Contingency Leadership TheoriesChapter 4Part One Individual.docx

Contingency Leadership Theories
Chapter 4
Part One: Individuals As Leaders
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© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be
copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for
use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product
or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for
classroom use.
1
Learning Outcomes 1 – 5
State the major difference between behavioral and contingency
leadership theories, and explain the behavioral contribution to
contingency theories.
Describe the contingency leadership theory variables.
Identify the contingency leadership model styles and variables.
State the leadership continuum model major styles and
variables.
Identify the path-goal leadership model styles and variables.
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Learning Outcomes 6 – 10
State the normative leadership model styles and the number of
variables.
Discuss the major similarities and differences between the
behavioral and contingency leadership theories.
Compare and contrast four major differences among the four
contingency leadership models.
List which leadership models are prescriptive and descriptive,
and explain why they are classified as such.
Explain substitutes and neutralizers of leadership.
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3
Leadership Theories
versus Leadership Models
Recall, a leadership theory is an explanation of some aspect of
leadership.
Theories have practical value because they help us better
understand, predict, and control successful leadership.
A leadership model is an example for emulation or use in a
given situation.
All of the contingency leadership theories in this chapter have a
leadership model.
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Framework for Contingency Leadership Variables
Exhibit 4.1
Effective leaders have an appropriate fit between the leader’s
behavior and style and the followers and the situation.
This list of general contingency leadership variables can be
used as a framework to place all the contingency leadership
model variables for analyzing leadership.
Exhibit 4.1
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Global Contingency Leadership
Contingency leadership is important to today’s global economy.
Global companies realize successful leadership styles vary
greatly from place to place.
Effective leaders of today need multicultural backgrounds and
experiences.
This reinforces the message of the global contingency
leadership.
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Contingency Leadership Theory
In 1951, Fred E. Fiedler developed the first situational
leadership theory.
Fiedler called the theory “Contingency Theory of Leader
Effectiveness”.
He was the first to develop a model to match the leadership
style to the job.
He believed leadership style is a reflection of personality and
behavior, and that leadership styles are basically constant.
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Discussion Question
Do you agree with Fiedler’s belief that people have one
dominant leadership style and cannot change styles? Explain
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Contingency Leadership Model Variables within the
Contingency Leadership Framework
Exhibit 4.2
The contingency leadership model is used to determine if a

person’s leadership style is task- or relationship-oriented, and if
the situation (leader-member relationship, task structure, and
position power) matches the leader’s style to maximize
performance.
Exhibit 4.2
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Leadership Style and the LPC
When using Fiedler’s model, first determine if your dominate
leadership style is:
Task-motivated,
Gain satisfaction from task completion.
Relationship motivated.
Gain satisfaction through forming and maintaining relationships
with followers.
To determine leadership style, complete the least-preferred
coworker (LPC) scales.
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Situational Favorableness

Situational favorableness refers to the degree to which a
situation enables the leader to exert influence over the
followers.
Leader-member relations:
Better relations lead to more favorable situations.
Task structure:
Structured jobs mean more favorable situations.
Position power:
The more power, the more favorable the situation.
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Determining the Appropriate
Leadership Style
Use Fiedler’s contingency theory model to determine which
style is appropriate.
If your LPC matches appropriate style, do nothing.
If you need to change styles, some examples:
Improve relations – show more interest in followers.
Structure the task – give clear deadlines.
Empower followers – leaders can pass along power.
Autocrat – leaders with weak power can gain power.
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Fiedler Contingency Leadership Model

Exhibit 4.3
Exhibit 4.3
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Research, Criticism, and Applications
Critics say research supports the model in most situations but
not as strongly in field studies as in lab studies.
Fiedler’s view of changing the job context is not always easy
say critics.
But the model has application as it can explain why some
managers are ineffective – no match of style to context.
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Leadership Continuum Model Variables within the Contingency
Leadership Framework
Exhibit 4.4
Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt developed a
contingency theory – 1950’s.
Focus is on who makes the decisions.
Exhibit 4.4

