V8(3) 2017:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

Volume 8 Issue 3
(2017)
ISSN 2228-9860
eISSN 1906-9642
http://TuEngr.com
Cover photo is Confirmatory Factor Analysis of government construction
procurement problems from Chaithongrat et al., a research article in this issue
(Application of Confirmatory Factor Analysis in Government Construction
Procurement Problems in Thailand).
Awareness of Passive Design on
Apartment Façade Designs in
Putrajaya, Malaysia
Comparative Analysis of Low-
Cost Housing Policies in
Malaysia and Nigeria
A Study on Kevin Lynch’s
Urban Design Elements:
Precinct 9 East Putrajaya
Investigating Urban Design
Elements of Bandar Baru
Sentul, Kuala Lumpur
A Study on Sharing Home
Ownership Schemes in Malaysia
Competitiveness Factors of Thai
Construction Industry within the
AEC Context: A Qualitative
Approach
Application of Confirmatory
Factor Analysis in Government
Construction Procurement
Problems in Thailand

International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies
http://TuEngr.com
International Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, PhD
Professor
Universiti Sains Malaysia,
MALAYSIA
Executive Editor
Boonsap Witchayangkoon, PhD
Associate Professor
Thammasat University,
THAILAND
Editorial Board:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Gadi (University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM)
Professor Dr.Hitoshi YAMADA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN)
Professor Dr. Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN )
Professor Dr.Mikio SATOMURA (Shizuoka University, JAPAN)
Professor Dr.Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN)
Emeritus Professor Dr.Mike Jenks (Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM )
Professor Dr.I Nyoman Pujawan (Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, INDONESIA)
Professor Dr.Toshio YOSHII (EHIME University, JAPAN)
Professor Dr.Neven Duić (University of Zagreb, CROATIA)
Professor Dr.Lee, Yong-Chang (Incheon City College, SOUTH KOREA)
Professor Dr.Dewan Muhammad Nuruzzaman (University Malaysia Pahang MALAYSIA)
Professor Dr.Masato SAITOH (Saitama University, JAPAN)
Scientific and Technical Committee & Editorial Review
Board on Engineering, Technologies and Applied Sciences:
Associate Prof. Dr. Paulo Cesar Lima Segantine (University of São Paulo, BRASIL)
Associate Prof. Dr. Kurt B. Wurm (New Mexico State University, USA )
Associate Prof. Dr. Truong Vu Bang Giang (Vietnam National University, Hanoi,
VIETNAM )
Dr.H. Mustafa Palancıoğlu (Erciyes University, TURKEY)
Associate Prof.Dr.Peter Kuntu-Mensah (Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, USA)
Associate Prof.Dr. Rohit Srivastava (Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, INDIA)
Assistant Prof.Dr. Zoe D. Ziaka (International Hellenic University, GREECE )
Associate Prof.Dr. Junji SHIKATA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN)
Assistant Prof.Dr. Akeel Noori Abdul Hameed (University of Sharjah, UAE)
Madam Wan Mariah Wan Harun (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA )
Dr. David Kuria (Kimathi University College of Technology, KENYA )
Dr. Mazran bin Ismail (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA )
Dr. Salahaddin Yasin Baper (Salahaddin University - Hawler, IRAQ )
Dr. Foong Swee Yeok (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA)
Dr.Azusa FUKUSHIMA (Kobe Gakuin University, JAPAN)
2017 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

i
:: International Transaction Journal of
Engineering, Management, & Applied
Sciences & Technologies
Volume 8 Issue 3 (2017) ISSN 2228-9860
http://TuEngr.com eISSN 1906-9642
FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES
Awareness of Passive Design on Apartment
Façade Designs in Putrajaya, Malaysia
127
Comparative Analysis of Low-Cost Housing
Policies in Malaysia and Nigeria
139
A Study on Kevin Lynch’s Urban Design
Elements: Precinct 9 East Putrajaya
153
Investigating Urban Design Elements of
Bandar Baru Sentul, Kuala Lumpur
169
A Study on Sharing Home Ownership Schemes
in Malaysia
183
The Impact of Window to Wall Ratio (WWR)
and Glazing Type on Energy Consumption in
Air-Conditioned Office Buildings
197
Competitiveness Factors of Thai
Construction Industry within the AEC
Context: A Qualitative Approach
209
Application of Confirmatory Factor Analysis
in Government Construction Procurement
Problems in Thailand
221
© 2017 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.
Contacts & Offices:
Professor Dr. Ahmad Sanusi Hassan (Editor-in-Chief), School of Housing, Building
and Planning, UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA, 11800 Minden, Penang, MALAYSIA. Tel:
+60-4-653-2835 Fax: +60-4-657 6523, Sanusi@usm.my Editor@TuEngr.com
Associate Professor Dr. Boonsap Witchayangkoon (Executive Editor), Faculty of
Engineering, THAMMASAT UNIVERSITY, Klong-Luang, Pathumtani, 12120, THAILAND.
Tel: +66-2-5643005 Ext 3101. Fax: +66-2-5643022 DrBoonsap@gmail.com
Postal Paid in MALAYSIA/THAILAND.

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Awareness of Passive Design on Apartment Façade Designs in
Putrajaya, Malaysia
Ahmad Sanusi Hassan
a
, Yasser Arab
a*
and Bushra Qanaa
b
a
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia,11800 Penang, MALAYSIA
b
Faculty of Architecture, Ittihad Private University, SYRIA
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T RA C T
Article history:
Received 02 September 2017
Received in revised form
21 November 2017
Accepted 25 November 2017
Available online
01 December 2017
Keywords:
Passive design,
Vernacular style,
Colonial style; Thermal
Imager; colonial
architectural style; high-
rise apartments.
This research conducts a study on sustainability awareness of
apartment facade design in Malaysia. The scope of this study limits to a
comparative analysis between colonial and vernacular style facade
design. Vernacular style is derived from the traditional architecture to the
condition of the place and environment in tropical setting. The style is a
logical choice in warm and wet climatic conditions, ideal for creating air
movement, ventilation and escape of warm air, thus bringing in thermal
comfort to the occupants. On the other hand, colonial style is an
expression of classical structures and motives. The architecture does not
only have dominant classical style’s expression from Europe, it also has a
mixture with the local style due to adjustment of the classical style to the
tropical setting, which can be seen at heritage buildings erected during
colonial time in Malaysia. Two contemporary apartments built in
Putrajaya are selected in these two case studies; each has a design
approach with colonial and vernacular architectural style. A camera
device named Fluke® Ti20 Thermal Imager was used to capture a series
of thermal images on a surface of the apartment facades. This camera
captured photos of the apartment facade in hourly time during the field
works. The study finds that the apartment with vernacular style’s facade
design has higher sustainability awareness than the apartment with
colonial style’s facade design. In conclusion, by applying vernacular style
in apartment design, it provides awareness to the designer and architect to
come with traditional passive design elements which are embedded as
part and parcel of the design in a context of tropical climate.
© 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.
1. Introduction
This study focuses on high-rise apartments in Putrajaya. The definition of high-rise building is
a tall and multi-story building equipped with elevator (Cheung, Fuller and Luther 2005). In 1930s
©2017 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.
*Corresponding author (Yasser Arab).. E-mail: yasserarab2005@yahoo.com. ©2017. International
Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8
No.3 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/127.pdf.
127

the first high-rise building was constructed in the world in the United State and later in 1950s in the
United Kingdom. The first high-rise building in Malaysia was built in 1960s namely Sulaiman
Courts in 1657 (Hoffman, 1996). Figure 2 show the percentage of residential building categories in
Putrajaya (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010).
Figure 1: Views of apartments in Putrajaya.
Figure 2: Apartment represents 74.1% of the total units of living quarters in Putrajaya.
Source: Department of Statistic Malaysia (2010).
2. Colonial Architectural Style
The colonial architectural style is a reflection of the classical architectural style in the region, a
mixture of the colonial and the local style to get a new hybrid with the adaptations to the regional
and climate. The colonial architecture style in Malaysia is not only a mixture between the colonial
and Malay traditional style, it is also influenced by the Islamic, Indian and Chinese styles. This
tuning of eastern and western architecture with local tropical architecture of the Malay traditional
building appears with a building design of overhanging roof structures, maximum window
openings, cantilevered veranda floor and big roof construction. The concept of traditional Malay
building influences the colonial builders which guides them to design building with the tropical
climate factors. Yeang (1987; 26) claimed that the roof should act like an umbrella to protect from
128 Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, Yasser Arab and Bushra Qanaa

the rain and provides shade, on the other hand the building should have maximum openings to
maximize the natural ventilation. These features will help the house to reach the thermal comfort
and provide better indoor atmosphere.
3. Vernacular Architectural Style
Mohd (1983) defined the vernacular traditional style as the attention to the place conditions,
local materials, environment and the traditional habits. The most unique vernacular design elements
are raising the floor construction, using the available local rainforest materials, and the flexibility of
the spaces in order to cope with the tropical climate. The simple traditional Malay houses were
basically built with cut jungle poles, bamboo, rattan ropes and palm trunks and leaves that are
gathered around the site and that makes the houses integrated with the surrounding nature. The main
structure of the traditional Malay house is timber post and beam with bamboo or wooden wall and
large window openings to provide a good natural ventilation (Lim, 1984). And that reflect the large
open indoor spaces (Lim 1987). The vernacular buildings designed with concept of nature respect
and the ecological balance. Hassan (1998) argued that the local timbers transfer less heat due to the
low thermal capacity and the palm leaves can be used as a good thermal insulation material, thus the
vernacular style provides comfort against the climate.
4. Passive Design
Having a passive design is having building design that does not require any mechanical heating
or cooling systems, and depends on the natural air ventilation, daylight and orientation to reach the
thermal comfort (Commonwealth of Australia, 2008). To achieve the thermal comfort, it means
that the residents do not feel the temperature too high nor too low, or in other words Cena and Clark
(1978) define it as ‘an expression of satisfaction’ to the thermal environment. This study aims to get
better understanding of passive design in the tropical warm and humid climate in the South East
Asia with case studies in Putrajaya Malaysia. In the last 25 years, passive thermal design gains the
global awareness especially after the Rio Summit in 1992, the conference that set a primary global
agenda on sustainable development.
Lim in his research (1987) classified the climate in Malaysia as warm-humid temperature and
described the characteristics as the following:
• The average of air temperature is between 22°C and 32°C and seldom to exceed
normal body temperature.
• The wind is low-variable speed in general, and usually the strong wind brings rain
• The region humidity is high during the year. Humidity is high throughout the year with
almost 75% or more
129

