Epinephrine And Parasympathesis

Epinephrine And Parasympathesis
So I can just say something to the affect that the neural input for the parasympathetic starts at the
hypothalamus following down to the craniolumbar nerves allowing the processes I have already
explained to occur. The vagus cranial nerve is a part of the involuntary system and is in charge of
commands unconscious body situations like digesting food and keeping heart rate constant and
rhythmic . the third cranial nerve is the oculomoter nerve and this cranial nerve regulates the iris and
lens of eye by parasympathetic nerve fibers, which originate in midbrain and synapse on ciliary
ganglion .The sympathetic neural input would start at the hypothalamus and follow the
thoracolumnar spinal nerves allowing the processes I have mentioned previously. Norephinephrine
and epinephrine are the main hormones in the sympathetic system. They are secreted by the adrenal
glands and convey signals to effector organs. Norepinephrine causes increased heart rate and
increase and blood pressure followed by peripheral vasoconstriction. Epinephrine causes increased
lipid breakdown, bronchial dilation, coronary dilation, and conversion of glycogen to glucose. a. ...
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Sympathetic stimulation on vision i. Dilates pupils which usually occurs in dark situations to allow
more light into eye b. Parasympathetic stimulation on vision i. Constricts pupil which is responsible
for admitting sufficient amount of light to the eye ii. Contraction of ciliary muscle which causes the
lens to accommodate near vision iii. Stimulates the lacrimal gland to stimulate tears to lubricate the
eye c. Sympathetic stimulation on cardiovascular system i. Increases rate and force of heart
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Primary Raynaud's Case Study
Early presenting signs and symptoms of both, Primary Raynaud's (PR) and Secondary Raynaud's
include complaints of or evidence of sudden intermittent episodes of skin color changes, pain,
feeling of coldness, and pins–and–needles sensation in the affected areas. When an episode or an
attack occurs, the area first becomes white, as the blood flow decreases; a blue color follows, due to
decreased oxygen delivery to the tissues; and lastly, the area becomes red when the blood flow
returns. Attacks can last minutes to hours, and can be initiated by temperature change or stress. The
intermittent attacks of PR generally do not result in tissue injury, and is not associated with an
underlying disease process. The diagnosis usually occurs between the ages of 15–30. Attacks with
Secondary Raynaud's are triggered by cold exposure and stress as well, can last longer and result in
damage to the tissues, leading to ulcers, gangrene, and loss of the digit(s). Secondary Raynaud's is
associated with an underlying disease, and is usually diagnosed after the ... Show more content on
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The thumb is not normally involved. "In a small number of people ... the skin may thicken or tighten
but ulcers or sores do not occur" (Ratchford & Evan, 2015). Although the presenting symptoms are
the same with Secondary Raynaud's, other processes of the underlying disease can evolve into
multi–system and/or organ involvement. The cause of PR is idiopathic, or without known reason;
whereas the cause of Secondary Raynaud's is the associated disease process. Depending on the
underlying disease process, the symptoms are varied. For instance, with Rheumatoid Arthritis joint
pain, swelling, and joint changes can occur. Secondary Raynaud's does not cause systemic
dysfunction, but is a symptom of the underlying disease; the underlying disease process causes the
systemic symptoms that commonly present with Raynaud's

Systolic Pressure Lab Report
Systolic pressure(SP) is the highest pressure reached in artery after ventricular systole; Diastolic
pressure(DP) occurs during ventricular diastole and Pulse pressure(PP) is the difference between
these two. Their physiological determinants are the ability of the ventricles to pump a large amount
of the blood. So the greater the amount of blood pumped by the ventricles, i.e the greater the stroke
volume, the higher the value of systolic pressure, hence pulse pressure increases. They will be
determined by the capacity of the aorta to expand and hold the volume of blood from the ventricles,
so its compliance. As the aorta expands to hold the blood from the ventricles, the pressure inside it
will drop, hence the systolic pressure drops. So a fairly strong aorta that does not expand easily will
increase systolic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is because of gravity that forces blood towards the the lower limbs and hence less blood is
going towards the heart; venous return decreases. Hence cardiac output decreases, which in turn
decreases MAP. This is clearly seen through the results from the experiment: where MAP dropped
from 105 to 82 mmHg soon immediately after standing. (CO dropped from 7.4 to 5.6 L/min). So we
can say that immediately after standing the upper part of the body have poor perfusion. But the body
will compensate for this change to protect sensitive organ in the upper part of the body, particular
the brain. The baroreceptor of the body detect this, and cause several changes. It cause an increase in
heart rate (in our exit from 81 to 104 bpm) and and cause the arterioles in the lower extremities to
contract. This will cause an increase in MAP to normal as we noticed in our experiment where the
MAP rose to 98 mmHg again. Because of the vasoconstriction, we would have expected an increase
in TPR but this was not the case of our

Hypertension: The Rise In Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is defined as "the force per unit area exerted on a vessel wall by the contained blood"
(Marieb, 2013, p. 701). A "normal" blood pressure is read as 120/80 mm Hg, however, blood
pressure fluctuates.
(1) Marieb states that "dietary factors that contribute to hypertension include high intakes of salt"
(2013, p. 711). Hypertension is a rise in blood pressure over 140/90 mm Hg. This rise in blood
pressure is due to the increase of sodium within the plasma, which escalates the diffusion of fluids
from intracellular space to extracellular space, therefore increasing the total extracellular fluid
volume. This change leads to an increase in blood volume and a rise in blood pressure.
(2) The vasomotor center is just one group of neurons

Acute Kidney Injury : Acute Liver Injury
Prerenal Acute Kidney Injury Pathophysiology The human body has paired kidneys at the back of
the abdominal wall. The kidneys play an important role in filtering blood, removing wastes and
maintaining the body's electrolyte and fluid balance by means of creating urine. Kidneys also play a
crucial duty in producing red blood cells and regulating blood pressure by the secretion of hormones
(Huether & McCance, 2012). Kidney function is vital for life and the disruption of function could be
detrimental to one's health.
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is rapid renal function decline with a decrease in glomerular filtration
and consequently the build up of nitrogenous waste products in the body. AKI is reversible, but is it
also more likely to progress into chronic kidney disease. Acute kidney injury incidence is common
in the United States and it's growing. According to research, acute kidney injury accounts for ten to
twenty percent of hospitalized adults (Levey, 2015). Since it is fairly common there is a need to
diagnose earlier with increased meticulousness in order to prevent total kidney failure. Acute kidney
injury can be categorized as prerenal, intrinsic, and postrenal (Yaklin, 2011) Prerenal injury
prevalence is the most common and will be discussed further.
Pathophysiology
The main development in prerenal acute kidney injury occurs from the blockage of the renal artery.
This blockage is what ultimately leads to an insufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients.

