings are located around these squares. The main square is called (Sahat al Husn) and covers an area of 39 x 79 meters (43 x 86 yards). Sahat al-Rashid Mosque is the second largest square with an
174 Anwar Ahmed Baeissa

area of about 79 x 24 meters (87 x 26 yards). This mosque has been founded at the time of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, hence carries his name. The other three squares function as residential public squares are relatively concealed in the street plan. These squares are known as Ma’ruf, Braham, 27.3 x 21.3 meters (30 x 23.3 yards) and Badhib, 22.3 x 18.8 meters (24.4 x20.5 yards). These names are given after the names of the neighbouring mosques. High buildings surround these squares with open spaces that function as communal centers that attract visitors and the immunity on many social and commercial occasions. Moreover, there are small shops in the narrow streets and alleys forming the façades with commercial activities. These are known as (al-dayqah) that are characterised by narrow entrances on the ground floors of the houses next to their main entrances.
5. Traditional Layout and Climate in Shibam City
In designing and planning dry, wet and hot regions, architecture encounter two major problems:
1- Securing protection from heat,
2- Providing sufficient air conditioning.
The sun, a main source of light and heat, forms certain secondary element of climate such as winds and humid which have a significant effect on man’s physiological wellbeing and comfort. Undoubtedly climate is a determining factor in Shibam traditional planning. Thus, it is noticed that there is a sort of systemization in the urban structure of all dry and hot regions; the traditional planning of the town is characterized by:
1 - Narrow zigzag roads,
2 - Vast open Squares.
Figure 7: Monthly Average of Temperature (Al-Saggaf, 2004) *Corresponding author (Anwar Ahmed Baeissa). Tel/Fax: +967734066823. E-mail address:
175

The city plan usually has large squares that function as a storage of pure moderate cold air. The narrow zigzag roads, which are open into vistas with closed end, do the same function of the squares. They store the moderate cold air at night and do not let it leak at the first blow of air (Figure 7). This occurs in the case of network planning of large streets. It becomes clear here that the traditional planning is better than the vertical network planning in the large street. However, the traditional planning does not assimilate traffic cars, but there are some solutions to this problem. For instance, a ring road from which internal streets with closed ends are branching can surround the housing area. Another solution is concept suggested by Doxiadis (1968); it puts forward the idea of preserving the characteristic traditional layout inside the public square.
Figure 8: Running of Current Breeze at Day and Night in Clay Building 176 Anwar Ahmed Baeissa

5.1 The Needs of Ventilation
Performance of mud clayed buildings in Wadi Hadhramout within the hot and dry environment takes place through its adherence with the urban planning of the single constructed mass through which the narrow shaded alleys pass like in Shibam city. The outside surface of these buildings is least exposed to the external environment surface are painted with Lime that possesses high reflective property compared to other materials (Figure 8).
Response of the thermal traditional building to the high temperature difference of day and night occurs through the heavy massed walls and roofs of high thermal insulation and high thermal storage capacity,(Fathy,1986). The clay building elements absorb the short wave radiation of the solar energy preventing heat from passing to the inside of the building. The heat is absorbed in these elements during the day and released to the outside atmosphere during the night. Moreover, lime painted surfaces are highly heat-emissive.
Clayed walls are distinguished with walls of other materials in many aspects, e.g. the time lag in conducting heat of clay walls is double to that of concrete walls and the decrement factor is quarter of that in concrete walls. This is caused by the low thermal conductivity of clay that results from its low density due to the air voids that are dispersed in clay after evaporation of water during the drying process. Moreover, specific thermal heat of clay is relatively higher than other building materials. In clayed buildings, much of the heat is released during late night hours to the outside atmosphere where it gets cooler and denser. The high air density causes it to lower into the narrow streets and the open yards where it remains until morning. As such these air masses work like cold storages that supply the buildings, specially the lower levels, with cold breeze that flows to the inside pushing the warm air upwards by the convection process through the top windows,( Leslise,1991).
From the temperature comfort requirement of shading and sun lighting, it is observed that the ideal shape between the masses in the rectangle which longer side extends between the East and the West and which height is not less than any of its horizontal dimensions. The geometrical ratios of space is much important than its orientation, a conclusion that conforms to the field survey of the residential complexes in Shibam city. The idea that rose in designing the building along with the achievements they accomplished from the needs for the dwellers *Corresponding author (Anwar Ahmed Baeissa). Tel/Fax: +967734066823. E-mail address:
177