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Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum Model
Exhibit 4.5
The leadership continuum model is used to determine which one
of seven styles to select, based on the use of boss-centered
versus subordinate-centered leadership, to meet the situation
(boss, subordinates, situation/time) to maximize performance.
Exhibit 4.5
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Leadership Continuum Model
Before selecting one of the seven leadership styles, consider
three variables:
Boss – based on personality and behavior, some bosses are
autocrats, some participative.
Subordinates – the more willing/able followers are to

participate, the more participation should be used – and vice
versa.
Situation (time) – size, etc. of organization is considered, time
is needed for participation.
Criticism – unclear when/how to use the model.
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Discussion Question
Do you believe that managers today are using more boss- or
subordinate-centered leadership styles?
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Path-Goal Leadership Model Variables within the Contingency
Exhibit 4.6
Developed by Robert House.
Behavior of the leader influences performance and satisfaction
of the followers.
Exhibit 4.6

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House Path-Goal Leadership Model
Exhibit 4.7
The path-goal leadership model is used to select the leadership
style (directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-
oriented) appropriate to the situation (subordinate and
environment) to maximize both performance and job
satisfaction.
Exhibit 4.7
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Path-Goal Leadership Theory
and Model
The leader is responsible for motivating followers to attain
organizational goals.
Motivation is increased by:
Clarifying follower’s path to the rewards, or
Increasing the rewards followers value/desire.
Path clarification means the leader works with followers to
identify and learn behaviors that lead to accomplishment and

reward.
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Situational Factors - Subordinate
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Authoritarianism
Extent employees defer to others.
Locus of Control
Extent employees believe they control goal achievement
(internal) or it is controlled by others (external).
Ability
Extent of employees’ ability to perform tasks and achieve goals.

Situational Factors - Environment
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Task Structure
Extent of job repetitiveness.
Formal Authority
Extent of leader’s position power.
Work Group
Extent coworkers contribute to job satisfaction.

Path-Goal Leadership Styles
Directive:
Leader provides high structure.
Supportive:
Leaders provides high consideration.
Participative:
Leader includes employee input into decision-making.
Achievement-Oriented:
Leader sets difficult but achievable goals, and
Makes the job challenging.
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Research supports path-goal theory but with mixed results –
inadequately tested due to complexity.
Criticized by managers because it is difficult to know which
style to use.
Led to the theory of charismatic leadership.
House broadened his theory and now calls it value-based
leadership theory.
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Normative Leadership Model Variables within the Contingency
Exhibit 4.8
Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton asked:
When should the manager take charge and when should the
manager let the group make the decision?
Exhibit 4.8
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Normative Leadership Model
The normative leadership model has a time-driven and
development-driven decision tree that enables the user to select
one of five leadership styles (decide, consult individually,
consult group, facilitate, and delegate) appropriate for the
situation (seven questions/variables) to maximize decisions.
Called normative model as it provides a sequential set of
questions that are rules (norms) that help determine the best
leadership style for the situation.
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Leadership Participation Styles
Decide:
Leader makes the decision and announces it.
Consult Individually:
Leader individually tells followers the problem, gets
suggestions, and then decides.
Consult Group:
Leader holds group meeting, tells followers the problem, gets
suggestions, and then decides.
Facilitate:
Leader facilitates group meeting, seeking participation and
concurrence, without pushing his/her ideas.
Delegate:
Lets the group diagnose problem and make the decision.
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Model Questions
Decision Significance:
Is the decision critical to the project or organization?
Importance of Commitment:
Is follower commitment vital for implementation?
Leader Expertise:
Is the leader experienced in this type of decision?
Likelihood of Commitment:
Are followers already committed to the decision?
Group Support for Objectives:
Do followers support the organizational goals?
Group Expertise:
Are group members experienced in this type of decision?

Team Competence:
Ability of individuals to work together as a team.
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Normative Leadership Time-Driven Model
Exhibit 4.9
Instructions: The model is a decision tree that works like a
funnel. Define the problem statement and then answer the
questions from left to right as high (H) or low (L), skipping
questions when not appropriate to the situation and avoiding
crossing any horizontal lines. The last column you come to
contains the appropriate leadership participation decision-
making style for the situation.
Focus – making effective decisions with minimum cost.
Value – is placed on time, no value on follower development.
Orientation – short-term.
Exhibit 4.9
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Discussion Question
Do you agree that time is an important situational factor to