Ptinue Continued Research
The search for a new anti–migraine drug was started by Glaxo in 1972. In the 1960s, studies showed
that vasoconstriction from 5–HT, ergotamine and nor–adrenaline could reduce migraine attacks.
Research also showed that platelet 5–HT level reduces during migraine attacks. Many side–effects
were associated with the use of 5–HT as a drug and then scientists started research on the receptors
of 5–HT in order to discover and develop a more specific agonist for 5–HT receptors. Research on
the 5–HT receptors and their effect led to discovery of several types and subtypes of 5–HT.
AH24167 showed a vasodilatory effect instead of vasoconstrictory due to the agonist effect on
another type of 5–HT receptors later assigned the name 5–HT7. AH25086 was the second
compound developed and showed a vasoconstrictory effect but was not released as a drug due to
low per oral bioavailability. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Clinical trials with subcutaneous sumatriptan showed that 70–80 per cent of patients had reduced
pain by one hour after treatment. Sumatriptan was launched in the subcutaneous formulation in
1991. In subsequent studies of oral sumatriptan 100mg–300mg, around 70 % of patients responded
to treatment within two hours of administration and this led to the launch of 100mg sumatriptan
tablets. Sumatriptan was first launched in the Netherlands in 1991 and became available in the USA
during 1993. In year 2008, Treximet, a combination of sumatriptan and naproxen was approved by
US–FDA for the treatment of migraine attacks. This combination has shown better efficacy in
treating migraine attacks over other anti–migraine

Clonus Research Paper
Acrocyanosis: Bluish discoloration of the hands and feet caused by reduced peripheral circulation.
This is normal in newborns right after birth and may last for a few hours after birth, This happens
because blood and oxygen aren't circulating properly to the hands and feet yet. The problem goes
away as the blood vessels in the baby extremities open up. Intervention is often not required but
some facilities will supplement oxygen for precautionary measures.
Clonus– are rapid alternating muscle contraction and relaxation that may occur when reflexes are
hyperactive. To assess for clonus, the woman's lower legs should be supported with one hand and
the foot well dorsiflexed to stretch the tendon with the other hand, hold the flexion then let go. If no
clonus is present, no movement will be felt or seen. When clonus is ... Show more content on
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Hyperreflexia is an indication of cerebral irritability. This should be reported to the physician
immediately since clonus may indicate an increased risk of convulsions. This is most seen on
Preeclampsia patients due to vasoconstriction of cerebral vessels ( see below).
Preeclampsia – is a result of generalized vasospasm. In normal pregnancy, vascular volume and
cardiac output increase significantly but blood pressure will remain normal because pregnant
women develop resistance to effects of vasoconstrictors such as angiotensin II. In preeclampsia,
peripheral vascular resistance increases because women are sensitive to angiotensin II and they may
also have a decrease in vasodilators. Vasospasms decreases the diameter of blood vessels, which
result in endothelial cell damage and decrease EDRF (endothelium–derived relaxing factor).
Vasoconstriction impeded blood flow and elevate blood pressure, and decreased circulation to
kidneys, liver, brain and placenta. Decreased blood flow to kidneys reduces

Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH)
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a progressive disorder, characterized by right heart
catheterization, as a mean arterial pressure >25mmHg at rest in the pulmonary arteries. If left
untreated, this can lead to right ventricular failure and ultimately death. PAH can be either idiopathic
or concomitant with several other conditions. Following considerable deliberation, the World Health
Organisation (WHO) has classified PAH into five major diagnostic categories (Table 1)(1).
Currently there are several pharmacological treatment options for PAH which include endothelial
receptor antagonists (ERA), calcium–channels blockers, prostanoids and phosphodiesterase type 5
inhibitors (PDE5). Nevertheless, novel therapies are still in development. ... Show more content on
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Transcription of ET–1 can be upregulated by various stimuli some of which include hypoxia, shear
stress and pH.
ET–1 receptors
ET–1 activates two subtypes of endothelin receptors (ETA and ETB receptors) which are guanine
nucleotide–binding proteins(4). The two receptors have different locations within the vasculature
and mediate different downstream pathways. As a result, ET–1 can have diverse effects on the
vasculature.
The vasoconstrictive effects of ET–1 are a result of predominately ETA and, to a lesser extent, ETB
receptors which are expressed on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Activation of these
receptors leads to IP3– mediated increases in intracellular calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum
stores(4). This rise in intracellular calcium, results in increased smooth muscle contraction and
subsequent vasoconstriction. Mitogenic effects of ET–1 can also be seen by activation of both
receptors which results in VSMC proliferation and thus contributes to

The Two Components Of Blood Pressure
1. The two constituents of blood pressure are systolic pressure and diastolic pressure; the highest
and lowest pressure readings during ventricular systole and diastole, respectively. Pulse pressure is
the difference between these two readings and represents the blood being pushed into the aorta from
the left ventricle. However, a blood pressure value can be given as an average pressure in the
arteries which forces the flow of blood from the heart. This value is the mean arterial pressure
(MAP). Cardiac output (CO) and Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) are the physiological
determinants of MAP. "CO is the volume of blood pumped by one ventricle in a given period of
time" (Silverthorn, 2007). It is determined by the heart rate (HR), which is the number of beats per
minute, and the stroke volume (SV), which is the volume of blood pumped by a ventricle during a
contraction. Venous return is the volume of blood with returns to the heart via the vena cava. With
reference to the Frank–Starling relationship, if CO increases, venous return should also increase,
however changes in vasoconstriction can affect the venous return, thus effecting MAP. According to
Poiseuille's Law, the radius of the arterioles directly impacts the resistance of blood flow to
peripheral circulation, which is termed TPR. Blood volume also impacts the MAP. A larger blood
volume will exert more pressure on the arterioles and therefore increase blood pressure.
Furthermore, the kidneys can filter the blood

Response Of The Human Cardiovascular System
The tilt study demonstrated the baroreflex response of the human cardiovascular system to changes
in posture. Expected decreases in BP, MAP, CO at 30 seconds post–tilt and immediate decreases in
SV and TPR as seen in Figures 2, 4, 6 and Table 1 were observed. These decreases were due to
increased pooling of blood in the lower limbs leading to lower venous return and subsequently
decreasing flow out of the heart. Furthermore, there was a reflexive response by the autonomic
nervous system in order to regain normal cardiovascular parameters mediated by the baroreceptors.
Going from supine to standing position induced changes in the hydrostatic pressure experienced by
the superior and inferior regions of the body. As tilt occurred blood began to pool in highly
distensible veins of the lower region. Because of this pooling phenomena there was an expected
reduction in venous return to the heart and subsequently a reduced CO (Fig. 5) as seen 30 seconds
post–tilt (Sherwood, 2013). This reduced CO exemplifies the Frank–Starling Law of the Heart
which states that reduced venous return will result in reduced CO by the heart (Sherwood, 2013).
The Frank–Starling Law can also explain lowered SV as seen in Figure 4. The only explanation to
why CO (a product of HR and SV) might have increased in this experiment immediately after tilt
was because HR (Fig. 1) significantly increased at the same time in comparison to the small
decrease in SV as seen in Figure 4. MAP and BP decreases were