The building can obtain the thermal comfort in the tropical region based on the following
factors:
• In order to achieve the climate comfort there are many factors must be controlled
such as: temperature, humidity, glare and solar radiation in the house besides to
control the rain which cause floods and sometimes the strong wind.
• In order to reach the thermal comfort, 37°C the human being body temperature
should be balanced with the indoor environment reducing the heat gain from the
warm air and solar radiation to the minimum amount.
• Providing good natural ventilation based on the air flow or the stack effect help to
relieve the climate stress and provide better condition for the residence in hot and
humid climate regions like Malaysia.
• The main source of the heat gain is from direct solar radiations. Thus in order to reach
the thermal comfort, the designers must take in consideration the building material,
and shading elements in order to come out with an efficient façade design.
5. Hypothesis
The research assumes that by applying vernacular style in apartment design, it guides the
architects with traditional passive design elements which are embedded as part and parcel of the
design in a context of tropical climate.
6. The Case Studies
The two case studies are high-rise apartment buildings located in Putrajaya the capital city of
Malaysia, these two case studies are about 800 metres apart from each other. This administrative
capital of Malaysia was built after the federal government decision for a new capital city in the
early 1990s (Moser, 2009). The city is considered as the newest and most developed city in
Malaysia. Most of the buildings were designed with post-modern style which shows the mixture of
traditional, modern and colonial styles (Hassan, 2005). The city was designed to be ideal garden and
intelligent city with capacity of 250000 people (Scott, 1998). The city is located about 25 km south
of Kuala Lumpur along the highway between Kuala Lumpur and the International Airport and this
location gave her extra importance and viability as a new capital city (Ariffini, 2003;Hassan, Arab,
& Ismail, 2015).

Figure 3: The two case studies location in Putrajaya (source: Google Maps)
The first case study is a thirteen-story apartment building called Block 8R1 located at Jalan
P8h, Presint 8, Putrajaya (Figure 3). The building has colonial architectural style like so many other
building in the city of Putrajaya. The classical Greek and Roman architectural elements decorated
on the building façade with triangular and semi-circular Figure (4). On the other hand the second
case study as shown in Figure (5) is a seventeen stories building called Block 9A with vernacular
architectural style located at Jalan P9 C/1, Presint 9, Putrajaya. The building is constructed with
pyramid and pitch and overhang roofs and other traditional style elements.
Figure 4: The first case study, colonial architectural style apartment.
7. Methodology
This survey is able to detect thermal temperature using a thermal imager device named Fluke
Ti20 (Figure 6). The equipment consists of Fluke Thermal Imager device and software. The device
helps to get the thermal solution to conduct the thermal survey thorough with accurate inspections
131

in any climatic environment. From the affordable and easy-to-use Performance Series to the
Professional Series, this device offers superior image quality and advanced features, to the Expert
Series that gives you a premium viewing experience with highly detailed images, and an extensive
feature set. The Fluke built in with the needed Infrared Camera to provide the survey results. The
photo images can be stored in one location for comparison and work for approvals or questions for
answers without leaving the field, for additional information.
Figure 5: The second case study, vernacular architectural style apartment.
Figure 6: Fluke® Ti20 device.
8. Analytical Software
SmartView® software is used to view, optimize and analyse infrared images and to create a
fully customisable and reports. SmartView® software is very easy to use and fits the requirement
from the users. It provides the performance specialized thermographers help for advanced report
and analysis. Fluke® IR-Fusion technology is a blending of digital and infrared images into a

single image. It delivers strikingly crisp detailed images, making problem detection extremely easy.
SmartView® software allows the users to use this technology, to capture and annotate images and
quickly import them into the reports.
9. Results of Analysis and Discussions
The survey was taken by taking thermal photo shots for both of the case studies. The device
places at the human eye level with a distance at 45 m apart and the photos snapped perpendicular to
the building façade. The thermal photo shots were taken hourly from 2:00 pm to 5:00 pm in both of
the case studies. The field survey is limited to these durations because of the full cloudy condition
and raining weather usually occurred after 5:00 pm, which made the results of the survey
inaccurate. It is hard to find the case study at exactly the same building orientation. Both of the case
studies are located in orientation with almost the same angles with 35o degree for the first and 33o
degree for the second case study. The results as illustrated in the Figures (8 to 11) and Tables (1 to
4). This research will be limited to the average of the selected points in the selected area as shown
in Figure 7. The comparison will be between the averages of the points of the last five stories of the
two case studies A series, B series, C series, and D series from up to down respectively.
Figure 7: Selected points of case study 1 (left) and case study 2 (right)
 Results analyzing at 2:00 pm: The thermal Images
Figure 8: Thermal images for both case studies colonial style (left) and vernacular style (right) at
2:00 pm
133

 Results analyzing at 3:00 pm
Figure 9: The thermal image for both case studies colonial style (left) vernacular style (right) at
3:00 pm
Figure 10: The thermal image for both case studies colonial style (left) vernacular style (right) at
4:00 pm
Figure 11 Thermal image for both case studies colonial style (left) vernacular style (right) at 5:00
pm

Table 1: The results (temperature point A) for both case studies.
Temperature Case 1 Colonial style Case 2 Vernacular Style
Time A1 A2 A3 A4 Average A1 A2 A3 A4 Average
2:00 PM 44.6 44.6 46.2 44 44.85 41.7 37.4 35.6 42 39.175
3:00 PM 41.2 47.4 46.6 40.2 43.85 41.1 41.3 46.1 49.4 44.475
4:00 PM 53.4 56.6 58 53 55.25 54.3 51.6 57.2 59.8 55.725
5:00 PM 59.4 61 60.1 59.4 59.975 50.7 51.9 57.2 58.2 54.5
Average of A1, A2, A3 and A4 50.98 Average of A1, A2, A3 and A4 48.47
Table 2: The results (temperature point B) for both case studies.
Time B1 B2 B3 B4 Average B1 B2 B3 B4 Average
2:00 PM 44.7 44 45.3 43.4 44.35 36.4 37 39.1 46.8 39.825
3:00 PM 45.4 44.2 44.9 44.3 44.7 35.2 39.2 45.6 50.7 42.675
4:00 PM 54.6 53.1 52.7 56.3 54.175 46.2 50.4 58.2 63 54.45
5:00 PM 59.7 58.3 58.1 59.1 58.8 45.3 48.5 56.8 60.8 52.85
Table 3: The results (temperature point C) for both case studies.
Time C1 C2 C3 C4 Average C1 C2 C3 C4 Average
2:00 PM 45.8 45.2 45.6 43.9 45.125 36.8 37.3 42.3 46.9 40.825
3:00 PM 48.2 44.8 45.4 48 46.6 37.5 41.2 46.5 51.8 44.25
4:00 PM 59.2 52.8 51.9 58.4 55.575 49.9 51.9 59.2 64.2 56.3
5:00 PM 62.9 56.1 55.3 61.6 58.975 46.5 49.3 57.4 61.4 53.65
Table 4 The results (temperature point D) for both case studies.
Time D1 D2 D3 D4 Average D1 D2 D3 D4 Average
2:00 PM 46.7 54.3 56.3 47.8 51.275 37.4 37.9 42 47.2 41.125
3:00 PM 54.3 70.5 69.5 52.7 61.75 40.1 38.7 49.3 53.9 45.5
4:00 PM 63.9 78.3 78.8 63.8 71.2 50.6 50.4 59.7 64.3 56.25
5:00 PM 68.2 75.8 75.4 66.4 71.45 46.3 47.7 59.6 62.8 54.1
From the results, some notice points are
• The highest temperature in averages in case 1 recorded at 5:00 pm with 71.45 °C at
point D, while it was 56.3°C at point C in the case study 2 at 4:00 pm.
• The least temperature in the first case study was 43.85 °C point A at 3:00 pm, whereas
it was 39.19 °C point A in the second case study at 2:00pm.
• The lowest temperature in average was 47.45°C at 3:00 pm in the colonial style
followed by 50.98, 51.57 and 93.92 °C respectively at 2:00, 4:00 and 5:00 pm.
• The lowest temperature in average in the vernacular style follows the same behavior
135