consider in selecting a leadership style for the situation?
Explain.
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Normative Leadership
Development-Driven Model
Exhibit 4.10
Instructions: The model is a decision tree that works like a
funnel. Define the problem statement, then answer the questions
from left to right as high (H) or low (L), skipping questions
when not appropriate to the situation and avoiding crossing any
horizontal lines. The last column you come to contains the
appropriate leadership participation decision-making style for
the situation.
Focus – effective decisions and maximum follower
development.
Value – follower development, no value on time.
Orientation – long-term.
Exhibit 4.10
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Discussion Question
The normative leadership model is the most complex.
Do more variables improve the model?
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Appropriate Leadership Style
To use the normative model:
you must have a specific decision to make,
the authority to make the decision, and
followers to participate in the decision.
Use the best model for the situation and ask appropriate
questions.
Some questions may be skipped.
Follow the decision tree to find best style.
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Research supports the model with a move toward higher levels
of participation, greater empowerment, and use of teams.
Critics say the model treats decisions as single episodes and
assumes leaders can effectively use all five leadership styles.
Not popular with managers who find it too cumbersome.
Popular in the academic community.

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Discussion Question
One group of authors believes that Fiedler’s contingency
leadership model is the model best supported by research.
However, a different author believes that it is the normative
leadership model.
Which model do you believe is best supported by research?
Why?
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Names Given to the Same Two Leadership Behavior Concepts
Exhibit 4.11
Exhibit 4.11
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Putting the Behavioral and Contingency Leadership Theories
Together
Exhibit 4.12
Exhibit 4.12
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Prescriptive and Descriptive Models
Prescriptive leadership models tell the user exactly which style
to use in a given situation.
Contingency and normative leadership models.
Descriptive leadership models identify contingency variables
and leadership styles without specifying which style to use in a
given situation.
Continuum and path-goal leadership models.
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Substitutes for Leadership Variables within the Contingency

Exhibit 4.13
Substitutes for leadership include characteristics of the
subordinate, task, and organization that replace the need for a
leader or neutralize the leader’s behavior.
Exhibit 4.13
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Variables which substitute or neutralize leadership:
Characteristics of followers,
Ability, knowledge, experience, training, etc.
Characteristics of the task,
Clarity and routine, intrinsic satisfaction, etc.
Characteristics of the organization,
Formalization, flexibility, cohesive work groups, etc.
Substitutes and Neutralizers
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Leadership Style and Situation
Leaders can analyze how these characteristics substitute or
neutralize their leadership style.
Leaders can change the situation rather than their style.

Substitute leadership can be used to complement existing
leadership.
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Research supports some aspects of the theory, other aspects
remain untested.
Critics say for many substitutes, the formal leader is merely
replaced by similar leadership behavior – so it still exists.
Applications include strong evidence that situational variables
directly affect job satisfaction and motivation.
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Discussion Questions
Which contingency leadership theory do you think is the best?
Which contingency leadership theory do you actually plan to
use, and how?
If you don’t plan to use any, give a detailed reason for not
wanting to use any of the models.
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Key Terms
contingency leadership model
descriptive leadership models
leadership continuum model
leadership model
normative leadership model
path-goal leadership model
prescriptive leadership models
substitutes for leadership
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45
Leadership Behavior and Motivation
Chapter 3
Part One: Individuals as Leaders
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1
Learning Outcomes
List the University of Iowa leadership styles.
Describe similarities and differences between the University of
Michigan and Ohio State University leadership models.
Discuss similarities and differences between the Ohio State
University Leadership Model and the Leadership Grid.
Discuss similarities and differences among the three content
motivation theories.
Discuss the major similarities and differences among the three
process motivation theories.
Explain the four types of reinforcement.
State the major differences among content, process, and
reinforcement theories.
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2
Leadership Behavior
By the late 1940’s leadership research had shifted from trait
theory paradigm to behavioral theory paradigm.
Focusing on what the leader says and does.
Researchers attempted to identify behavior of effective leaders.
Behavioral leadership theory made major contributions to

leadership research.
But it found there is no ‘one’ best style of leadership.
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3
Leadership Behavior is Based on Traits
Leaders’ behavior is based on their traits and skills.
Directly affecting their behavior and relationship with
employees.
Leading by example is important.
Behavior is easier to learn and change than traits.
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Leadership Style
Leadership style is the combination of traits, skills, and
behaviors leaders use as they interact with followers.
While based on traits and skills, the important component of a
leadership style is behavior.
Consistent patterns of behavior characterize a leader.
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University of Iowa Leadership Styles
Exhibit 3.1
Autocratic leadership style
The autocrat makes the decisions, tells employees what to do
and closely supervises workers.
Democratic leadership style
The democrat encourages participation in decisions, allows the
group to determine tasks and does not closely supervise
employees.
A leader’s style usually falls somewhere between autocrat and
democrat.
Exhibit 3.1
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University of Michigan
Leadership Model
Created and used the Survey of Organizations.
The University of Michigan Leadership Model thus identifies
two leadership styles: job-centered and employee-
centered.
Job-Centered Leadership Style has scales measuring goal
emphasis and work facilitation.