Increased Altitude : Adverse Effects On The...
Increased Altitude: Adverse Effects on the Cardiopulmonary System
With regards to elevation, high altitude is defined as a height of 1,500–3,500 meters (4,900–11,500
ft.) but can differ by a 1,000 ft., depending on the defining source. The definition of elevation
continues with very high altitude, which is 3,500–5,500 meters (11,500–18,000 ft.) then continues to
extreme altitude of which is above 5,500 meters (18,000 ft.). Within healthy individuals, substantial
clinical changes are difficult to exhibit at elevations lower than 1,500 meters. But once the human
body reaches altitudes at or above high altitude, the adverse effects on the human body become
increasing pronounced and considerable. As altitude increases, the barometric pressure falls and the
environmental partial pressure of inspired oxygen declines. The reduction of inspired oxygen, in
combination with other environmental factors such as a decline in temperature, humidity, paired
with physical activity, the human body must be able to compensate for the adverse effects opposed
primarily on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. (Auerbach) (Donegani)
Physical alterations within the cardiopulmonary system begin to be substantial over an altitude of
2500 meters. However, the human body can use both short–term and long–term means to adapt to
high altitude, and even beyond, that will allow the body to partially compensate or even fully
compensate for the lack of inspired oxygen. But, there is also a limit to the

The Effects of Cold on Blood Pressure and Pulse
THE EFFECTS OF COLD ON BLOOD PRESSURE AND PULSE
Abstract
The ability known as thermoregulation is a feature of an organism that help to keep the body
temperature within certain thresholds, thus independently from external conditions. A dynamic state
of thermal balance of human body between its internal environment and the territory is a model
example of precise control of organism heat. In the case where such stability would be disturbed the
immediate response would appear as well. In accordance with the thermodynamic principles the
flow of the heat will occur without change of the state (Houdas and Ring, 1982). Moreover,
temperature coordination is closely related to the changes within the cardiovascular system as well.
To ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Data provided below was gained for each time point during the three minutes period. It should be
noted the experimental control, thus the first measurement of blood pressure and pulse rate was
taken at the beginning of the experiment at room temperature. Sequentially these readings were; for
systolic blood pressure (SBP) equal to 134mmHg, diastolic blood pressure (DBP) equal to 79mmHg
at the pulse rate equal to 91 per minute.
Moreover, to support the quality of the gathered results the experiment was repeated and an
additional data was placed in a table as well.
Column1
SBP
(mmHg)
DBP
(mmHg)
PULSE per min.
After 1st min.
After 2nd min.
After 3rd min.
Repeat

TIME
139
153
137
142
1
82
85
84
82
2
85
95
95
92
3
Table 1. A correlation of blood pressure and pulse measurements collected during the three minutes
period.
To help provide a better visual interpretation, a dependence of measured elements from the table
above would be presented in a form of graph as well. The curve illustrates an impact of low
temperature on circulatory system indicators such as blood pressure and pulse. To present a precise
difference between rates of each time point the control of the experiment was also applied on the
graph.
Graph 1. An illustration of interdependence between descending temperature on blood pressure and
pulse rate over time.

Discussion
Results

Osmosis: Why Should Our Fingers Prune?
Have you ever soaked in the tub or swimming pool for an extended amount of time and either your
fingers or toes, maybe both, began to feel smooth–like and wrinkly? For a long time, people
assumed that the reason our fingers prune was for no reason at all. Moreover, scientists started to
investigate and experiment on how and why our fingers prune when immersed in water. There has
been much laboratory tests that showed that wrinkly fingers improve our grip. Likewise, an analogy
scientist used to help get a better understanding that wrinkly fingers improve our grip was compared
to the rain trends in car tires to help channel away the water. The biology goes beyond how our skin
works and gives us answers on why our fingers prune after exposed ... Show more content on
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The epidermis is the outermost layer, which keeps water from evaporating off the body. It also
protects the inner layers from getting damaged, and locks in moisture. The most important layer for
this topic is the stratum corneum, which is the outer layer of our skin. We can also see and feel this
part of our skin. The stratum corneum is the layer with the dead keratin cells. When individuals are
in the pool or tub for a long period of time, the dead keratin cells absorb water. The absorption of the
dead keratin cells causes the surface area of the skin to swell. However, the outer layer is attached
tightly to the living cell. To reimburse for the increase surface area, this is how our skin wrinkles.
Some individuals have wondered why this happens only to our hands and feet and not the rest of our
body. It happens because hands and feet have the thickest layer of dead keratin cells according to the
Library of Congress (Nall, 1999). Since there is an increase in the thickness, the skin on our fingers
and toes can absorb more water, which happens to produce the effect. However, soaked skin without
protective oils that coat our skin are more open to damages and cuts. Basically, our hands and feet
are subject to a lot of wear and tear, meaning we use our hands and feet the most. Just think about it,
if the palm of our hands and feet had skin as thin as the skin on

Cerebral Vasoconstrictive Syndrome Case Study
Title: REVERSIBLE CEREBRAL VASOCONSTRICTION SYNDROME
Author: Kevin Davis, PA–C, Mayo Clinic Physician Assistant Fellowship, Hospital Internal
Medicine, Phoenix, AZ
Introduction: Thunderclap headache (TCH), defined as a severe headache with acute–onset, is a
well–known presentation of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) and other intracranial pathologies
involving the CNS.1 However, reversible cerebral vasoconstrictive syndrome (RCVS), defined by
recurrent headaches (often TCHs) with or without focal deficits, and segmental vasoconstriction of
the cerebral arteries, is a remarkably common yet under–recognized cause of TCH.1 While RCVS
generally follows a benign course, RCVS may precipitate catastrophic complications including SAH
and ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke in a minority of patients.2 This case aims to enhance the
recognition of this relatively common, and potentially life–threatening, cause of TCH. ... Show more
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The patient was initially evaluated at two outside hospitals with non–contrast head CT and CSF
analysis which remained grossly unremarkable. Following both evaluations, the patient was
discharged with oral analgesics. Following the third episode, the patient presented to our emergency
department where was admitted to the Hospital Neurology Service. Upon admission, vital signs and
laboratory studies were grossly unremarkable. MR angiography of the head revealed multiple foci of
segmental vasoconstriction of the anterior and posterior circulation suggestive of RCVS. The patient
was treated with oral calcium channel blockers and discharged home with a mild persistent