with 47.45, 48.47, 48.76 and 49.24°C at 3:00, 2:00, 4:00 and 5:00 pm respectively.
• The highest record in average was at 5:00 pm in the colonial style with 63.92 °C, while
the highest record in the vernacular style was at 5:00 pm with 49.24°C.
• In average all hours shows lower temperature in vernacular style than the colonial
style.
10.Conclusion
The study finds that by applying the vernacular style on the second case study, the designer
manages to reduce the façade surface temperature in all of the analyzing point between 3 to 15
degrees in the afternoon and evening hours comparing with the colonial style. The traditional design
components and shading elements provide a slightly good sunlight shading façade performance
compared to that of the colonial style’s apartment which helps to prevent the unnecessary sunlight
from penetrate inside the house, thus lead to reduce solar radiation to the indoor air temperature. In
other words, applying the vernacular architecture style for the second case study helps to reach the
indoor thermal comfort. The study can be used as a guide for the architects and designer to apply
the passive design element for their future projects. This study also finds that colonial style’s
apartment has a façade design integrated with shading design similar to that of the traditional
architecture like recessed wall, balcony and roof overhang. This design adjustment is inherited from
the colonial architecture introduced by the architects and builders during the colonial times to cope
the European styles to the tropical climatic contexts.
11.Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their appreciation for financial support under the Research
University Grant No. 1001/PPBGN/816237 by Universiti Sains Malaysia.
12.References
Ariffini, Shahoran Bin Johan. 2003. "Putrajaya, Malaysia." Australian Planner 40 (3): 40-42.
Cena, K., & Clark, J. A. (1978). Thermal resistance units. Journal of Thermal Biology, 3(3), 173-174.
Cheung, C.K., R.J. Fuller, and M.B. Luther. 2005. "Energy-efficient envelope design for high-rise
apartments." Energy-efficient envelope design for high-rise apartments Vol 37. No 1, Page 37-
48.
Hassan, A. S., (1998). Traditional Versus Modernity in the Rain Forest Environment with Particular
Reference to Peninsular Malaysia. Unpublished Ph.D thesis. University of Nottingham.
Hassan, A. S. (2005). Konsep rekabentuk bandar di Semenanjung Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur dan bandar-
bandar di sekitarnya. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia Press.
Hassan, Ahmad Sanusi, Yasser Arab, and Mazran Ismail. 2015. "Architectural Styles and Developments
of Apartments in Putrajaya, Malaysia." International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. International Transaction Journal of
Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies Vol6 No.3 Pages 117-123.

Hoffman, Alexander von. 1996. "High ambitions: The past and future of American low‐income housing
policy." Housing Policy Debate 7 (3): 423-446.
Lim, J. Y., (1984). .ol. 12.4. Under One Roof. A World in Cities IDRC Reports.
Lim, Jee Yuan. 1987. The Malay house : rediscovering Malaysia's indigenous shelter system / Lim Jee
Yuan. Institut Masyarakat.
Malaysia, Department of Statistics. 2010. Characteristics of Living Quarters 2010. Putrajaya:
Department of Statistics Malaysia.
Mohd, Ali Kamaruddin. 1983. A Vanishing Heritage: The Old Traditional Malay House. Skudai:
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Press.
Moser, Sarah. 2009. "Putrajaya: Malaysia’s new federal administrative capital." Cities 27 (4): 285–297.
Scott, James C. 1998. Seeing like a state: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have
failed. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Yeang, Ken. 1987. Tropical Urban Regionalism: Building in a South-East Asian City. Singapore:
Concept Media Pte. Ltd.
Professor Dr. Ahmad Sanusi bin Hassan teaches in Architecture Programme at the School of Housing, Building
and Planning, University Sains Malaysia (USM). He obtained Bachelor and Master of Architecture from the
University of Houston, Texas, USA. He was awarded a PhD degree from the University of Nottingham, United
Kingdom. He was promoted to Associate Professor and later Full Professor. His research focuses on computer
simulation on daylighting and thermal comforts, architectural history and theory, and housing in urban design. He is
one of the nine regional writers involved in the preparation of Guideline: Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in
Developing Countries: A Discussion Document, which was launched at The Earth/World Summit, Johannesburg in
September 2002. At the university, he lectures in architecture courses related to urban design, studio, history,
Computer Aided Design (CAD), and computer movie animation. He has integrated all these specialisations into his
research, teaching, consultation and publications. He had designed several architectural projects such as mosque,
USM guest house and a proposal for low-cost houses for fishermen community.
Yasser Arab is a research assistant and currently pursuing his PhD in sustainable architecture on Resident’s
Satisfaction and Sun Shading Model of Apartment Façade in Penang at school of Housing, Building and Planning,
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia, he is teaching Studio For first year student and involved in
supervising student of Master of architecture. He obtained his Master degree in Sustainable Architecture from
Universiti Sains Malaysia, his research was related to natural lighting in Turkish Mosques. He got his bachelor of
architecture from Ittihad Private University, Aleppo, Syria. He is registered Architect in the Syrian Engineers
Union.
Bushra Qanaa is an architect; she obtained her bachelor of architecture from Ittihad Private University, Aleppo,
Syria. She is a registered Architect in the Syrian Engineers Union. She worked for two and half years with Midmac
company in Aleppo, Syria.
Trademarks Disclaimer: All products names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks
mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification
purposes only. Use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.
Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd
International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design
(ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering,
Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan
Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th
November 2017.
137

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Comparative Analysis of Low-Cost Housing Policies in
Malaysia and Nigeria
Andrew Ebekozien
a*, b
, Abdul-Rashid Bin Abdul-Aziz
b
, and
Mastura Bin Jaafar
b
a
Department of Quantity Surveying, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, Edo State, NIGERIA
b
Article history:
Received 02 September 2017
21 November 2017
Available online
01 December 2017
Keywords:
Low-Income-Earners,
LCH policies;
LCH programmes,
homeless.
The dearth of low-cost housing (LCH) provision in Nigeria calls for
urgent attention and Malaysia as a fast-growing developing country
mitigated a similar encumbrance, hence the need to review the LCH
policies of the two countries. This will provide a better understanding of
the mechanisms that were adopted by the Malaysian Government and
suggest same to Nigerian Government with a view to mitigating
homelessness in Nigerian cities. Drawing a systematic review of
published literature, this paper reveals that Malaysian Government role in
LCH provision is encouraging, although there are still some lacunas;
already receiving the necessary attention by the stakeholders concerned.
This paper reveals that the Malaysian LCH policies created opportunities
for the poor, and therefore promote pro-poor growth to have a home
while the Nigerian government policies encouraged inequality and
enhance high disparities in access to financial credit for housing purpose
by the low-income earners (LIEs) due to lack of framework and
institutional failure. The paper conclude that LCH policies and
programmes should be sustainable economically; socially acceptable, and
technically feasible. In addition, the policies and programmes should
enhance cooperation; consultation, sharing knowledge within the
stakeholders and ensure that the LIEs can gain access to homes.
1. Introduction
Low-cost housing (LCH) provision is one of the significant difficulties confronting developing
nations, for example, Nigeria. The issue is more intense in the urban metropolis as there is a high
rate of urbanisation happening in most of the developing countries. The high rate of populace blast,
a consistent flood of individuals from these countries to the urban focuses combined with the
absence of essential shelters required for a good way of life has issues throughout the years. The
139

urban focuses in developing countries, Malaysia not exempted, are confronting the issue of intense
deficiency of reasonable convenience, and fast weakening of existing housing stock and living
conditions. The provision of housing does not by any stretch of the imagination coordinate the
development of the populace in most urban focuses; which represents the momentous inadequacy in
urban housing, quantitatively and subjectively (Olotuah, 2002; Bakhtyar, Zaharim, Sopian, &
Moghimi, 2013). LCH needs are not coordinated by viable request since the huge greater part of the
masses does not have the finance for sufficient housing. This portion of the urban populace is
without a doubt are low-income earners (LIEs), poor, and is obliged to restricted, inadequate,
swarmed, filthy and dirty houses (Galbraith, 1969). Access and affordability to the housing by the
poor who constitute the biggest level of the populace in the developing countries have perhaps
lingered persistently.
In Malaysia, LCH provision is provided by both the public and private developers. Three
parameters are considered when defining LCH, they are household income, selling price, and
building size. Ministry of Housing and Local Government (MHLG) (1998) defined LCH as a
housing unit of selling price not exceeding RM42,000 (1 US Dollar = RM4.24 as at 21st
August
2017) per unit, aimed at the targeted group of household income not more than RM2,500 per
month, and size of the building not more than 55.4 square meters. This comprises of one living
room, two bedrooms, kitchen, toilet, and bathroom. In Malaysia, the minimum wage is RM1000 per
month (Ebekozien, Abdul-Aziz, & Jaafar, 2017A). While in Nigeria, LCH provision is provided by
the private developers, self-help, and public developers. The government role as provider and
facilitator of LCH provision in Nigeria is weak, swallow and deplorable. Wahab (2006) defines the
LIEs as all employees and self-employed persons whose monthly income is within N8,000 to
N40,000 (1US Dollar = N365 as at 21st
August 2017). While the minimum pay by law is
N18,000/month, although most employers of labour including some state governments do default in
this regards, most pathetic is that control and penalty for defaulters are weak. This should be
expected because those to implement the sanction are defaulters too. Abdullahi (2013) opines that
about fifty-seven percent (57%) of the Nigerian population falls below the poverty line, which is on
the average of US$1 per day. World Bank (2017) reports that poverty headcount ratio at national
poverty lines in Nigeria as at 2009 was 46. This is very high, as against 3.8 in the same year (2009)
for Malaysia. In the year 2014, it became 0.6 in Malaysia, an indication of fast growing economy
that promotes pro poor growth.
Ibimilua and Ibitoye (2015) assert that the LCH policy requires a technique for the
authorisation of the motivation behind the proposed projects of activity. The housing policy is
gotten from laws, controls and regulatory practices that can help the creation and conveyance of
housing (UN-HABITAT, 2006). A most thorough LCH policy should address the part of the
government and other stakeholders, while the government may shift from the arranging and control
of all parts of housing planning creation - arrive, venture, development, and inhabitancy - to
mediation just at specific levels. This is an indication that the LCH policy of a nation gives the
direction of the LCH stock; perhaps, a faulty LCH policy or weak implementation is likely going to
140 Andrew Ebekozien a*, b, Abdul-Rashid Bin Abdul-Aziz b, and Mastura Bin Jaafar