Employee-Centered Leadership Style has scales measuring
supportive leadership and interaction facilitation.
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University of Michigan
Leadership Model
Exhibit 3.2
Refers to the extent to which the leader takes charge to get the
job done.
Refers to the extent to which the leader focuses on meeting
employee needs and developing relationships.
Exhibit 3.2
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Ohio State University
Developed the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire
(LBDQ).
Initiating structure behavior:
Same as job-centered – focuses on task completion.
Consideration behavior:
Same as employee-centered – focuses on meeting people’s

needs and developing relationships.
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The Ohio State University
Leadership Model
Exhibit 3.3
The Ohio State University Leadership Model identifies four
leadership styles:
low structure and high consideration,
high structure and high consideration,
low structure and
low consideration, and
high structure and low consideration.
Exhibit 3.3
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Differences, Contributions, and Applications of Leadership
Models
Differences between the models:
University of Michigan uses a continuum, making it one-
dimensional while Ohio State considers the two behaviors

independent, making it two-dimensional.
Contributions:
There is no one best leadership style in all situations.
Applications:
Self-assessment helps change behavior leading to more effective
performance and relationships.
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Which leadership model do you prefer?
Do you agree with the University of Michigan model (with two
leadership styles) or with the Ohio State model (with four
leadership styles)?
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The Leadership Grid
The Leadership Grid builds on the Ohio State and Michigan
studies.
Based on the same two leadership dimensions, here called:
Concern for production, and
Concern for people.
Measured on a scale from 1 to 9, giving 81 possible
combinations of concern.
The Leadership Grid identifies five leadership styles: 1,1

impoverished; 9,1 authority compliance; 1,9 country club; 5,5
middle of the road; and 9,9 team leader.
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Blake, Mouton, and McCanse
Leadership Grid
Exhibit 3.4
The impoverished leader (1,1) does the minimum required to
remain employed.
The authority compliance leader (9,1) focuses on getting the job
done but treats people like machines.
The country-club leader (1,9) maintains a friendly atmosphere
without regard to production.
The middle-of-the-road leader (5,5) strives to maintain
satisfactory performance and morale.
The team leader (9,9) strives for maximum performance and
employee satisfaction.
Exhibit 3.4
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High-High Leader Research

The high-high leader has concern for both production and
people, or
Team leadership style.
There is some support for the high-high leader style as the
universal theory.
However, it is not accepted as the one best style in all
situations.
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Discussion Question
Do you agree with the Leadership Grid’s claim that the one best
leadership style is the team leader (9,9)?
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Behavioral Theory Contributions
Behavioral research led to the shift in paradigm to contingency
leadership theory.
A second contribution was the recognition that organizations
need both production and people leadership.
A third contribution supports coleadership.
One leader is production-oriented.
One leader is people-oriented.
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Leadership and Motivation Theories
Motivation is anything that affects behavior in pursuing a
certain outcome.
Through the motivation process, people go from need to motive
to behavior to consequence to satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
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The Motivation Process
Exhibit 3.5
Some need or want motivates all behavior.
Needs and motives are complex.
We don’t always know what our needs are.
Like traits, motives cannot be observed, but you can observe
behavior and infer the person’s motive.
(attribution theory)
Exhibit 3.5

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Major Motivation Theories
Exhibit 3.5
Exhibit 3.6
To see the relationship between the theories, we will look at
each separately then put them back together using the unifying
motivation process.
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Content Motivation Theories
Hierarchy of needs theory
Process Motivation Theories
Equity theory
Reinforcement Theory
Two-factor theory

Acquired needs theory
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Positive
Avoidance
Extinction
Punishment

Content motivation theories focus on explaining and predicting
behavior based on people’s needs. Includes:
Hierarchy of Needs Theory,
Two-Factor Theory, and
Acquired Needs Theory.
The key to successful leadership is to meet the needs of
employees while achieving organizational objectives.
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Hierarchy of Needs Theory
In the 1940’s, Abraham Maslow developed his hierarchy of
needs theory based on these four assumptions.
Only unmet needs motivate.
People’s needs are arranged in order of importance (hierarchy)
from basic to complex.
No motivation to fulfill a higher-level need unless the lower-
level need(s) are met.
People have five classifications of needs.
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Hierarchy of Needs
The hierarchy of needs theory proposes that people are
motivated through five levels of needs.
Physiological needs – basic needs.