Essay On Dive Induced Apnea
Initially, nucleus tractus solitarius will respond to the temperature and pressure receptors first as
they are the primary stimulus, while the cerebral cortex relays reinforcing stimuli to ensure total
apnea is occurring during dive response, as a survival mechanismResponse to voluntary apnea and
dive induced apnea was significantly different, as according to the hypothesis. Overall, the body
produced the expected response to apnea, which includes bradycardia and vasoconstriction. Due to
the presences of temperature and pressure stimulus during the face immersion, the bodies response
to dive induced apnea was intensified (figure 1). Changes in the cardiac output (CO) were
contributed by changes in heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV) (CO ... Show more content on
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This is a physiological response to apnea and an increase in parasympathetic activity in the heart.
Due to the presence of cold water stimuli, sympathetic activity to muscles is increased causing total
peripheral resistance to increase (figure 1C). Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is controlled by TPR and
CO (MAP=TPR x CO), overall, increase in TPR causes an increase in MAP. The two face
immersion groups had non–statistically different response to apnea and dive. In the Air manoeuver,
there was only a statistically significant decreases in CO and HR (bradycardia) (figure 1B & figure
1D). Elucidating the different physiologically response to voluntary apnea to apnea experienced
during dive response.
Individuals can train themselves to hold their breath longer while diving, depending on the
population people who are professionals or trained divers will show a slightly different response to
those individual who are not trained. Furthermore, another limitation could be how the participate
choose to hold their breath in air, by either using a clip, figures or free style, while a Valsalva
manoeuvre was meant to be avoided. These three different style while show

Vasoconstriction Of Blood Pressure Essay
These factors mentioned above are part of many limitations that could and could not have been
avoided once conducting the experiment for instance:
– The baroreceptors of the skin which involves moment–to–moment changes of arterial pressure
resulting in the machine not being able to cope with the many fluctuations of blood pressure and is
why the average percentage change is needed to see trends. (Ty Lee, 2017)
The way to get rid of these possible outliers a result of the vasodilation and vasoconstriction of
vessels is to create double–blind method experiment.
– Other limitations include the equipment, smal sample sizes and time with patients was a result of it
being an undergraduate university conducted and supervised study.
– Because it was within a practical class all of the students being university students and not
volunteers are more like to have been doing activities such as studying while some might have been
doing activities such as sport or running before the practical and this is another limitation to
furtherly jeopardise the integrity ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore a recommended isolated room would be preferred to help reduce this environmental
influence. An agreement could also be made between all the group members if the resources are
restricted to relegate the noise level in order to increase the validity of the results collected.
– The equipment provided by the university such as blood pressure monitor is subject to error both
human and mechanical. This is because an error did show up many times once taking the blood
pressure subsequently the timing of collecting blood pressure was out and not as predicted.
This limitation can be resolved by replacing the blood pressure machines with newer ones or
calibrating it constantly to check if the measuring is impaired in any

Prevalence of Masked Hypertenstion in Type 2 Diabetic...
The main finding of this study is that the serum ADMA levels were significantly increased in MHT
patients with DM compared to normotensive diabetic subjects. ADMA levels, BMI, and low HDL
levels were independent predictors of MHT in patients with DM.
ADMA levels positively correlated with ABPM measurements, especially daytime measurements,
but were not related to office BP measurements. ADMA levels may play a role in prediction, with a
good sensitivity and negative predictive value but poor specificity and positive predictive value. To
the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the relationship between ADMA and
MHT in the current literature.
Ng et al. studied in a total of 133 DM patients, 18% of whom had
MHT. It was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In another elegant human trial, Achan et al. demonstrated that ADMA infusion increases systemic
vascular resistance by 24%, and mean arterial BP by 6% in healthy subjects and that a bolus dose of
ADMA decreases cardiac output by 15%
[18]. In a second part of that study, it was shown that a handgrip maneuver increased cardiac output
in control subjects by 96%, but in subjects given ADMA, cardiac output increased by only 35%.
ADMA concentration 30 min after the infusion was 2.6 mol/L, however, the baseline value was not
provided. In addition, several studies have shown that serum ADMA levels are increased in essential
hypertension about two fold and are related to impaired endothelial function [5,16]. Perticone and
colleagues found that
ADMA in essential hypertensive subjects was strongly and inversely associated with the peak
increase in forearm blood flow
[5]. These studies demonstrated that ADMA plays an important role in the regulation of vascular
tone. It is known that ADMA levels are increased among type 2 DM patients [19]. On the contrary,
in a small study, Paiva et al. reported decreased ADMA level in diabetics due to renal hyperfiltration
[20]. It seems that the prognostic value of ADMA is more important in patients with DM [21].
Krzyzanowska et al. reported that ADMA predicted cardiovascular events and enhanced the
predictive role of CRP in patients with type 2 diabetes.
In

The Importance Of Blood Flow In The Circulatory System
The circulatory system is an important organ system that circulates blood throughout the body in an
effort to transport nutrients and maintain homeostasis. In mammals, the heart is a vital part of the
circulatory system that pumps blood through blood vessels around the body. Blood circulation
through the heart begins with deoxygenated blood entering the right atrium at low pressure from the
body. The deoxygenated blood is then pumped to the right ventricle through the atrioventricular
valve. From there, the blood is pumped out of the right ventricle at high pressure to the lungs
through the semilunar valve. In the lungs, gas exchange occurs where carbon dioxide is released to
the alveoli and oxygen is absorbed by the blood. The oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs, enters
the left atrium at low pressure, and is pumped to the left ventricle where it is pumped back out to the
rest of the body at high pressure. Blood flow in the circulatory system is very important and is
assessed by examining blood pressure. Blood pressure is the force of the blood pushing against the
walls of the arteries every time the heart pumps blood. There are two types of blood pressure:
systolic and diastolic. As the heart beats, blood forced through the arteries cause a rise in pressure,
called systolic pressure (Department of Integrative Biology, 2017). Following this rise in pressure, a
decrease in pressure as the ventricles relax and prepare for another beat is called the diastolic
pressure

Periodontal Disease Research Papers
Tobacco smoking causes many interactions within the oral cavity that leads to periodontal disease,
such as diminishing the supportive functions of periodontal tissues causing deeper pockets and more
clinical attachment loss, immunologic reactions, and vascular impairment that hinders healing
processes, and systemic diseases that generates further progression of periodontitis; therefore, with
tobacco cessation the disease can be reversible or maintained. Periodontal disease is a leading factor
among patients who smoke tobacco. Evidence proposes that more than half of patient cases
diagnosed with chronic periodontitis in the United States are attributed to tobacco smoking.
Research indicates that patients who smoke are four to six times greater ... Show more content on
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First, one should have the understanding that the habit of tobacco smoking is the underlying cause
of periodontal disease. Once the patient has an understanding of the cause it is highly important for
the clinician to continue with a treatment plan designed specifically for the patient and their needs.
Periodontally involved patients that smoke and undergo tobacco cessation have clinically and
systemically seen improvements in healing. Research has shown that through tobacco cessation
gingival bleeding improved which is an indication of the production and recovery of the immune