lead to LCH shortage. Aigbokhan (2008) asserts that in Nigeria, the government policies (housing
inclusive) have been encouraging high inequality, hence, inequality seems to rise with growth.
Some of these policies are disparities in access to human and physical capital, disparities in access
to financial credit and wide differences in returns to assets. Thus, the need to review and compare
the LCH policies of Malaysia and Nigeria to identify Malaysian LCH policies that promoted pro-
poor growth that was used to address the housing encumbrances faced by Malaysian and suggests
same to Nigerian Government cannot be overemphasised.
2. Malaysian Low-Cost Housing Policy
This section categorises the Malaysian LCH policy historical development under the two
distinct phases of the pre-independence (before 1957), and post-independence period (1957 to date).
Stone (2006), Bahare (2017) asserts that during the colonial period before 1957, the government
was the key players in housing provision. The author reviewed the Malaysian LCH but failed to
identify the lacunas such as leakages in 30% housing provision. More worried is the obsolete price
(RM25,000:00) stated by the author as the current price for unit of LCH. Table 1 gives the
summarised details of the various policies from the pre-colonial era of the government to date.
Between 1956–1964, the first 1st
and 2nd
Malaya Plan was rolled out. This period saw more LCH
from the public sector but the private sector was not left out. The 1st
Malaysia Plan (MP) (1965-
1970) had the explicit recognition of the government’s responsibility of housing the low-income
groups. The 2nd
Malaysia Plan (1971-1975) saw the launching of a public housing scheme for LIEs
from the public sector and corporate societies encouraged to develop LCH from the private sector.
This was enhanced more in the 3rd
Malaysia Plan (1976-1980) from both sectors. This period saw
the participation of many public agencies: Public Housing Schemes, Federal Agencies and Regional
Development, Public Housing Programs, Institutional and Staff Quarters Schemes, and State
Economic Development Corporation (SEDCs).
The 4th
Malaysia Plan (1981-1985) saw the introduction of the LCH by both sectors, and both
sectors were inter-linked. Shuid (2013) asserts that the year 1982 marked a watershed in Malaysian
Government imposed a 30% LCH construction on private developers to ensure the private sector,
construct LCH in every residential development since 1982 during the 4th
Malaysia Plan. The 5th
MP (1986-1990) linked the concept of housing with social amenities to the quality of living and
well-being. During this period, private developer’s contribution to LCH increased. Mohammed,
David and Seow (2012) report that during the 6th
MP (1991-1995), the National Development Plan
came out, although private sector still played as a key player, the government created many new
laws and guidelines to ensure quality housing, for example, National Housing Policy-1991 (NHP).
During this period, more private developers were licensed to develop LCH program.
The 7th
MP (1996-2000) came up with a new housing category, known as the low-medium-cost
housing to address another segment of the population struggling to get on the housing ladder. In line
with this, the 8th
MP targeted the eradication of squatters in Kuala Lumpur and other major urban
141

centres. Shuid (2013) and The Sun Malaysia (2016) assert that more LCH came in during the 9th
MP (2006-2010), it was encouraging, including States Economic Development Corporations
(SEDCs). These projects were implemented by state governments through grants and loans
provided by the federal government, although not sufficient and mainly concentrated in small towns
and sub-urban areas. During this period, Program Perumahan Rakyat Bersepadu (PPRB) was
implemented for the resettlement of squatters. In the 10th
MP (2011-2015) period, to address the
issue of poor housing maintenance, the government established Housing Maintenance Fund (HMF).
The Malaysian National Housing Policy (NHP) was launched on 10th
February 2011, during the
10th
MP (10th
Malaysia Plan, 2010). The uniqueness of the Malaysia Plan is that at each MP, one
can see the leading role of the government. This is an indication that the government is actually for
the people.
Table 1: Summary of Malaysia housing policy with emphasis on the role of public and private
sectors respectively compilation from various LCH Malaya Plans (1st and 2nd 1956-1964) and
Malaysia Plans (1st – 11th 1965-1970 to 2016-2020) as modified.
Plan Period Public Sector Private Sector
Pre-Independence &
Colonial
Administration
Formal housing mode by British Govt., under divide and
rule. Provided houses for govt staff, provided rural public
low cost Program and resettlement.
No precise information regarding formal housing
provision from this sector.
1st
& 2nd
Malaya
Plan (1956-1964)
More low-cost housing units produced through Housing
Trust Government built houses for rent and sales.
Government started giving loans for private sector
developer. 90% houses built for the private sector.
1st
Malaysia Plan
(1965-1970)
Formal & structured housing programs commenced. 5
years Plans introduced. LCH was the major area of
concern.
Private sector developers begun to develop
properties in cooperation with the state. They
compliment public sec. to provide LCH
2nd
Malaysia Plan
(1971-1975)
Housing Trust was dissolved; states took over. Public
housing scheme was launched.
Corporate societies started to deliver housing units.
Private Sector concentrates on middle and higher
income housing.
3rd
Malaysia Plan
(1976-1980)
Public Housing Schemes, Federal Agencies & Regional
Development, Public Housing Programs, Institutional &
Staff Quarters Scheme, State Economic Development
Corporation (SEDCs), were among many public agencies
in the provision of LCH
Housing development here also increased. Private
Developers Cooperative Society.
4th
Malaysia Plan
(1981-1985)
Low-cost housing introduced for implementation by both
sectors. Public housing schemes, govt. agencies and
regional development authority’s Housing schemes.
Institutional &Staff Accommodation scheme
Private sector housing Construction increased
private developers cooperative society.
5th
Malaysia Plan
(1986-1990)
Renting and selling homes (LCH); Housing schemes
delivered here, eg: Public LCH scheme; Housing
schemes; Institutional & Staff quarter homes for the poor
(junior) staff.
Private sector housing construction increased
private developers cooperative society.
6th
Malaysia Plan
(1991-1995)
Housing schemes delivered here: Public low-cost housing
(PLCH) Site & Services Housing Schemes Housing Loan
Schemes (HLS) Housing under Land & Regional Dev.
Institutional & Staff Quarters Schemes Econ Dev.
Agencies housing programs
Private sector housing construction increased
Licensed private developers housing Special low-
cost housing program Cooperative society.
7th
Malaysia Plan
(1996-2000)
Same as 6th
Malaysia Plan Housing rehabilitation Housing
by commercial agencies
Same as 6th
Malaysia Plan
8th
Malaysia Plan
(2001-2005)
Same as 7th
Malaysia Plan
Eradicate squatters in major urban cities
Same as 7th
Malaysia Plan
9th
Malaysia Plan
(2006-2010)
Public low-cost housing programme more houses.
Program Perumahan Rakyat Bersepadu (PPRM) was
Implemented for squatters.
The private sector performed more than their
planned target of low-cost housing Provision of
200%.
10th
Malaysia Plan
(2011-2015)
Housing maintenance for public low-cost housing was
embarked upon by government for new/maintenance low
cost houses. Housing Maintenance Fund established.
Government subsidies 30%-75% of construction costs.
Private developers encourage to build-then-sell
(BTS) approach with incentives. Developers
accredited in usage of skilled and improved
construction processes.
11th
Malaysia Plan
(2016-2020)
Transit houses will be built for youth & young couples in
urban areas, subject When there are enough savings to
buy 1st
home Public-private partnership encouraged.
Public-private partnership (PPP) encouraged to
provide homes for LIEs