has positive effects in treating the weather problems that can be summarized in the following:
1- The limitation of using the external holes and the smallness of its size has effected in preserving the internal suitable heat and without its effectiveness by the increase in the outside temperature in the morning or decreasing it at night.
2- Covering some holes using the oriels has secured the element of the privacy for the dwellers inside the house as long as it restrains from the strength of the nature light and the reduction of the penetrating sunrays into the inside in addition to the beauty aspect concerning the ornamentation of these holes.
3- Using thick walls in the buildings in addition to the construction reason helped in preserving the degrees of temperature inside them in equilibrium way away from the unsteadiness of the outside temperature.
4- Using the protruding for some upper parts of the frontages that extended along the alleyways has formed another way of frontage-wall breakers for the house and gives plastic dimension from the visual point of view.
5- Gathering the buildings in accordance with architectural convenient adjacent system resulting less exposure of the external walls to sunrays, also it resulted shadowing the building to neighbouring areas and protecting the building from the sunrays.
6- The building style is a unique Hadhrami one. It is functional, and formal, (masses, elements and ornaments) distinguished. There is also some overlapping with ancient Hadhrami architecture and the Islamic arts.
7- The mode of the designing of the Hadhrami buildings and its planning and forming characteristics is a sealed mode and vertical in big families expanding and formed with other buildings quarters participated in functional service such as the mosque and the public square.
8- The specifications that distinguished the frontages, which are high and overlook the street (square). The ornaments represented by the oriels. The buildings plastered with lime from the bottom to the top for protection.
9- The wall singularity; hierarchy gradation of the external walls.
10- The architecture structure: the structure in the city is clearly observed homogeneous and symphonic in altitudes and masses and formed the verandas and the beams that connected the buildings, in addition to the minaret (of a mosque) as direction landmarks. 178 Anwar Ahmed Baeissa

11- The similarity: the buildings are similar in the horizontal structure; the external frontages do not rely on the similarity in the masses or in forming their architectural elements.
12- The symphonic: a continuous horizontal and vertical rhythm in the main frontages.
13- The proportionateness: in the generic formation, masses and superficies, holes in the main frontages.
14- The harmony and compatibility: the simplicity ornamental of the formation in the inside and the outside, and the gradation in the altitudes. The variation in the shape of the holes in the surfaces of the frontages in accordance with the rectangle shape of the holes.
15- The external ornamentation: the ornaments are simple frames around the windows. These ornaments concentrated on wooden leaves for the windows and the doors.
This kind of building is established for the spiritual and social characteristic architecturally and ability to create a sensation and a feeling of the beauty and psychologically content of the softness to touch and creates consonance harmony with surrounding besides the simplicity and flexibility of shaping it (structural and ornamental) with the possibility of making architectural big holes relatively and the varied vacuum shaping masses (dome, cone, adorn…etc).
This study has discussed several thermal properties and heat transfer parameters for various building materials made from mud clay’s natural soil. Based on the outcome of the study it may be concluded that:
1. Adobe walls and roofs gain less heat than concrete walls and roofs,
2. Adobe peak’s heat gain is also low and takes place when outside temperature declines,
3. Adobe construction enjoys higher thermal features than concrete.
When comparing concrete with the perforated red clay construction we find the second has superior thermal features and, hence, may be its manufacturing is recommended particularly to Hadhramout region as it has superior thermal qualities and can compete with concrete construction. *Corresponding author (Anwar Ahmed Baeissa). Tel/Fax: +967734066823. E-mail address:
179

6. Advantages of Mud Buildings
The study can summarize the main advantages of using this kind of building construction to the following main advantages:
1. The material are available in large quantities,
2. Low cost materials, so low-income families can afford it,
3. Simple construction techniques may be used when constructing with this system,
4. It is suitable for the construction to most parts of the building,
5. It is non-a flammable material-resistance to fire,
6. It has high thermal capacity, low thermal conductivity, and can maintain comfortable internal temperature,
7. It is a material of low energy usage. Subsequently, it saves biomass fuel and as a result, it conserves the environment.
7. Recommendations of the Sustainable City’s Development in Hadhramout Valley
1. Exert efforts to improve the quality of mud-bricks and investigate the feasible and applicable methods to introduce a material that may protect the brick's external surface from the effect of water and sand born winds.
2. Assess the scientific field experiments that use mud-bricks to construct modern houses. This will help realize mistakes and avoid them in the future.
3. Co-operate efforts with research centers and concerned bodies in the field.
4. Utilize existing information to solve any hygienic problem may be found in mud- bricks constructed buildings and study their different impacts.
5. Investigate the interaction between mud and other construction materials such as wood, insulation materials, water, paint, ceramic, etc. bearing in mind that these elements require further investigation to ensure quality performance when used in mud-bricks constructed buildings.
6. Carry out thorough studies in order to establish and develop standardizations for mud- bricks constructed buildings and pass the outcome to the concerned parties. Furthermore, convince decision makers in each country to include these results into the national standardization documents. 180 Anwar Ahmed Baeissa

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