How Does Nicotine Affect Fetus
Pathophysiology: Tobacco smoke contains 1000 different compounds including carbon monoxide,
hydrogen cyanide, carcinogens. The two main compounds that cause harmful effects on a
developing fetus is nicotine and carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide has a higher affinity than
oxygen for hemoglobin. Which when Carbon monoxide and hemoglobin combine they form boxy
hemoglobin which is unable to carry oxygen, which leads to decreased oxygen delivery to the fetus
and fetal hypoxia. Nicotine has cardiovascular and central nervous system effects. Nicotine is
known to cross the placental barrier causing levels in the amniotic fluid and fetus 15% higher than
the mother. The effects of cigarettes can remain with the fetus the rest of their lives. Ranging from

High Altitude Is Defined As An Elevation Of 1500-3500 Metres
With regards to elevation, high altitude is defined as an elevation of 1,500–3,500 meters (4,900–
11,500 ft.) but can differ by a 1,000 ft., depending on the defining source. The definition of elevation
continues with very high altitude, which is 3,500–5,500 meters (11,500–18,000 ft.) then continues to
extreme altitude of which is above 5,500 meters (18,000 ft.). Within healthy individuals, substantial
clinical changes are difficult to exhibit at elevations lower than 1,500 meters. But once the human
body reaches altitudes at or above high altitude, the adverse effects on the human body become
increasing pronounced and considerable. As altitude increases, the barometric pressure falls and the
environmental partial pressure of inspired oxygen decreases. The reduction of inspired oxygen, in
combination with other environmental factors such as a decline in temperature, humidity, paired
with physical activity, the human body must be able to compensate for the adverse effects opposed
primarily on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
Physical alterations within the cardiopulmonary system begin to be substantial over an altitude of
2500 meters. However, the human body can use both short–term and long–term means to adapt to
high altitude, and even beyond that will allow the body to partially compensate or even fully
compensate for the lack of oxygen. But, there is also a limit to the level of adaptation and
compensation that can take place. Once an altitude of or above 8,000

Hemophilia Case Study
. This factor VIII is also associated with hemophilia. It is the factor that is either damaged or
missing12. Factor Vlll can be in two states: active and inactive. When it is in its inactive state, it will
bind to VWF in the blood. If this factor does not bind VWF while it is in circulation, it will degrade.
After VWF is made, it can follow a number of pathways. It can either be released into the plasma,
released into the subendothelium or it can also be stored in organelles in the cytoplasm. If VWF is
stored, it can be released when it is needed depending on the physiological status of the
individual10. When VWF is exposed to an injury in the blood vessel in the endothelium, the platelet
receptors will be activated. This activation, will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the main fibrinolysis enzymes is plasmin, this is an enzyme that comes from plasminogen,
the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin will incorporate 2 serine proteases. These serine proteases
are tPA and uPA. The enzyme tPA, is made and released from the endothelial cells, while uPA is
made by monocytes and macrophages. Two enzymes also differ in the fact that uPA has a lower
affinity for plasminogen compared to tPA. This process will stop and inhibit the buildup of fibrin, it
also allows the thrombus to be removed. The activation of plasminogen will form plasmin and this
will degrade the thrombus. Plasmin will terminate the clotting process. During this process, fibrin
degradation products (FDPs) will begin to form. These FDPs will include fibrinopeptide B and other
fibrin degradation dimers. These products will be released and will degrade the fibrin18. This
process will remove the

Vasoconstriction Research Paper
Humans help maintain their body temperature by wearing clothes. When someone is surrounded by
something that is cooler than their body temperature, like air, or water, the body will lose heat.
Although clothing and shelter helps people stay warm, our body has adapted vasoconstriction as a
way to keep critical organs warm. Vasoconstriction is the tightening of blood vessels.
Vasoconstriction causes the blood flow to reduce which conserves body heat. However,
vasoconstriction can also lead to numbness, loss of hands, fingers and etc. The human body also
uses shivering to maintain body temperature. For example, shivering increases internal heat
production by causing the muscles to contract and relax rapidly.
Heat loss from the body primarily ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Frostnip occurs when water on the skins surface freezes. When recognizing frostnip some signs and
symptoms you should look for are: if the skin appears red and swollen, area is still painful and
repeated frostnip in the same area. When caring for frostnip you should gently warm the affected
area. You can do this by placing it against a warm body part. However, do not rub the affected area.
Frostbite is when the skins tissue becomes damage. This only happens in below–freezing
temperatures. When recognizing a superficial frostbite, the skin should be white or grayish yellow,
the affect part should be cold and numb and the skin surface will feel stiff. When recognizing a deep
frostbite, the affect part should feel very hard, blisters might appear, or if the affected pain stops
hurting. When caring for a frostbite victim, first get the victim out of the cold and into a warm place.
Next, remove any wet clothing and seek medical attention. After, if the affect part is partially
thawed, place the affected area in warm water. After thawing: treat the victim as a stretcher case is
the feet is affected. Also, protect the area from contact. Furthermore, place a dry, sterile gauze
between the toes and the fingers to absorb moisture. Then, slightly elevate the affected area. If
advised by a physician, apply aloe vera gel, this will help the skin heal. Lastly, give the victim an
aspirin, this will help limit the pain and

Nursing Case Study Essay
Burns
B. Smith
Mr. Smith is a 68 year old, white, male brought into the ED with severe third degree burns from
home fire. Both of his arms show evidence of third degree burns. His chest shows evidence of
second degree burns. This accounts for 36% of his body. Mr. Smith is alert, awake, and oriented. He
is not experiencing much pain on arms due to damaged nerve endings, but his chest pain is
moderate.
Demographic
59% Caucasian, 20% African–American, 14% Hispanic, 7% Other (American Burn Association
report, 2013)
Majority of incidents occur in the home (ABA report, 2013)
Elderly and young children are at the greatest risk of mortality (Sole, 2013)
History of Present Illness
Patient is diagnosed with hypertension and COPD. He is more ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(2013). Introduction to critical care nursing (6th ed). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Lewis, S.L., Dirksen, S.R., Heitkemper, M.M., Bucher, L., Camera, I.M. (2011). Medical–surgical
nursing: Assessment and management of clinical problems (8th ed). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Collaborative Management
The nurse oversees and manages the patients complete care from start to finish. However in order
for the treatment to be effective, coordination with other members of the health care team is
essential. These members include:
Occupational/Physical Therapist – Burn patients have to go thru exercise (passive/active ROM),
positioning, ambulation, ADL's
Psychologist – Burn Patients have to adjust to physical pain and potential disfigurement so a psych
evaluation may be necessary
Nutritionist – Burn patients need protein as that facilitated healing.
Pharmacist – Burn patients experience pain during dressing changes, debridement, surgical

interventions & physical and occupational therapy. Pain management is essential . Also burn
patients need to prevent infection so its up to the Pharmacist to coordinate these meds to have the
best outcome for the patient.
Therapeutic Modalities
Cold

