Personality Theories Genetic, social, and individual factors combine to create the total personality; if we are to understand the human condition, we need to think about this complex entity. People have been wondering about themselves for thousands of years, and their ideas have been many and varied. Among modern theories, the ones that are have traditionally been most generally accepted and widely used as a basis for human service practice are the psychoanalytic theory, the learning theory, and the humanistic holistic theories. More recently, feminist theories are being more commonly used as well. Each has influenced and been influenced by the others, and all are influencing those now engaged in ongoing thinking about this age-old enigma—the human being. Current practice models reflect these basic theories. Workers need to be knowledgeable about them and able to evaluate and make use of their constructs. Work with people will reflect the worker’s conception of the nature of the personality, how it develops, and the impact of outside forces—individuals and groups—on that development. Out of such theories come processes for enabling desired change to take place. Workers use their concepts in understanding themselves as well as others and in working with others, again as individuals, in groups, or in larger societies. Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud (Table 3.2), the “father of psychoanalysis,” was one of the giants who, in words supposedly first used to describe Charles Darwin, “saw what all men saw and thought what no man thought.” Although Freud is now criticized for being too much of a determinist in his belief that all behavior is caused by instinctual drives of sex and aggression, for his sexist attitudes, and for using unscientific methods of gathering data, his impact on the development of personality theories has been tremendous. His terminology—namely conscious, unconscious, id, superego, ego, defense mechanisms—are all part of modern language and are defined as follows (Walrond-Skinner, 1986): Conscious The part of the psyche that is open to immediate awareness. Unconscious hat region of the mind that remains unavailable to a person until it emerges into consciousness through events such as dreams and free associations. Id he major portion of the unconscious; strives only to bring about the satisfaction of a person’s instinctual needs. Ego A part of the personality whose task is to mediate the conflicting demands of the superego, the id, and external reality. he ego has a range of functions including observation, reality testing, rational thought, and perception. Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process (Page 48). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition. Table 3.2 Highlights of Psychoanalytic Theory and Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) •Theory is based on the understanding that one’s mental life is made up of both the conscious and the unconscious • Belief in a threefold (id, ego, superego) mental ap.

1. Personality Theories
Genetic, social, and individual factors combine to create the
total personality; if we are to understand the human condition,
we need to think about this complex entity. People have been
wondering about themselves for thousands of years, and their
ideas have been many and varied. Among modern theories, the
ones that are have traditionally been most generally accepted
and widely used as a basis for human service practice are the
psychoanalytic theory, the learning theory, and the humanistic
holistic theories. More recently, feminist theories are being
more commonly used as well. Each has influenced and been
influenced by the others, and all are influencing those now
engaged in ongoing thinking about this age-old enigma—the
human being. Current practice models reflect these basic
theories. Workers need to be knowledgeable about them and
able to evaluate and make use of their constructs. Work with
people will reflect the worker’s conception of the nature of the
personality, how it develops, and the impact of outside forces—
individuals and groups—on that development. Out of such
theories come processes for enabling desired change to take
place. Workers use their concepts in understanding themselves
as well as others and in working with others, again as
individuals, in groups, or in larger societies.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (Table 3.2), the “father of psychoanalysis,” was
one of the giants who, in words supposedly first used to
describe Charles Darwin, “saw what all men saw and thought
what no man thought.” Although Freud is now criticized for
being too much of a determinist in his belief that all behavior is
caused by instinctual drives of sex and aggression, for his sexist
attitudes, and for using unscientific methods of gathering data,
his impact on the development of personality theories has been
tremendous. His terminology—namely conscious, unconscious,