The 11th
Malaysia Plan (2016) reports that the 11th
MP is unique to the Malaysian Government;
it is the last plan before the year 2020 target of becoming a developed nation. The government will
continue to play a major role in meeting the housing needs of targeted LCH group in urban and
rural areas by continuing supporting existing successful programmes via financing. This includes
programmes under RMR1M, PPR, My First Home Scheme, Youth Housing Scheme, MyHome.
Also, houses will be built for youth and young married couples in urban areas, including those
proposed under the 1 Malaysia Youth City Programme. This transit houses will be used as a transit
for these young Malaysians, to give an opportunity for them to make savings to buy their home.
Also, the public-private partnership will be encouraged as a key to solving the demand-supply gap
of low-cost housing in Malaysia. Table 2 shows the proposed target for the various programmes
under the LCH in the 11th
MP (2016-2020). Can this be achieved? Whether achieved or not, there is
a template guiding and reminding all relevant agencies and stakeholders to do the needful, this is
missing in Nigeria.
Table 2: Proposed Target for LCH during the 11th MP (2016-2020), compilation from 11th
Malaysia Plan (2016) as modified.
Programme Housing Unit
Skim Rumah Pertamaku (SBR) 47,000
Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) 50,000
1 Malaysia Civil Servants Housing (PPA1M) 88,000
Rumah Mesra Rakyat 1 Malaysia (RMR1M) 55,000
Total 240,000
Malaysia’s housing policies since independence can be summed up in the following order.
First, up until recently, there was no national housing policy, it was only unveiled in 2011 (Bahare,
2017). In the absence of formal housing policy document, the federal government initiated five-year
Malaysian Plans (MPs) that provided a cursor for housing development (Abdul-Aziz & Kassim,
2011). The details of each plan period have been discussed extensively earlier in this section.
11th
MP (2016) identified some of the policies that the government over the years have implemented
to overcome the LCH challenge. Unfortunately, the problem is even now obvious as postulated by
Zaid (2015) and corroborated by Abdullateef, Seong, and Lee (2016), Bahare (2017).
2.1 Encumbrances Faced by Malaysian Low-Cost Housing Policy
Ebekozien et al. (2017A), (2017B) assert that Malaysia has LCH institutional and regulatory
framework policy, but some factors hindered the full implementation of Malaysian LCH policy.
These factors are limited land because of the country’s location, limited financial resource, limited
federal grant to state governments to construct people housing programmes, the bottleneck in
approval processes, federalism in LCH provision, leakages in LCH provision, and the top-bottom
approach of the five years LCH plan from the federal government. However, the issue of central
data-bank cannot be over emphasised. Every planner and administrator need data to coordinate their
policies and strategies the formulation of policy. Hence, the incomplete and non-digital registration
system did not assist the Malaysian LCH policy implementation. Ebekozien et al. (2017B) assert
that over the years, some private developers developed a tactic of avoiding the construction of LCH
143

by splitting the project, so that they will not be directed to construct LCH. There are cases where
some insist that development of LCH within their project area would devalue the entire project,
hence, insist that another location should be given to them to construct the LCH. Most times, the
locations are isolated from the cities and when completed, become difficult to get House-buyers.
The authors assert that sales of LCH within or after the moratorium have become a profiteering
venture to some persons; hence there is need for a reassessment of that portion.
The 11th Malaysia Plan 2016 to 2020 proffer strategic solutions to these identified hindrances
such as government should strengthen management and delivery of public housing programmes and
promote more efficient and sustainable affordable housing for the people. Others are eliminating
housing approvals that are not based on demands; reducing government maintenance funding;
improving coordination in planning and implementing through the National Housing Council;
encouraging residents' commitment to maintenance, cleanliness and prevention of vandalism; using
potential “Waqf” and “Baitullah” land (land given over for religious or charitable purposes) for
development of affordable LCH. Others are the construction of transit housing for youth;
augmenting private sector participation; developing maintenance cost sharing for LCH; enhancing
access to financing schemes, this is germane if we want to get the issue of LCH for the low-income
earners right. The government is expected to review policies, although not to expose the lender,
ensure that there is easy access to finance; creating a land bank for future needs; and establishing an
integrated database of all affordable housing projects for effective planning and implementation.
This is the beauty of the Malaysian housing policies, flexible and pro poor friendly.
3. Nigerian Low-Cost Housing Policy
Ibimilua and Ibitoye (2015) report that Nigerian LCH policy is as old as the history of the
Nigeria, however, this section categorises its historical development under the five distinct phases
of the pre-independence (before 1960), the post-independence period (1960-1979), the second
civilian administration (1979-1983), the military era (1984-1999), and the Third Republic to date
(1999 to date). The recorded history of formal intervention into the housing sector in Nigeria dated
back to the pre-independence, after the ill-fated outburst of the bubonic plaque of 1928 in Lagos.
This necessitated the establishment of the Lagos Executive Development Board (LEDB) in 1955.
This signifies the ushering of Nigerian public housing programmes (LCH) intervention (Aribigbola,
2008). The major characteristic of the pre-independence period was the provision of staff quarters
for foreigners and other indigenous staff of parastatals and organisations in government. This period
witnessed the establishment of Urban Councils in 1946, the Nigerian Building Society in 1955, as
well as the Regional Housing Corporation in 1959. The post-independence period experienced
some improvements in housing provision during the First National Development Plan period (1962-
1968) and the Second National Development Plan 1970-1974).
However, the formulation of the National Council on Housing in 1971 led to further
improvement in LCH provision. The Third National Development Plan (1975-1980) made further

improvements on LCH programmes, policies, and delivery in Nigeria. The upgrading of the
Nigerian Building Society into Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria with the promulgation of Decree
No 7 of 1977 also brought some improvements into the LCH delivery in Nigeria. The Land Use
Decree (LUD) of 1978, this was promulgated to guarantee access to land by all Nigerians, came to
stabilise the ownership and acquisition of land, yet no positive impact. Furthermore, during the
period, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1979) laid emphasized on the
significant of local building materials and the relevance of labour and construction industry. In that
same year, the Employees Housing Scheme Decree No 54 of 1979 was promulgated. This decree
made provision for staff LCH estates.
Ibimilua and Ibitoye (2015) argued that the LCH policy in the 1980s and 1990s was how
divided society was being created. The rural areas were neglected, and the LCH stocks in the urban
areas were improved upon, yet not enough. This was because of the high rate of migration to urban
cities, subsequently resulted in LCH shortage in urban centres. The military era witnessed further
improvements in housing policies and delivery. This was facilitated by the promulgation of the
Mortgage Institutions Decree No 53 of 1989. The decree enhanced the specific objectives of the
National Housing Policy. Furthermore, the Economic Liberalisation Policy of Babangida’s
administration supported the participation of the private organisation in LCH delivery. This was
closely followed by the promulgation of the Urban and Regional Planning Decree 88 of 1992 as
well as the Nigerian National Housing Fund (NHF) Decree No 3 of 1992. The NHF was saddled
with the responsibility of ensuring a continuous flow of fund for LCH construction and delivery;
was the mission accomplished? No! It may interest you to note that before the millennium, the
policy of “housing for all in the year 2000” was formulated. This policy was thoroughly pursued,
but it was besieged by administrative bottlenecks as usual, which made the policy difficult to be
realized by the year 2000, this is unfortunate. Nevertheless, in the year 2002, the Housing and
Urban Development Policy was formulated. This policy was a corrective measure, to correct the
inconsistencies of the Land Use Act as well as to allow finance and ownership to operate in a free
market economy.
Ibem, Anosike, and Azuh (2011) report that between 1975 and 2010, several LCH programmes
involving direct construction by the government were initiated by both the Federal Military and
Civilian Governments in Nigeria, for example, the National LCH Scheme (1975-1980), Shagari’s
LCH Programme (1980-1985), the National Housing Programme (1994-1995), the National
Prototype Housing Programme (2000-2003), the Presidential Housing Mandate Scheme (PMHS)
(2004-2006) and PPP housing schemes. Although there are conflicting figures on the actual number
of LCH units completed in each of these programmes, Table 3 reveals that between 1962 and 2010
a total of 653,271 housing units were expected to be constructed in the different LCH schemes
across the country. However, only 95,594 housing units were constructed. Also, Table 3 shows that
none of the previous public housing programmes achieved up to 50 percent of the targeted number
of housing units. Apart from the period between 2006 and 2010 in which there was 43 percent
145