Circulatory Shock
Circulatory shock is a syndrome of widespread cellular hypoxia, triggered by a systemic alteration
of perfusion and delivery and/or utilization of tissue oxygen, eventually causing end–organ
dysfunction and death [53]. It can be subdivided into 4 distinct categories according to its primary
pathophysiological mechanism, namely cardiogenic, hypovolemic, obstructive and distributive [54].
In the first 3 types, perfusion has changed as a consequence of the cardiac output decrease, whereas
distributive types of shock are related to a primary dysfunction of the resistive component of the
cardiovascular system. In vasoplegia, vascular tone is reduced and there is a noticeably depressed
constrictive response of arterioles to vasoconstrictors, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Various contributing mechanisms have been identified, including the negative inotropic effects of
different circulating factors, especially cytokines (TNFα, IL–1β and IL–6), lysozyme c and
endothelin–1, disturbances of intracellular calcium trafficking within cardiac myocytes, alterations
of myocardial microvascular blood flow, mitochondrial abnormalities and autonomic dysfunction
[71–73]. There are various effects which may be responsible for the toxic actions of peroxynitrite on
the heart, including myocardial cell death, either by caspase–3–dependent apoptosis [74], or PARP
mediated necrosis [75]. A direct correlation linking the degree of myocardial PARP activation and
the severity of cardiac functional alterations has been established in humans with septic shock [76].
Myocardial contractility can also be impaired by peroxynitrite due to disturbance in regulatory
mechanism of intracellular calcium through the inactivation of SERCA2A [77], by altering different
myofibrillar proteins including actin, myosin [78] and alpha–actinin [79], by interrupting
myofibrillar energetics through inactivation of the myofibrillar isoform of creatine kinase [80] and
by activating matrix metalloproteinases [81], which promotes contractile failure by cleaving key
sarcomeric proteins including troponin and myosin light chain

Pulmonary Hypertension
Pulmonary hypertension or (PH) is a rare disease that causes high arterial blood pressure in the
lungs due to the blockage, narrowing, or destruction of arteries. High blood pressure in the
pulmonary arteries can strain the right ventricle, causing it to overwork, and can eventually lead to
right heart failure and even death. There are two types of pulmonary hypertension, primary and
secondary. Primary pulmonary hypertension is known as idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension
or (IPAH). IPAH currently has no known cause and mainly affects women in their childbearing
years. Secondary pulmonary hypertension is typically caused by various diseases and commonly
found in older individuals. For this experiment it was hypothesized that protein ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Further research into the Protein Kinase C and its association with voltage–activated potassium
channels (BKCa) in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMC) will hopefully proved a clear
answer as to why idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) occurs, its mechanism, and the
synthesis of a new medication in the future that could manipulate the mechanism to reverse

Taz Drug Case Studies
Surprisingly, Chaz has little to no systemic risk factors. Answering yes to only two medical
conditions on his health history, high blood pressure and thyroid disease, he is taking two
medications to combat these diseases. The first medication is Micardis. This is an angiotensin
receptor blocker (ARB) used to treat hypertension. ARBs work by preventing the hormone,
Angiotensin II, from having an effect on our body. When Angiotensin II is released into the blood
stream it causes vasoconstriction and water retention, in turn raising blood pressure; if we prevent
the effects of Angiotensin II the result will be vasodilation and less water retention, leading to a
lower blood pressure. (Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) – blood pressure medication, ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ammonia inhalants are located in every other unit, taped to the top of the storage cabinet. The
patient should then be brought to a sitting position, vital signs should be recorded, and an
assessment from the dentist should be conducted prior to dismissal. Contradicting Lexi–Comp,
Little & Falace recommends that any patient suffering from hypertension should receive the cardiac
MRD for epinephrine (Little., Miller., & Falace., 2013). When epinephrine is introduced into the
body it causes a fast influx of vasoconstriction increasing heart rate, and force of ventricular
contraction, resulting in an increased workload for the heart, ultimately raising blood pressure
(Davis, 2010). Chaz did not require local anesthesia, so this did not influence his treatment plan. The
second medication the patient is taking, Synthroid, did not require modification to the treatment plan
either. According to Lexi–Comp Online, Synthroid is a hormone used to treat hypothyroidism, and
has no affects regarding local anesthesia, dental treatment, or bleeding (Synthroid, 2017).
Hypothyroidism results when the body does not produce enough thyroid stimulating hormones
(TSH) causing a decrease in metabolism and body

Actions of Drugs
Actions of drugs on cardiovascular preparations
Introducion
The experiment outlined in this report was carried out with the intention to observe and explore the
effects of certain named drugs on a vascular preparation, in the cardiac region specifically. The
cardiovascular preparation used in this experiment was an isolation of the descending aorta of a rat.
This isolate is particularly useful as it mirrors the responses that would be observed in a human
sample, thus this experiment will give rise to conclusions applicable to humans. The drugs which
will be tested are as follows: acetylcholine, adrenaline, 5–hydroxytryptamine, isoprenaline,
noradrenaline and sodium nitroprusside. As the preparation, inherently was not in a live ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the added drug would be diluted in the organ bath it was important to calculate doses with that in
mind. Accordingly all calculations were made with the view of the end result, the final bath
concentration (FBC). To achieve the correct final bath concentration it was assumed that the organ
bath had a 25ml volume and then the corresponding quantity and concentration of drug was added.
As an example, 0.25 ml of 10μmol/l concentration of drug X was added to ~24.75ml of Krebs'
solution to achieve a 1 in 100 dilution resulting in a final bath concentration of 0.1μmol/l.
Hence, the experimental procedure was executed as detailed here. A syringe fitted with a
hypodermic needle was used to infuse the drug into the organ bath away from the tissue sample. To
help maintain fair testing conditions it was done such that throughout the experiment the drug was
injected at the same speed at the same location. Prior to injecting, the syringe was checked for
bubbles of air accidentally acquired during uptake of the drug, as this would cause alterations in
volume of drug and thus alterations in FBC. Time at which the drug was added was recorded using
the Biopac software. Subsequently, two minutes was allowed for the interactions and binding of the
drug to occur, in which time the live recordings were monitored for changes. Once sufficient time
was allowed to see a significant change in

Von Willebrand Disease ( Vwd )
Von Willebrand disease (VWD) is a genetic disorder that will occur when an individual has limiting
amounts of the von Willebrand factor (VWF) or they have abnormal forms of it. This disease can
also be associated with having low plasma levels. It is one of the world's most common bleeding
disorders. It is so common, that it can be found all over the world, it is known to affect 1% of the
world's population. VWD is also a very unique disorder because it can affect various animal species
like dogs and pigs. is known as one of the most common bleeding disorders. It is known to affect
1can also be found in various animal species, like dogs and pigs. This is a silent disease because
many people don't even know they have it. But, when someone who is suffering from VWD starts
bleeding, they will undergo severe bleeding. Just because an individual might not present with
symptoms, doesn't mean they won't suffer from the severe bleeding consequences. This lack of
knowledge is due to the fact that the symptoms of VMD are so mild. This factor can either be
missing or it can just be defective. VWF is known as a clotting protein
(https://www.hemophilia.org/Bleeding–Disorders/Types–of–Bleeding–Disorders/Von–Willebrand–
Disease). The Finnish doctor, Erik von Willebrand was the man who found this disease. He
discovered this disease by observing families in the Aland Islands. When observing this families, he
was able to describe this disease, but he wasn't able to distinguish it from a