2. id, superego, ego, defense mechanisms—are all part of modern
language and are defined as follows (Walrond-Skinner, 1986):
Conscious The part of the psyche that is open to immediate
awareness.
Unconscious hat region of the mind that remains unavailable to
a person until it emerges into consciousness through events such
as dreams and free associations.
Id he major portion of the unconscious; strives only to bring
about the satisfaction of a person’s instinctual needs.
Ego A part of the personality whose task is to mediate the
conflicting demands of the superego, the id, and external
reality. he ego has a range of functions including observation,
reality testing, rational thought, and perception.
Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process
(Page 48). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
Table 3.2 Highlights of Psychoanalytic Theory and
Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
•Theory is based on the understanding that one’s mental life is
made up of both the conscious and the unconscious
• Belief in a threefold (id, ego, superego) mental apparatus that
functions in close relationship to the physiological systems of
the body
• Concept of psychological adaptation whereby the mental
apparatus attempts to produce a “steady state” and reduce
conflict as much as possible
• Psychoanalysis works to make unconscious material conscious
through techniques such as analysis of dreams and free
association
Superego The part of the unconscious that acts as a monitor and
critic of the ego through conscious functions such as
observation, evaluation, criticism, and conscience.

3. Defense Mechanisms he unconscious means by which the ego
protects itself from the instinctual demands of the id and the
threats perceived in the external world. Defense mechanisms are
employed as a normal part of functioning and serve to protect
the individual from anxiety that he or she cannot handle. They
include such things as regression, repression, rationalization,
splitting, sublimation, denial, and intellectualization.
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Like all
thinking, Freud’s theories reflected the times and the culture in
which they were developed. His disciples went in many
directions, altering his original conceptions with their own
ideas and directions. Freud focused on the internal life of the
person, and his theories of change dealt with changing the
person within. He saw the genetic background and the
environment as important but secondary to the primary
relationship of the client with the worker.
One of the more important uses of Freud’s theories comes
through the work of those who built on his ideas and changed
their emphasis. Anna Freud, his daughter, Heinz Hartmann, and
Erik Erikson have been instrumental in the development of what
is known as “ego psychology.” his theory (Table 3.3) postulates
that work must not be done only to resolve internal conflicts but
also the demands of the environment. These adaptive functions
are learned during maturation, and Erikson’s work on
development throughout the life cycle is particularly useful for
workers who deal with social situations and their demands on
people. Finally, another outgrowth of Freud’s work was
analytical psychology, developed by Carl Jung, a psychiatrist.
Though he was greatly influenced by Freud, Jung’s theory
differed in many respects from psychoanalysis. For example,
Jung believed that we are meant to progress, to move in a
positive direction, and not just to adapt, as the Freudians and
behaviorists would have it. his perspective is invaluable for
human service workers who strive to help clients, communities,
and organizations reach their fullest potentials.

4. Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process
(Page 49). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
Table 3.3 Highlights of Ego Psychology: Anna Freud (1895–
1982), Heinz Hartmann (1894–1970), Erik Erikson (1902–1979)
• Psychoanalytic theory includes an emphasis on the
autonomous functions of the ego, which are not viewed as only
being influenced by unconscious drives including cognition,
perception, and memory
• The ego is primarily seen as enabling the regulation and
adaptation of the personality to external reality
• This concentration on ego strengths and the adaptive potential
of the ego have provided the foundation for briefer treatments
including crisis intervention
Feminist Theories
All theories are subject to critiques and reevaluation in the face
of new ways of thinking. Such is the case regarding
psychoanalytic and related theories. They were harshly
criticized by feminist scholars who felt they addressed only the
psychological experiences of men. Because of this, women’s
psychological development was often labeled as abnormal rather
than different from men’s—but legitimate in its own right
(Table 3.4). Feminist theorists were also strongly influenced by
the women’s movement’s emphasis on the deleterious effects of
social and economic oppression on the psychological
development of women and girls (Stout & McPhail, 1998; Unger
& Crawford, 1992). Feminist theories continue to be revised as
women scholars from diverse backgrounds critique and refine
what has been done before.
Major contemporary feminist theorists include Nancy
Chodorow, who postulates that masculine–feminine identities
and roles are not biologically determined but are “reproduced”
in every generation by social arrangements (Chodorow, 1999).
Carol Gilligan contends, based upon her research that studied
women’s moral development, that men and women have
different but equally valid approaches to moral issues: Men