Safety needs – safety and security.
Belongingness needs – also called social needs.
Esteem needs – focuses on ego, status, self-respect.
Self-actualization needs – reach one’s full potential.
Today, Maslow and others realize needs are not on a simple
five-step hierarchy.
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How Organizations Motivate With
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Exhibit 3.7
Exhibit 3.7
People have a need for more than just pay.
If there is no money for raises, provide inexpensive motivators
such as compliments.
Leaders must meet employees’ lower-level needs so they do not
dominate the motivational process.
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Two-Factor Theory
In the 1960’s Frederick Herzberg combined lower-level needs

he called hygiene or maintenance.
Higher-level needs he called motivators.
The two-factor theory proposes that people are motivated by
motivators rather than maintenance factors.
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Maintenance and Motivators
Maintenance factors
Also called extrinsic motivators.
Extrinsic motivators include:
Pay,
Job security,
Working conditions,
Fringe benefits, and
Relationships.
Motivators
Also called intrinsic motivators.
Intrinsic motivators include:
Achievement,
Recognition,
Challenge, and
Advancement.
Better motivators than extrinsic factors.
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Two-Factor Motivation Theory
Exhibit 3.8
Exhibit 3.8
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Motivating Employees With
Two-Factor Theory
Money as a motivator:
Money will not necessarily motivate employees to work harder.
Motivating with the Two-Factor Theory:
Under the new paradigm, pay is important but the best
motivators are intrinsic motivators.
Herzberg developed job enrichment, the process of building
motivators into the job.
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Acquired Needs Theory
Acquired needs theory proposes that people are motivated by
their need for achievement, power, and affiliation.
Motivating employees with a high n Ach:

Give them challenging tasks with clear objectives.
Motivating employees with a high n Pow:
Let them plan/control their jobs as much as possible.
Motivating employees with a high n Aff:
Let them work as part of a team.
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A Comparison of Content Motivation Theories
Exhibit 3.9
Exhibit 3.9
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Balancing Work-Life Needs
Work-life balance is also called work-home and work-family
balance.
Life needs a healthy balance.
The global marketplace allows for around the clock work
causing work-life conflict.
Two things organizations are doing:
Providing on-site day care centers, and
Offering flextime.

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Which of the three content motivation theories do you prefer?
Why?
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32
Process motivation theories focus on understanding how people
choose behavior to fulfill their needs. Include:
Equity theory,
Expectancy theory, and
Goal-setting theory.
Process motivation theories are more complex than content
motivation theories.
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Equity Theory
Equity theory proposes that people are motivated when their
perceived inputs equal outputs.
People compare their inputs and outputs to that of relevant
others and conclude if they are under-rewarded, over-rewarded,
or equitably rewarded.
When inequity is perceived, employees attempt to correct the
balance.
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Motivating With Equity Theory
When employees believe they are equitably rewarded, they are
not actively motivated.
When employees feel under-rewarded, they are demotivated.
Equity theory offers useful information:
Equity is based on perception,
Reward equitably, and
Reward high performance.
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Expectancy Theory

Based on Victor Vroom’s formula:
motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence
Expectancy theory proposes that people are motivated when
they believe they can accomplish the task, they will get the
reward, and the rewards for doing the task are worth the effort.
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Expectancy Theory Assumptions:
Internal and external factors affect behavior.
Behavior is the individual’s decision.
People’s needs, desires and goals differ.

People make behavior decisions based on their perceptions of
outcomes.
Expectancy Theory – Three Variables
All three variables must be met in Vroom’s formula for
motivation to take place:
Expectancy refers to the person’s perception of his/her ability
(probability) to accomplish an objective – self-efficacy.
Instrumentality refers to belief that the performance will result
in getting the reward.
Valence refers to the value a person places on the outcome or
reward.
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Motivating With Expectancy Theory
These conditions result in motivation:
Clearly defined objectives and the performance needed to

achieve them,
Tie performance to rewards,
Be sure rewards are of value to employees,
Make sure employees believe you will do what you say you will
do, and
Use the Pygmalion effect to increase expectations.
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Goal-Setting Theory
Goal-setting theory proposes that specific, difficult goals
motivate people.
Writing objectives model are
(1) To + (2) action verb + (3) singular, specific, and
measurable result to be achieved + (4) target date.
Goal setting might be the most effective management tool
available.
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Writing Effective Objectives Model
Model 3.1
Model 3.1