Skin Wrinkling Lab
2. Skin Wrinkling
Skin wrinkling is a natural evolution of the skin and it can be observed in the non–hairy (glabrous)
parts of the hands and feet during water immersion. These wrinkles are temporary and vanish after
the skin is dry, unlike the permanent wrinkles on other parts of the skin caused by aging or sunburn.
2.1 Physiology
There are hypotheses made about the physiology of water–immersed wrinkling considering it an
osmotic swelling of the stratum corneum, increased deep tissue turgor, and contraction of
myoepithelial cells in the absence of sebaceous glands in glabrous skin [1]. Tsai et al. [19] after an
experiment conducted on fourteen healthy participants in four different water solutions, believed
that the skin wrinkling is caused ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[9] showed the importance of heart rate variability in detecting water–induced skin wrinkling in an
experiment involving young and healthy subjects. Heart rate variability influences the sinus node
making a directly connection with the autonomic nervous system. Short–term heart rate variability is
used commonly as a marker for autonomic function and the study showed that subjects with higher
heart rate variability also presented high water–induced skin wrinkling. The study showed that skin
wrinkling can also be affected by the height of the subject due to the possible reflexion of the
surface are of the fingertip, allowing the water to diffuse faster. In addition to this study, Kamran et
al. [17] studied the effects on the skin wrinkling for 60 patients with congestive heart failure. Results
showed that the degree of skin wrinkling is reduced in patients with congestive heart failure but also
affected by age and height and not by gender or weight.
2.3 Evoke and Evaluation
Because of this connection with vasoconstriction, water–immersed wrinkling was proposed, by
other studies also, as a bedside test for sympathetic nerve function [1, 4–8, 59]. The fact that water–
induced skin wrinkling is cheap and simple, makes it more easy for scientists to use. However, the
test requires a 30–minute water

Taking a Look at Migraines
Migraines affect nearly 28 million people or 12% of the population in the United States. Migraines
are typified by moderate to severe head pain. The head pain is often accompanied by one or more of
the following; nausea, photophobia, phonophobia or vomiting. Migraines are considered a chronic
neurological disorder. The incidence of migraine related nausea (MRN) is very high among
migraneurs. Roughly 90% of patients experience MRN at one time or another. Roughly 50% of
patients report experiencing MRN with high frequency (greater than half the time). MRN can hinder
the efficacy of currently available migraine drugs in a number of ways. Many patients who
experience MRN will delay or avoid taking oral or nasal migraine medication as it can further
irritate their stomach. The GI upset associated with migraines can also affect absorption and thus
limit systemic exposure to the drug. Researchers have been working diligently to find a solution to
this problem. Sumatriptan is one of the most commonly prescribed treatments for migraines. It was
approved by the FDA in 1990. Sumatriptan is a selective 5–hydroxytryptamine (5–HT1) receptor
agonist. 5–HT1B receptors are primarily located in the cerebral and dural vessels of the cranial
vasculature. These receptors mediate vasoconstriction of the cephalic arteries. 5–HT1D receptors are
located primarily in nervous tissue. This form of 5–HT1 receptors are presynaptic autoreceptors.
They work by inhibiting neurogenic

The Mammalian Reving Reflection Of The Blood Pressure
Conclusion
The mammalian dive response causes the blood pressure to increase, heart rate to decrease, and
oxygen intake to increase in individuals after they have been submerged in cold water. In this study,
after water hit the trigeminal nerve behind the nose, the diving reflex caused peripheral
vasoconstriction and bradycardia to occur in the subjects. The vasoconstriction caused the blood
pressure to increase as the body attempted to concentrate more blood around heart, lungs and brain.
The bradycardia was a result of the body attempting to conserve oxygen by (Pantennon,2013).–––––
expand bradycardia This response allows mammals to stay underwater longer, and it helps to extend
that organisms life span by overriding other reflexes such as taking an immediate breath when
suddenly exposed to water. If a mammal lacks the diving response, then it I smore likely that they
may drown because of their body not being able to properly respond to the lack of oxygen.
The reactions observed could have also been the result of either the body preparing for hypothermia
or simply responding to the cold– water shock. Cold water shock is the body's response to being
suddenly exposed to cold–water. Cold water shock also causes vasoconstriction by causing the
blood vessels in the skin to close; both increase the resistance of blood flow which increases blood
pressure. However, cold–water shock causes the heart rate to increase, not decrease, as the
mammalian dive response does. The sudden

Cor Pulmonale Research Paper
Cor pulmonale is a condition associated with diseases of the lung (e.g., COPD, fibrosis, etc.), where
either the altered structure or the malfunction of the right ventricle arises from pulmonary
hypertension. In COPD patients, hypoxic vasoconstriction results in increased pulmonary artery
pressure, which causes hypertrophy of the right ventricle and lowers cardiac output. Overall, cor
pulmonale is a chronic condition with a slow onset, despite acute presentations of the condition due
to a failure of the right heart to adapt to an increase in pulmonary arterial pressure due to a
pulmonary embolism. The clinical manifestations of cor pulmonale typically include dyspnea on
excretion, anorexia, exertional angina and syncope, and fatigue. Treatment ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Digitalis also decreases the sympathetic response by lowering circulating norepinephrine, which is a
strong predictive of mortality in heart disease. Evaluating the effects of digitalis in patients with cor
pulmonale is difficult because the respiratory component of their disease primarily controls the
outcome. However, Digitalis has been found to be effective in specific subpopulations of cor

Stroke Rate Lab Report
1. Preload is the amount of stretch of cardiac muscle cells prior to contraction. It is controlled by the
amount of venous return to the heart. The more venous return, the more the cardiac muscle cells are
stretched, which causes a stronger contraction during systole, and this increases the stroke volume.
Contractility is the strength of a ventricular muscle contraction. An increase in contractility results in
an increase in stroke volume because more blood is ejected from the heart. Afterload is the
resistance that the left ventricle must overcome before it can eject blood. An increase in afterload
causes a decrease in stroke volume because less of the blood in the ventricle would be ejected.
2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates the kidneys