5. have a sense of morality based upon an ethic of rights while
women have a sense of morality based upon an ethic of
responsibility (Gilligan, 1982). Jean Baker Miller, a
psychiatrist, and her colleagues presently work at the Jean
Baker Miller Training Institute of the Stone Center at Wellesley
Table 3.4 Highlights of Feminist Theories and Therapy: Nancy
Chodorow (1944– ), Carol Gilligan (1936– ), Jean Baker Miller
Training Institute (est. 1995), Sandra Bem (1944– )
• An approach to psychotherapy and theory that has developed
out of the philosophy of the women’s movement
• Reactions to the strong sexist bias that many women feel
exists in the major personality theories
• All feminist theories and therapeutic techniques share some
common elements: debunking psychological concepts regarding
sex differences (especially those found in psychoanalytic
theory); a positive view of the female body; emphasis on the
development of equal responsibility, talents, skills, and power
in women; a fusion between personal and political goals
regarding change; and an emphasis on the egalitarian nature of
the therapeutic relationship
Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process
(Page 50). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
College and examine the effects of power and social status on
personality development. hey propose that because women are a
subordinate group in society, psychological characteristics,
including passivity, docility, dependency, lack of initiative, and
helplessness, emerge as a way to cope with this oppression
(Miller, 1986). Sandra Bem, a psychologist and expert on
gender roles, explores the ways that people organize,
categorize, and use gender-related information as they think
about and solve problems. his can lead to stereotypes of how
men and women should behave, think, and act (Bem, 1981;
Unger & Crawford, 1992). These feminist theories clearly
challenge human service workers to increase their self-

6. awareness about gender stereotypes and how they hinder
helping relationships with clients.
Learning Theory
It is generally accepted that learning theory (Table 3.5) began
with the psychologist Ivan Pavlov’s famous experiments in
which dogs were conditioned to respond to stimuli through
association with eating. He has been followed by a long list of
distinguished psychologists who first focused their attention on
tests and measurements of human intelligence but more recently
have turned to the development of learning theories and therapy
dealing with mental health problems. John B. Watson was the
first of this group to emphasize strongly the importance of
environment and the facts that all behavior is learned and that
only observable and testable facts are significant.
Probably one of the best-known behaviorists is B. F. Skinner,
who developed the ideas of respondent behavior (that which is
brought about by a specific stimulus and can be conditioned)
and operant behavior (that which produces consequences that
tend to be repeated when reinforced and discontinued when not
reinforced). Many different practice models have developed
from the theories of the behaviorists, who operate by setting up
controlled situations in which behavior can be conditioned and
reinforced. These models are widely used in teaching, in
treating problems of human relationships, and in working with
personal problems that lead to destructive behaviors. As
behavior modification develops, certain features are assuming
greater importance. One is the detailed specification of
objectives with the possibility of subgoals that serve as steps on
the way to the desired behavior. Another is the development of
behavioral assessment techniques that permit specific definition
of the problem and selection of the appropriate treatment,
followed by assessment of the behavior change that results so
that necessary alterations can be made in the treatment.
Table 3.5 Highlights of Learning Theory: Ivan Pavlov (1849–
1936), John Watson (1878–1958), B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