achievement, yet below 50%. UN-HABITAT (2010) opines that 61.9% of urban population in
Nigeria as at 2010 lives in slums. Thus, the impact of these programmes in addressing the existing
housing problems among LIEs in the country can best be described as negligible.
Odunsi (2017) reports that in August 2017, Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) rolled out a scheme
called “My Own Home”. We hope this housing programme will succeed since it is joint finance by
the World Bank, Federal Ministry of Finance, Federal Ministry of Power, Works and Housing,
Federal Ministry of Justice, Mortgage Banking Association of Nigeria, as well as Primary Mortgage
Banks through equity in the Nigeria Mortgage Refinance Company. The sadden episode of this
scheme is that about 80% of the LIEs will not be able to meet the minimum requirements to
participate, such as down payment, collateral, guarantor, and evidence of regular income. For an
average LIE in Nigeria, it is as good as nothing. This again justified the reason for the only option
available to Nigerians is self-help provision. There is no hope from the government, even the few
states that construct scanty houses, the prices are not within what the LIEs can afford. There is a
need for Nigerian Government to send delegates to Malaysia to study various policies and
programmes of Malaysian LCH schemes, including some Malaysian States LCH programmes,
complementing the federal, for example Sarawak, Selangor, and Johor.
Table 3: Low-cost Housing Schemes by the Federal Government of Nigeria (1962- 2010)
Compilation from Onibokun (1985), UN-HABITAT (2006), Ibem et al. (2011).
Period Proposed # of housing units # housing units produced Percentage achievement
1962-1968 61,000 500 0.81
1971-1974 59,000 7,080 12
1975-1980 202,000 30,000 14.85
1981-1985 180,000 47, 234 26.24
1986-1999 121,000 5,500 4.55
2000-2003 20,000 - -
2004-2006 18,000 840 4.67
2006-2010 10,271 4,440 43.23
TOTAL 653,271 95,594 14.63
3.1 Encumbrances Faced by Nigerian Low-Cost Housing Policy
Abdullahi (2013), Olawale, Lawal, and Alabi (2015) assert that not until 1991, Nigeria cannot
be said to have a National Housing Policy (NHP), policies regulatory housing prior this were just
the integral parts of the National Development Plans. Twenty years later, the government confessed
openly its inability to achieve the then set objectives and went ahead with to review the NHP. In
2012, Nigeria received her latest NHP that promised Nigerians “real mass housing which the
country has been dreaming of”. Five years later, now 2017, Nigeria with an increasing population
of over 170 million, there is no evidence of providing solutions to the shortage of LCH, and housing
the poorest of the poor. The government promised has become a nightmare in the eyes of Nigerians,
most especially in the eyes of LIEs. Perhaps, one can say that Nigeria lacks LCH Institutional and
regulatory policy framework compared to Malaysia. Akintomide (2016) reports that from a figure
released in 2015 by the UN, Nigeria has an estimated figure of 24.4 million homeless citizens. This
calls for concern and worries as the figure is alarming. This was the consequence of many factors
such as corruption in the implementation of various past LCH policies, rapid urbanisation, poverty

and terror acts by the Boko-Haram terrorists’ organisation which had displaced over 650,000
Nigerians internally and 70,000 more as refugees in neighbouring countries. Hence, there is need to
identify the challenges facing these various LCH policies in Nigeria.
Several studies have been conducted by researchers to propel reasons why the past government
and states supported housing policy in Nigeria neglected to give the coveted outcomes, for
eaxample Ibem et al. (2011), Ibem, Opoko and Aduwo (2013), Abdullahi (2013), Olawale, Lawal,
and Alabi (2015), Akintomide (2016), just to mention a few. No one study talk about open
registration system as key to the provision of LCH, perhaps because the NHP did not categorically
state it as key to achieving LCH. All over the world, without data, policy planning, formulation, and
implementation are all fallacy. A large portion of the findings from the authors reveals that lax
enforcement, bribery and corruption, lack of adequate funding, corruption in the allocation of
complete housing units, political interference and the lack of adequate monitoring and evaluation of
the programmes are the major cause of the backwardness of LCH provision in Nigeria. For
instance, Ibem et al. (2013) explored the results of the PMHS started by the Obasanjo's organisation
to give 18,000 LCH units between 2004 and 2006 utilising nearby local building materials and
found that the plan was actualised in not very many states in the nation with the modest number of
LCH provided. The difficulties of that scheme were identified as poor design and implementation
strategies, inadequate funding and low organisational capacity of the three public agencies: National
Building and Road Research Institute (NIBRRI), Association of Housing Corporations of Nigeria
(AHCN) and the FMBN charged with the responsibility of implement that scheme. NHP among
other functions have a responsibility to mobilize primary mortgage institutions to assist Nigerians
desirous of purchasing LCH to do so, this they failed because of lack of institutional framework and
open registration system. Government-sponsored mass housing schemes are supposed to be based
on a three-tier institutional framework, involving Federal, State and Local Government as outlined
in the National Housing Policy in 1991 and 2012. This three-tier of governments have failed in their
constitutional obligation to the masses in respect to housing provision.
Nigerian Government responsibility regarding the 2012 NHP objectives and strategies have
more than 80% role to play, for example, grant to LIEs, subsidies to targeted group, Land Use Act
Review, strengthen institution for implementation of NHP, establish secondary mortgage market,
encourage training of skilled manpower for mass LCH production, etc., but government yet to meet
up to 20% of these objectives, perhaps, Nigerians that belong to the target group have a long way to
go. Akintomide (2016) reports that one of the uniqueness of the 2012 NHP is the emphasis on
private sector participation in LCH provision (private developers), finance and investment (financial
institutions) but there is a lacuna in the policy. The NHP fails to state sanctions for defaulter. In
Malaysia, this was well documented and sanctions are melted to private developers who default.
NHP perhaps give room for laxity with a resultant effect of poor implementation. Perhaps, this is
because the Nigerian Government does not lead by example like their counterpart (Malaysia). The
Malaysian Government till date is a provider and facilitator of LCH to the LIEs.
147

Thus, the Malaysian LCH policy model will assist Nigerian Government if only the political
will is there to do the needful for the masses that elected them into their various political positions
from the local government to federal government level. Some school of thought believes that the
quote “I belong to everybody, and I belong to nobody” a quote by the President of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, during his sworn-in-ceremony on 29th
May 2015, although alleged plagiarised
Charles De Gaulle’s quote, as alleged by the opposition parties in the news media is only on paper.
Nigerians are still finding it difficult to believe that after two and a half years of the present
administration of President Buhari, housing for the poor is not having any direction or blue print for
future hope. Olorode and Igbolo (2015) assert that this is a presumed government that came to fight
for the masses, nothing seems to be working out, all promises made before the election as gone to
“voice mail”, and this is saddened. Olukotun (2015) correctly in The Punch May 29, 2015: p. 96,
doubted the feasibility of the promises to “grow the economy by 12 per cent annually, mount an
elaborate social welfare programme … [employing] 25 million people [with] N5,000 monthly and
dish out one free meal a day to all public primary school pupils …[get] the naira to be at par with
the dollar, give Nigerians electricity round the clock”, all these mounted to zero.
4. Summary of Similarities and Differences of Both Countries LCH Policies
Table 4 shows the differences and similarities of Malaysian and Nigerian LCH policies
respectively. Table 4 is divided into two sections; the first section outlines the similarities that are
common to both countries LCH policy, although with a slight difference in some instances, while
the second section highlights the differences. Table 4 reveals that in Nigeria, self-help is one of the
means of LCH provision. This is because the Nigerian Government Institutional framework and
regulatory policies failed to address the needs of the LIEs. To worst the scenario, there is no policy
that instructs the private developers to make provision for housing LIEs in their housing project.
The Nigerian Government have a lot to learn from the Malaysian Government LCH policy in
respect to price control, cross subsidization, 30% provision for LIEs, LCH subsidies in different
forms both from the federal and state governments to LIEs house-buyers. Hence, these findings
corroborate Abdullahi (2013) submission that country with many developmental strides, for
example Malaysia seems to perform more in implementation of LCH policies and programmes than
the less developmental country, for example, Nigeria.
The provision of LCH scheme in Nigeria seem to have been either forgotten or has eluded the
government, leaving the LIEs to their fate. In the 11th
MP (2016-2020), Malaysian Government
plans to provide 240,000 units of LCH via various programmes. In Nigeria, there is no template or
figure to show what the federal plans to do, only few states came up with shoddy plans that is not
financial viable and social accessible to the LIEs. For example, Lagos State, can LIEs afford to buy
a house of N10,000,000:00 (Ten Million Naira Only) (Akintomide, 2016)? The Nigerian
Government has a lot to do if this LCH policy would succeed. The Nigerian Federal Government
LCH scheme from 1962-2010 was 95,594 for a population of over 170 million, refer to Table 3,