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Criteria for Objectives
Effective objectives meet these four criteria:
Singular result,
Each objective should have only one end result,
Specific,
The objective should state exact expectations,
Measurable,
Must be observable and measurable, and
Target date,
A specific date set for accomplishing the objective.
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Criteria Continued
In addition to the four criteria from the model, there are three
other criteria that do not always fit within the model.
Difficult but achievable – should be challenging.
Participatively set – people who help set their objectives
outperform those who don’t – gains commitment.
Commitment – for objectives to be met, employees must accept
them – participating helps.

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Discussion Question
Which of the three process motivation theories do you prefer?
Why?
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Components of Reinforcement
Exhibit 3.10
B. F. Skinner believed managers needed to understand the
relationship between behaviors and their consequences, and then
arrange contingencies that reinforce desirable behaviors and
discourage undesirable behaviors.
Exhibit 3.10
classroom use.
3 - ‹#›

Reinforcement theory proposes that through the consequences
for behavior, people will be motivated to behave in
predetermined ways.
Uses behavior modification and operant conditioning.
Two important concepts used to modify behavior are the types
of reinforcement and the schedules of reinforcement.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement:
Offer attractive consequences.
Avoidance reinforcement:
Also called negative reinforcement,
Employee avoids negative consequence.
Extinction:
Withhold reinforcement when behavior occurs.
Punishment:
Undesirable consequence.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Types of Reinforcement
Exhibit 3.11

Exhibit 3.11
classroom use.
3 - ‹#›
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement:
Every desired behavior is reinforced.
Intermittent reinforcement:
When based on time – interval schedule,
When based on output – ratio schedule.
Fixed interval – consistent schedule of pay, etc.
Variable interval – praise now and then.
Fixed ratio schedule – scheduled bonus.
Variable ratio schedule – praise for excellent work.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Motivating with Reinforcement
You get what you reinforce.
General guidelines for using reinforcement:
Set clear objectives,
Select appropriate reinforcement,
Select appropriate reinforcement schedule,

Do not reward mediocre or poor work,
Look for positives and give praise,
Give sincere praise every day, and
Do things for your employees, instead of to them.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Changing Behavior
Tips on using reinforcement:
Use goal-setting theory to set objectives, and
Set specifics for your plan.
Develop your plan by:
Reducing other life stress,
Plan to avoid deviance from your plan,
Expect setbacks,
Plan your reinforcement – have punishments for undesirable
behavior.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Giving Praise
Giving praise creates a win-win situation.
The steps in the giving praise model are (1) tell the employee
exactly what was done correctly, (2) tell the employee why the
behavior is important, (3) stop for a moment of silence, and (4)

encourage repeat performance.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Giving Praise
Model 3.2
Make eye contact, be specific and descriptive.
State benefits, tell how you feel, be specific and descriptive.
Gives employee a chance to “feel” impact of the praise.
Motivates employee to continue desired behavior.
Model 3.2
classroom use.
3 - ‹#›
Reinforcement theory is unethical because it is used to
manipulate employees.
Do you agree with this statement?
Which type and schedule of reinforcement do you plan to use

most often as a leader?
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Loops back because behavior is learned through consequences.
Employee action to satisfy need
Degree to which the need is met
Loops back because meeting needs is ongoing.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Need
Motive
Behavior
Consequence

Satisfaction
Putting Motivation Theories Together
Motivation helps explain why employees behave the way they
do.
The groups of theories are complementary.
Each group of theories refers to a different stage in the
motivation process.
Each group of theories answers a different question.
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
Questions Answered by Theory Group
3 - ‹#›

classroom use.
What needs do employees have that should be met on the job?
How do employees choose behavior to fulfill their needs?
What can mangers do to get employees to behave in ways that
meet the organizational objectives?
Key Terms
acquired needs theory
content motivation theories

equity theory
expectancy theory
giving praise model
goal-setting theory
hierarchy of needs theory
leadership grid
leadership style
motivation
motivation process
Ohio State University leadership model
process motivation theories
reinforcement theory
two-factor theory
University of Michigan leadership model
writing objectives model
3 - ‹#›
classroom use.
58

Contingency Leadership TheoriesChapter 4Part One Individual.docx

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