7. • This theory focused on external behavior that could be
observed, not the inner mental life of the individual
• Maladaptive behavior is viewed as either a deficiency of
functional learning or an acquisition of dysfunctional learning
• Treatment approaches are geared toward eliminating or
reducing the frequency or intensity of the problem behavior
Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process
(Page 51). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
Presently, assessment procedures can be classiied into three
types: (1) self-report by the client; (2) direct observation of
behavior by, for example, parents, siblings, institutional
personnel, and so forth; and (3) physiological measures based
on various tests. Work is in progress on various laboratory
instruments to be used in assessment.
Humanistic Holistic Theories
The growth of knowledge never stands still and is never
complete. For many, psychoanalytic theories were not subjected
to sufficiently scientific testing or were too mechanistic, and
learning theories, though perhaps more practical than
psychoanalysis, were seen as too controlling, as negating the
factor of individual choice, and as not allowing for the
“humanity” of the person. The development of humanistic
theory was a logical next step (Table 3.6). Abraham Maslow,
Carl Rogers, and others began to develop ideas of “self-
actualization,” based on their view of people as essentially
motivated toward growth and fulfillment, rather than beings
who are controlled by instinctual drives of sex and aggression
or who are objects to be manipulated into socially desirable
learned behaviors. The focus of these theories is that the
individual is constantly in a process of “being and becoming,”
basically motivated to live in such a way that the best within is
realized. Through development of meaningful relationships with
others, as in a group situation or with another person,
significant work can be done to achieve self-awareness or self-
utilization. These theories are holistic, dealing with the totality
of the individual and emphasizing flexibility, openness, and

8. freedom from outside control.
Other Theories
In addition to these four basic personality theories
(psychoanalytic, learning, humanistic holistic, and feminist),
there are at least four others whose influence on human service
practice has been sufficiently significant to deserve mention.
These are Albert Ellis’s rational-emotive therapy (see following
section on brief therapies), Fritz Perls’s Gestalt theory, Eric
Berne’s transactional analysis, and William Glasser’s reality
therapy. Fritz Perls, a psychoanalyst, developed Gestalt therapy,
one of the forerunners of our modern emphasis on holism. It is
based on the theory that people have an inherent drive toward
growth, health, and self-actualization, which are achieved by a
balanced wholeness. Perls emphasized acceptance of self in the
present rather than dealing with the past and that tended toward
emphasis on individual right at the expense of social
responsibility. Eric Berne started out, too, as a psychoanalyst
but separated himself from the classical movement and
developed transactional analysis. his is based on the theory that
human personality is divided into three separate ego states—the
parent, the adult, and
Table 3.6 Highlights of Humanistic Holistic Theories: Carl
Rogers (1902–1987), Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
• Emphasis on engaging the whole person and focusing on the
future rather than on the past
• Attention is paid to the relationship between the therapist and
the client with BOTH seen as growing and changing from the
therapeutic encounter
• Important tasks of therapy include self-actualization, personal
growth, and self-understanding
Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process
(Page 52). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
the child—and the basic human motivating force is the desire
for recognition and that personal problems arise from within the
personality. By recognizing and taking responsibility for these

9. ego states, primarily through group interaction, they can be
dealt with more constructively. William Glasser, a psychologist
trained in psychoanalysis, developed his reality therapy based
on the premise that basically people need a distinct identity and
tend to develop a “success” or “failure” identity, the former
through secure love and feelings of worth, the latter through
inadequate love and a feeling of worthlessness. Personal
responsibility and actions to change such feelings are
emphasized. In addition to the so-called scientific theories that
are based primarily on research and are all products of Western
society, other cultures have differing theories about how people
grow and develop to maturity. Many of these rest on faith in a
set of religious beliefs that explain human functioning on the
basis of particular dogma. It is essential not to overlook the fact
that all theories are culture bound: hey are postulated by people
who are influenced by their own culture and by the times in
which they live. “Nonscientiic” theories must be respected and
understood if we are to work successfully with people who
believe in them.
Brief Therapies
These refer to a wide variety of therapies, all of which strive to
help clients find satisfactory solutions to their problems using
as few sessions as are needed (Table 3.7). Though all brief
therapies have an overt focus on being time efficient, they draw
on theories and techniques from earlier approaches, including
psychoanalytic and learning theories (Cooper, 1995). While
many types of brief therapies are frequently used, there are
several that have attained prominence in the human services.
One is rational-emotive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, a
psychologist. his therapy is based on a theory that postulates
that causes of feelings and actions lie not in actual life
experiences but in how we perceive such experiences (Ellis,
1996). Ellis declared that by examination and rational thinking
about these erroneous ideas, we could change both them and
subsequent behavior. In this therapy, clients learn to think