while the Malaysian Federal Government LCH scheme only from 1971-2010 was 604,517 for a
population of 31.7million (Abdul-Aziz, Tah, Olanrewaju, & Ahmed, 2017). However, the
implementation and monitoring of the open registration system (ORS) of both countries are weak.
In the case of Nigeria, we need to start afresh while in the case of Malaysia, there is need to
resuscitate the existing ORS, most especially at state level. The relevance of database in planning
and implementation of policies and programmes cannot be over emphasised.
Table 4: Similarities and Differences of Both Countries LCH Policies. (Compilation from Asek
(2007), Aigbokhan (2008), Aribigbola (2008), Ibimilua and Ibitoye (2015), 11th Malaysia Plan
(2016), Abdul-Aziz et al. (2017), Ebekozien et al. (2017A), (2017B), World Bank (2017))
Theme Malaysia Nigeria
Similarities
1.Development
category
Developing country but aiming to become a
developed nation by 2020 (feasible).
Developing country, in 2000, started aiming to
become developed nation by 2020 (not feasible)
2.Policy target Low-income earners in the country. Low-income earners in the country.
3.Government
system/colonisation
The federal system, colonised by British
Government, and independence in 1957.
The federal system, colonised by British
Government, and independence in 1960.
4.National Housing
Policy (NHP)
National Housing Policy 1991, 2011, faulty open
registration system (ORS).
NHP 1991, 2002, 2006, 2012, faulty open
registration system (ORS), no database.
5.Land admin. State matters. State matters.
6.Aim of policy Make home affordable and accessible to the LIEs. Make home affordable and accessible to the LIEs.
Differences
1.Providers of LCH Public and private developers More of self-help, few public and private developers
2.Ceiling price, target
income, sales within
moratorium.
RM 42, 000 per unit for household income not
exceeding RM 2,500/month, cannot sell within 10
years.
No established parameter. It is free for all, can sell
same day if lucky to acquire one. There is no
regulation and anti-poor.
3.Price control and
cross subsidisation
These two concepts are to address the needs of the
LIEs. Although not very effective but in operation.
The federal government does not know if the poor
needs home, only a few states but price control and
cross subsidisation are missing.
4.Institutional and
regulatory framework
There is LCH Institutional and regulatory framework
policy, although need to be strengthened for better
efficiency.
Lacks LCH Institutional and regulatory framework
policy, hence give room for “anything can go
syndrome”.
5.Government role
The federal provide grant and loan for housing while
states complement with their various LCH
programmes for the LIEs. The federal and state
government gives subsidies to qualified persons,
hence reduced rejection rate.
Table 3 reveals that LIEs is on their own, few
projects that are supposed to be for the LIEs are sold
to the highest bidders. There is no control like
Malaysia, hence, of no resultant effect to the LIEs.
6.Private developer’s
role
The law of the land direct private developer to
construct 30% of LCH for 10 acres and above. This
varies from state to state.
It is free for all, so private developers do what they
like even if the development area is 50 acres.
7.Individual role The participation of individual is low.
The participation of individual is high. Most LIEs
acquired their homes via this method.
7.Leakages in LCH
provision
Evidence of leakages in LCH provision (Ebekozien
et al., 2017B).
No parameter for measurement, hence, leakage is an
understatement.
8.Building plan
approval
The districts/local authorities are the ones in charge
of building plan approval.
The state governments housing and planning
ministry is the one in charge of building plan
approval.
9.Level of LCH Policy
implementation
Five years housing plan (every five years), guided by
NHP 2011, implementation above 50%.
The NHP last reviewed was 2012, implementation
only on paper, less than 10%.
10. Policies
Housing policies promote pro-poor growth and
reduce disparities in access to financial credit.
Housing policies promote inequality between the
poor and rich. Also, there is a high disparity in
access to financial credit.
11. Land/Housing
units (1962-2010)
Limited land and 604,517 units, government lead by
example.
Surplus land, no policy direction and 95,594 units,
poor commitment from government.
12. Poverty lines 3.8 as at 2009, 0.6 as at 2014. 46 as at 2009. This calls for concern.
5. Conclusion
Although there are limitations from both countries LCH policies, this paper concluded that the
Nigerian Government has a lot to learn from the Malaysian LCH policies. In the Nigerian context,
149

LCH policy strategy should be government-driven with a functional institutional framework for
implementation and monitoring. This should be backed-up with necessary legislative laws and
funding for better efficiency and continuity. Also, Nigerian Government should as a matter of
urgent necessity embarks on cost-effective and LCH reforms to create opportunities for the poor,
and thereby promote pro-poor home-ownership policies just like the Malaysia approach. There is
need for the Nigerian Government to study the Malaysian LCH Policies, if genuinely, the wishes of
the masses to be sheltered is their goal.
In the Malaysian context, there is need for more cooperation, consultation, sharing knowledge
within the stakeholders, setting aside politics to getting the Malaysian LCH provision to the global
standard and a resultant effect of making homes available to every Malaysian household before the
year 2020. Provision of Malaysian LCH by private developers should henceforth be based on
targeted cumulative acres/units as it applies to state by state as against per project. This would put to
check developers that have over the years tactically avoided the provision of LCH by “project
splitting”. Also, Malaysian Government should create an agency/unit/department within the
Ministry of Housing with sole responsibility to coordinate all sales, auctions and rental issues with
LCH. The unit among others will ensure that only LIEs should be eligible to participate in
auction/sales/rent of LCH. This unit should be back-up with legislative power and well funded to
buy LCH auctioned property and recycle via the waiting eligible list. This measure would mitigate
illegal transactions and profiteering that takes place in LCH market.
There is the need for both countries to revamp their open registration system to ensure easy
monitoring and implementation of policies. This paper has succeeded in given useful and
practicable housing policies to the Nigerian Government to solve problems confronting LIEs in the
society. Therefore, sustainability of LCH provision for LIEs is inevitable; hence, LCH policies and
programmes should be economically viable, socially acceptable, and technically feasible with all
parties genuinely involved. This paper therefore recommends a further study to test the suggested
new measures in the field that would strengthen and improve the Malaysian LCH Policies.
6. References
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USM-International Conference on Social Sciences (USM-
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United Nations Centre for Human Settlements. Abuja: Author.
UN-HABITAT. (2010). The State of African Cities 2010-governance, inequality, urban land markets,
Nairobi: United Nations Human Settlements Programme. Abuja: Author.
Wahab, E. (2006). Independent judiciary and sustainable democracy. In challenges of sustainable
democracy in Nigeria, 209-234. Ibadan: John Archers.
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from https//data.worldbank.org/indicator
Zaid, M. S. (2015). Measuring operational affordability of public low-cost housing in Kuala
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Lumpur. International Journal of Social Science, 4(4), 54-74.
Andrew Ebekozien is a senior lecturer at Auchi Polytechnic Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria. He earned his bachelor
degree from Federal University of Technology Akure (FUTA). He is taking a graduate study at Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. His research is related to low-cost housings.
Professor Dr.Abdul-Rashid Bin Abdul-Aziz is a Professor at the School of Housing Building and Planning,
Universiti Sains Malaysia. Professor Rashid holds a B.Sc Hons. in Quantity Surveying from University of Reading,
M.Sc. Construction Management from Brunel, and Ph.D. from Reading. His area of interests are International
Contracting and Foreign Work.
Professor Sr. Dr. Mastura Bin Jaafar is a Professor and currently attached to the Quantity Surveying program at
the School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia. She earned her BSc (Building Economic
and Management), MSc (Project Management), and PhD (Strategic Management) from Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Malaysia. Her areas of research, publication, and supervision interests include strategic management in the
construction, housing, and tourism industries, entrepreneurship, project management and procurement management.
Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd
International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design
(ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering,
Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan
Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th
November 2017.

http://TuEngr.com
A Study on Kevin Lynch’s Urban Design Elements:
Precinct 9 East Putrajaya
Norul Fazlina Khashim
a*
, Mazran Ismail
a
,
Ahmad Sanusi Hassan
a
and Najib Taher Al-Ashwal
a
a
Article history:
Received 31 August 2017
17 November 2017
Available online
01 December 2017
Keywords:
Built environment;
Mental mapping; Mental
Image; Urban Modern;
.
Urban design elements are very important in defining a place,
intended for people to easily understand what opportunities it offers. This
paper presents a case study of the urban design elements in Precinct 9,
Putrajaya which refers to physical form by defining and examining five
urban design elements i.e. paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks.
This paper discusses the relationship and the quality of these variables to
evaluate response towards urban context in connects between people and
the places. This research is used qualitative analyses method by studying
the urban elements through the inventory of the layout plan, observations
and interview the residents to determine its characteristics and to evaluate
on the response of the community. The main findings of this research
showed that Precinct 9, Putrajaya has successfully applied these urban
design elements in its planning and play a specific role in turning urban
areas functional, vibrant and attractive. This study showed that urban
development with quality urban design elements in Precinct 9, Putrajaya
managed to connects between people and the places.
1. Introduction
The built environment includes buildings, streets and elements is functions to shape to integrate
the urban form. Urban design core objective is based from structural, functional and aesthetical
form of planned and designed city (Moughtin, 1999). The relationship between people and the place
could be established through visual perception and the senses with the urban design elements. It
also became an important part to build the environment of a neighbourhood, town or city. At
various parts in Malaysia, urban design directions are low compared to the modern designed city.
The authority already takes some initiatives to improve the social and economic but the urban
design direction still poor in the physical quality aspects. Based on the research by Hall (2014), the
planning of a city must be based and focused on the making of spatial order. It is believed to be a
*Corresponding author (N.F.Khashim). Tel: +60-19-3331174 E-mail: norulfazlina@student.usm.my
©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences &
Technologies. Volume 8 No.3 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at
http://TUENGR.COM/V08/153.pdf.
153

unique form of planning as it focuses on the spatial plans and their application.
Putrajaya, known as the federal administrative center of Malaysia, are located about 30 km
south of Kuala Lumpur and it is named after the first Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra.
Putrajaya is designed as a smart city and a town in modern garden city, has started its project in
1990s and began operating when the federal administrative center was shifted from Kuala Lumpur
in 1999 because of overcrowding and congestion. Putrajaya is the focus of strategic planning by the
surroundings with landscaped streets, beautiful gardens and a monument in the middle of greenery
in urban areas.
Precinct 9 is a residential area where there are many public amenities located near one another.
All the amenities are within a short walking and driving distance. Public transport is also readily
available and a monorail project has been planned to be made here. The design of housing here is
very modern with western-style features with no fence or gates around the house. Although there is
doubt in terms of the supervision and safety, residential areas here are regularly patrolled by local
police forces. Most of the population is made up of civil servants from various government
agencies. The residential areas are surrounding the government building which is the workplace for
most residents, it provides easy access for the residents commuting from home to work.
Furthermore, recreational facilities and social and community complex nearby residents here make
life more comfortable, well-planned and organized.
Lynch, K. (1960) analyzed on the way a citizen can successfully function in his own
environment as well as interacting with the other citizens. By defining a legible city as a
characterized visual quality of clear space, he believed in the importance of a city’s public image.
He concluded that the way finding for the individual inside the city must be an easy and quick
movement as the city creates a mental image.
This paper presents a case study of the urban design elements in Precinct 9, Putrajaya which
refers to physical form by defining and examining five urban design elements i.e paths, edges,
districts, nodes and landmarks. Researcher make judgements on the quality and how the elements
can produce connections between people and the places, movement and urban physical form into
the formation of places with the goal of making urban areas functional, vibrant and attractive. From
the study, it is expected to find out whether the site successfully adapt the urban design elements not
only on its usage, but the also the urbanity of the space. it could be used as a standard to measures
the quality of the urban design fabrics in relation to their space characteristics.
The following objectives are incorporated in the study:
i. To determine on how the urban design elements are being implemented in Precinct 9, Putrajaya.
ii. To measure the effectiveness of the urban design elements used in urban planning.
The reasons of choosing the site are: (1) it is a relatively new development and symbolizes
Malaysia’s ideology and aspirations for new urbanism and (2) it can be easily accessed for the
purpose of conducting this study. Furthermore, this would help to obtain specified results in the
154 N. F. Khashim, M. Ismail, A.S. Hassan and N.T. Al-Ashwal

study of the application of urban design elements in Precinct 9, Putrajaya.
2. Literature Review
Mental image or mental mapping has an important influence on our experience about the city.
According to (Sulsters (2005), Brettel, (2006) and McAndrew (1993)), the formation of mental
image comes from the ﬁeld of science cognitive psychology. It can bring strong response and
perception in attracting people to pleasant places. Image is the set of beliefs, ideas, and impressions
that a person holds regarding a city (Kotler, 1993). Therefore, image is the mental picture that
people hold about that city. Understanding these mental pictures is important because ‘‘people’s
attitudes and actions toward a city are highly conditioned by that city’s image (Kotler, 1997; Jaffe
& Nebenzahl, 2006).
Kevin Lynch (1960) has introduced the urban design elements from his research over a five-
year study of Jersey City, Los Angeles and Boston on his observation towards information of a city
and use it to create a mental map. Lynch's conclusion was that people formed mental maps of their
surroundings consisting of five basic elements. The five kinds of basic urban design elements which
people create their mental images of a city are paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks.
Based on Lynch (1960), path is considered as the most important elements in urban design and
it is the first element designed in planning. Path is defined as the passages that experiences from the
people moves: walkways, streets, transit line, railroads and canals. This is the most important
element in people's mental image toward the city. While, edges are defined as the boundaries that
separate the continuity which is not use as paths: shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls.
Districts are the medium-to-large sections of the city which the observer mentally enters "inside of,"
and which are recognizable as having some common, identifying character (Lynch, 1960).
Node is a point, the strategic and important spot which are the intensive foci in a city. They
may be primarily concentrations or junctions. In another word, nodes can be defined as the
gathering point in the city. In addition, the location of nodes determines their utilization as placing
nodes on the main routes can make the movement more efficient than those located far away from
the main routes. Landmarks also can be defined as another type of point-reference, but it’s only can
be seen from the external. It is usually defined as a physical object: sign, mountain, store or
building. The legibility of a city usually depends on landmarks as they act as very important cues in
way finding process for every individual in the city (Lynch, 1960).
3. Research Methodology
This study adopts case study approach in which fieldwork in undertaken. Observation
technique are used to ensure that maximum capacity of information can be collected and to be free
to observe the urban elements more detail based on the five urban design elements that identified by
Kevin Lynch theories. The visual quality that forms the urban physical character were observed in
155

detailed on the selected location of this study. There is only one site selected that are used as a pilot
study. The most rational single case in the research need confirmation, challenge or extend theory
(Yin, 1994). A single case study approach had been used to examine the applicability of the use of
mental image technique by observation.
A qualitative research is chosen for the reasons: (1) to explore the urban design elements in
Precinct 9, Putrajaya to understand the site fully, (2) to understand the context of the site by
observing and collecting data in person and (3) to give a clear explanation on the five elemental
components of urban design by using residential survey to help form the hypothesis. This
observation was conducted within a period of one week starting from the 1st to 7th April 2017 and
from 8.00 am to 5.00 pm. The information obtained from this observation technique will be
described through several diagrams accurately by category of the urban design elements which has
been listed on this study.
A literature review of secondary printed sources such as books, journals, and articles was
conducted to gain a background understanding of urban design elements. Others than that, the
analysis of quantitative and qualitative data collected via non-structure interview will be analyzed
and documented. Random face-to-face non-structure interviews were conducted on-site. The
interviews provided a more in-depth understanding of the residents towards the perception of their
neighbourhood unit. They were conducted informally with the residents at random while doing site
inventory. Such materials as photographs, clinical record case, video, movies, memos, letters,
diaries were use as the supportive documents for interviews and observations (Bogdan, R.C., &
Biklen, S.K, 1998).
4. Study Results
4.1 Description of the Site Area
Based on stern et al. (2013) the movement of a garden city has been among the main factors in
the urban planning of a city. The city is separated by 20 precincts with the goals of garden city as its
direction, already well-planned with five areas in the core area which comprise of government,
commercial, civic, mixed development as well as sports and recreational. The remaining fifth teen
precinct is designed as functional support of core area known as peripheral area and others twelve
of the precinct is dedicated for residential neighbourhood. Malaysia has experienced spectacular
urban spatial transformation from traditional water village, British colonialism to pre- & post-
independent and now the fast growing modern urban design (Hassan, 2005). Putrajaya is known as
the major intelligent garden city in Malaysia, 30% from the 14,780 hectares if the area is
specifically build for administrative center with the remaining the build for the urban garden city.
In the early 1990s the Malaysian government had decided to build Putrajaya to be the
administrative capital for the federal government of Malaysia (Moser, 2009). The city located about
25km south of Kuala Lumpur on the highway between Kuala Lumpur and the International Airport
and this location gave her extra importance and viability as a new city (Ariffini, 2003). The selected
area of Precinct 9 which was chosen as a case study in this research is the east of Putrajaya city

(Figure 1). The Precinct 9 is located in the east of Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya, in a modern
urban design concept and residential neighbourhood. Precinct 9 offers a proper mix of open space
and land uses combined with a range of public realm initiatives that creates a vibrant urban
neighbourhood. The selected location of this study area can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 1: The selected area of Precinct 9, East Putrajaya (The case study).
Figure 2: The selected location of this study area in the city (Precinct 9)
4.2 Urban Design Elements
4.2.1 Path
Paths can be defined as the channel of movement within the city such as alleys, streets,
railroads, motorways and canals. The importance of paths can be identified through their identity.
This could be achieved by the strength in building facade along the paths as well as specifies
features such as pavement textures and plantings. Accessibility to precinct 9, Putrajaya are visible
due to main intersections towards the precinct have clear signage and it is easier to people around
the precinct to find the way. Furthermore, the colorful and decoration landscape gives the users a
157

sense of welcoming when they enter to the area. Based on the site survey, people can easily find the
ways around the precinct without getting lost due to the reason of legibility in designing the paths.
Moreover, the paths in the precinct are clearly defined as one enters the site.
Figure 3: Paths configurations that showing different type of roads.
The selected study site was in the middle of a modern city. Therefore, there is only land route
can be accessed through the site (Figure 3). This area can be accessed through the highway of
Persiaran Utara. Persiaran Utara is a major highway in Putrajaya. It connects Putrajaya-Cyberjaya
Expressway interchange in the west to Putrajaya and interchange of the South Klang Valley
Expressway in the north. The major routes that were passable and nearby to the site is from Lebuh
Perdana Barat which connects to the Putrajaya roundabout and also Lebuh Sentosa which connects
Precinct 11 in the north and to the Core Island of Putrajaya in the south. These three main routes
have 3 lanes with minimum road width of 3.5 meter including the shoulder of the road to allowing
traffic conditions are always good and safely.

Furthermore, Persiaran Barat and Jalan P9 become the secondary entrance routes to the site.
These roads will be highly or partially congested during 8-9am and 5-6pm. This is because the
study area is a residential zone there have the movement of the residents before and after office
hours. Each of the main road act as divider to each precinct. The importance of paths is to divide the
territory and functions of area. In fact, it generates the different way of architectural values, and
density between these two cities.
There are varieties of experience feelings by researcher in understanding certain conditions on
the route: the narrowness of laneways, high bridges over water, or surfaces which are smooth or
rough or sloped or stepped (Lynch, 1960). The strength of the site study is a planned city that is
already designed pedestrian pathways at every road which has been separated. The separation of
pedestrian pathways from vehicular traffic encourages playful use of public space, and does not
merely optimize efficient flows. It allows users to forget the practicalities of watching out for
traffic and to focus on the various other sensations available as they move along a path.
Figure 4: The edges line within the site study as a separation between two sections that breaks its
areas and functions.
4.2.2 Edges
Edge is a separation between two sections that breaks its continuity such as sewers, or by a
sharp contrast in density or the built environment (Figure 4). Edges is the boundary of an area
which is topological, something which an observer can position themselves, rather than the district
(Dalton and Bafna, 2003). The planning authority’s attempt to create a green city in Putrajaya
seems to reflect onto the precinct edges as it encourages people to explore the precinct.
159

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