Essential Hypertension Case Studies
Hypertension
Case study
A forty–nine–year–old patient with a health history of essential hypertension reports spells of
dyspnea upon moderate exertion, and epistaxis accompanied by vertigo and blurred vision. The
patient also reports cessation of prescribed antihypertensive medication the previous year. Upon
examination, the patient's blood pressure (BP) is 180/110, and during thoracic cavity auscultation
rales are noted. The doctor then orders tests and directs the patient to resume taking the previously
prescribed antihypertensive medication.
The patient's problems.
In the previous year, the patient felt normal with no signs of the diagnosed essential hypertension
(high blood pressure with an unknown cause) (1). Feeling better, the patient went against the
doctor's advice and stopped taking the prescribed antihypertensive medication. Once the medication
was stopped the patient's blood pressure started to elevate again resulting in fatigue, and labored
breathing. The patient dismissed these signs, writing it off ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Over time the scarring causes vasoconstriction (narrowing) (2). The vasoconstriction allows less
blood through the vessels causing edema (pooling of fluid) of the optic disk (2). The edema changes
the shape of the optic disk, which disrupts the ability of the eye to intake and refract light resulting
in the patient's blurred vison (2). The hypertension puts extra force on the left ventricle causing it to
lose strength (3). The weakened ventricle muscle prevents the left ventricle from completely
evacuating (3). This leaves excess fluid in the left ventricle and resulting in less blood getting
distributed throughout the body (3). The rales noted during the patents auscultation is likely cause
by the pulmonary congestion associated with left–side congestive heart failure (CHF)

Bradycardia Lab
Lab Objective
The purpose of this lab is to see how different temperatures influence the diving reflex which
involves three factors: bradycardia, peripheral vasoconstriction, and blood shift. Effect on heart rate
will be determined in this experiment.
Hypothesis It is expected that immediate submersion in cold water will result in bradycardia because
of the decrease in cardiac output that occurs. In order to maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate
must decrease. Reducing the heart rate and cardiac output allows for greater conservation of oxygen.
Background and Introduction The diving reflex is a method found in animals and all mammals to
manage oxygen levels allowing them to spend time underwater longer. Conservation of oxygen is
important ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is an effect of the diving reflex resulting in bradycardia. The data also showed that the colder
the water, the greater the reduction in heart rate. For both subjects, the average heart rate for the first
three conditions (resting, apnea, and 25C° or room temperature water) were fairly the same for each
subject. This is because their bodies had not triggered the diving reflex yet. Activation of the diving
reflex must be done quickly and in very cold water. Both subjects showed similar results in that the
heart rate continued decreasing as their faces were submerged in colder water. Although the heart
rates differ between the two subjects, this is not a significant difference and is due to the subject's
own physiological system. Both data from each subjects were consistent with each other. This
experiment demonstrate that temperature does have an influence on the diving reflex since the heart
rate was lower in the 5C° temperature than the 15C° or

Ch 19 Cardiovascular Syste Essay
Chapter 19
The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels:
Part A
Blood Vessels
Delivery system of dynamic structures that begins and ends at heart
Arteries: carry blood away from heart; oxygenated except for pulmonary circulation and umbilical
vessels of fetus
Capillaries: contact tissue cells; directly serve cellular needs
Veins: carry blood toward heart
Structure of Blood Vessel Walls
Lumen
Central blood–containing space
Three wall layers in arteries and veins
Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa
Capillaries
Endothelium with sparse basal lamina
Tunics
Tunica intima

Endothelium lines lumen of all ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
tinuous with thoroughfare channel (intermediate between capillary and venule)
Thoroughfare channel ( postcapillary venule that drains bed
Capillary Beds: Two Types of Vessels
Vascular shunt (metarteriole–thoroughfare channel)
Directly connects terminal arteriole and postcapillary venule
True capillaries
10 to 100 exchange vessels per capillary bed
Branch off metarteriole or terminal arteriole
Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds
True capillaries normally branch from metarteriole and return to thoroughfare channel
Precapillary sphincters regulate blood flow into true capillaries
Blood may go into true capillaries or to shunt
Regulated by local chemical conditions and vasomotor nerves
Venous System: Venules
Formed when capillary beds unite
Smallest postcapillary venules
Very porous; allow fluids and WBCs into tissues
Consist of endothelium and a few pericytes
Larger venules have one or two layers of smooth muscle cells
Veins
Formed when venules converge
Have thinner walls, larger lumens compared with corresponding arteries
Blood pressure lower than in arteries

Thin tunica media; thick tunica externa of collagen fibers and elastic networks
Called capacitance vessels (blood reservoirs); contain up to 65% of blood supply
Veins
Adaptations ensure return of blood to heart

Thermoregulation Mechanism in the Human Body
Previous studies have not considered the temperature control mechanisms of human body when a
conflicting information is received from peripheral and central thermoreceptors. Our experiment
was designed to investigate how the thermoregulation mechanism was activated when there was a
passive heating to the human body and to find out how the body would react to the situation when
the human was experiencing the heating and cooling simultaneously. Our first hypothesis was
accepted, where the body regulated cutaneous vasodilation to enhance heat loss through sweat
evaporation and all the respiratory parameters were increased in order to supply the higher demand
of oxygen. However, the second hypothesis was rejected, as the peripheral control had more
influence than central control when the body received increased temperature to the leg and
decreased temperature at the same time. Heating period The results have clearly demonstrated that
during the heating period, there was a decrease in skin resistance and total peripheral resistance
(TPR) alongside an increase in heart rate (HR), cardiac output (CO) and peripheral skin temperature,
as compared to the relatively stable core and oral temperature, shown in figures 6, 7, 9 and 12. The
metabolic rate and respiratory parameters (Respiratory rate, oxygen consumption, tidal volume and
minute ventilation) were also increased as seen in figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. A significant decrease in
respiratory rate and minute ventilation at 30 min of

Heart Rate Anticipatory Response
Heart rate anticipatory response – this is where the heart rate starts to automatically increase before
you start to exercise. The heart rate is able to increase automatically by chemical hormones, the
hormones are adrenaline and noradrenaline. These hormones are found inside the brain. The reason
the heart rate increase before exercise is because it prepares the muscles for exercise, the reason it
prepares the muscles for exercise is because by the heart rate increase the more oxygen is getting to
the muscles there fore they will not be needing a such a large oxygen supply all at once. It doesn't
only supply oxygen it supply's nutrients, the supply of nutrients also provides energy and helps to
repair the muscles after exercise. By the heart rate starting to increase gives the heart a head to start
pumping hard this enables the heart to not have as much stress on it.
Activity response– activity response is when your brain can start to sense cardiovascular activity.
The brain is able to make changes in the heart rate, the change includes heart rate increase and the
strength of the heart pumping blood around the body. The red blood cells can also be altered to if
they need more oxygen or less oxygen depending on how intense ... Show more content on
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Vasoconstriction is when the working muscles are not getting the oxygen they need because the
veins and vessels are stopping the blood flow. In this process of vasoconstriction the diameter of the
vessels get smaller therefore the blood that is able to flow out of the blood vessels gets decreased.
Blood vessels constrict together instead of being relaxed. This happens during exercise because
that's when the working muscles need oxygen. The other muscles don't need as much oxygen there
for when the blood gets there it gets redirected to the other muscles that are working and that require
more oxygen. Therefore when exercising the legs the stomach wouldn't get as much blood to use as
the legs

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