10. rationally about their problems. Another relevant therapy is
cognitive therapy, developed by Aaron Beck, that, like Ellis,
draws upon learning theories. his approach emphasizes that
cognitive processes afect behavior and that behavior can be
changed through addressing a person’s negative thoughts about
his or her life, self, and experiences with the world.
Table 3.7 Highlights of Brief Therapies
• There are many different types of brief therapies but all are
derived from psychoanalytic, learning, and/or humanistic
theories
• Brief therapies all strive to be efficient and effective
• Brief therapies have limited treatment goals with clear
outcomes, an emphasis on intervening in the present, and an
emphasis on client strengths
• Brief therapists play an active role in keeping clients focused
from session to session on what they are trying to accomplish
Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process
(Page 53). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
Drawing upon learning theories and Freud’s theory about the
unconscious, psychiatrist Milton Ericks on developed the
utilization model of hypnotherapy. Erickson’s approach is based
on the assumption that people receive and process information
outside of conscious awareness and that cognitive changes can
occur without conscious awareness of the processes involved.
Thus, during the hypnotic trance, the client is provided with
indirect suggestions by the counselor about how to solve
problems, thereby triggering the client to unconsciously solve
the problem. his approach is ultimately based upon the belief
that people can use their strengths to solve their problems
(Nugent, 1996).
Finally, solution-focused therapy draws upon the ideas of
Milton Erickson and was developed by Insoo Kim Berg, Steve
de Shazer, and others at the Brief Therapy Center in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin. A major assumption of solution-focused therapy is
that focusing on the positive, the solution, and the future

11. facilitates change in the desired direction. Therefore, the
counselor and the client focus on solution-oriented talk rather
than on problem-oriented talk. here is an assumption that it is
unnecessary to search the past to find solutions and that small
changes in thinking and behavior can lead to significant life
changes (Walter & Peller, 1992).
Managed care has greatly expanded the use of brief therapies,
because limiting costs has often meant limiting the number of
counseling sessions covered by insurance. It is therefore
imperative that workers remain current about research regarding
the effectiveness of brief (and all other) therapies and also to
document the outcomes of their own interventions. These eforts
will help ensure that clients receive the best care possible.
Whatever the type of therapy used, it is also critical to have a
counselor who is skilled in using that technique. These actions
are ethical responsibilities as seen in the NASW Code of Ethics;
social workers are mandated to practice within their areas of
competence and develop and enhance their professional
expertise through continually striving to increase their
professional knowledge and skills (NASW, 2008).
Brief Therapies
These refer to a wide variety of therapies, all of which strive to
help clients find satisfactory solutions to their problems using
as few sessions as are needed (Table 3.7). Though all brief
therapies have an overt focus on being time efficient, they draw
on theories and techniques from earlier approaches, including
psychoanalytic and learning theories (Cooper, 1995).
While many types of brief therapies are frequently used, there
are several that have attained prominence in the human services.
One is rational-emotive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, a
psychologist. his therapy is based on a theory that postulates
that causes of feelings and actions lie not in actual life
experiences but in how we perceive such experiences (Ellis,
1996). Ellis declared that by examination and rational thinking
about these erroneous ideas, we could change both them and
subsequent behavior. In this therapy, clients learn to think

12. rationally about their problems.
Another relevant therapy is cognitive therapy, developed by
Aaron Beck, that, like Ellis, draws upon learning theories. his
approach emphasizes that cognitive processes affect behavior
and that behavior can be changed through addressing a person’s
negative thoughts about his or her life, self, and experiences
with the world.
Levine, Joanne. Working with People: The Helping Process
(Page 54). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition..