Polymers are constructed from relatively small molecular fragments known as monomers that are joined together. Chemistry: Properties: Applications: Physical properties of polymers The physical properties of a polymer such as its strength and flexibility depend on: Other substances ( besides monomers ) are often needed for polymerisation to occur, for instance initiators, catalysts, and depending on manufacturing process, solvents may also be used. The resulting plastic polymer can be blended with different additives, for instance plasticisers, flame retardants, heat stabilisers, antioxidants, light stabilisers, lubricants, acid scavengers, antimicrobial agents, anti-static agents, pigments, blowing agents and fillers, and is finally processed into a plastic product. There are many different plastic polymers and several thousand different additives, which results in an extremely large variation in chemical composition of plastic products ( Rosato, 1998 ). Inthe polymeric material, however, non-polymeric components such as residual monomers, oligomers, low molecular weight fragments, catalyst remnants, polymerisation solvents and a wide range of additives can be present ( Crompton, 2007 ). Several of these are hazardous to human health and the environment, for instance carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic for reproduction, sensitising and hazardous to the aquatic environment with long lasting effects. Since the non- polymeric compounds usually are of low molecular weight and are either weakly bound or not bound at all to the polymeric macro-molecules, they, or their degradation products, can be emitted from the plastic product (Crompton, 2007; OECD, 2004) to air, water or other contact media (e.g. food). Many additives are hazardous for human health and the environment. Some are especially hazardous, for instance brominated flame retardants used to retard ignition and prevent fire from spreading; some phthalate plasticizers mainly used to make PVC flexible; and lead heat stabilizers used to prevent degradation of PVC during processing ( Murphy, 2001 ). Several polybrominated flame retardants are very persistent, very bioaccumulating and toxic, and are listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) (Secretary - general UN, 2009). Among the phthalate plasticisers the most hazardous ones, i.e. BBP, DEHP and DBP, are classified as toxic for reproduction (category 1B). BBP is also very toxic to aquatic organisms with long lasting effects ( European Parliament and Council, 2008; European Commission, 2009 ). In addition, these phthalates, as well as DEP ( diethylphthtalate ) and DCHP ( dicyclohexyl phthalate ), are being evaluated for endocrine disrupting properties ( Groshart and Okkerman, 2000; Okkerman and vander Putte, 2002 ). The lead compounds used in heat stabilizers are classified as toxic for reproduction (category 1A), very toxic to the aquatic environment with long lasting effects (both acute and chronic), and may caus.

1. Polymers are constructed from relatively small molecular fragments known as monomers that are
joined together.
Chemistry:
Properties:
Applications:
Physical properties of polymers
The physical properties of a polymer such as its strength and flexibility depend on:
Other substances ( besides monomers ) are often needed for polymerisation to occur, for instance
initiators, catalysts, and depending on manufacturing process, solvents may also be used. The
resulting plastic polymer can be blended with different additives, for instance plasticisers, flame
retardants, heat stabilisers, antioxidants, light stabilisers, lubricants, acid scavengers,
antimicrobial agents, anti-static agents, pigments, blowing agents and fillers, and is finally
processed into a plastic product. There are many different plastic polymers and several thousand
different additives, which results in an extremely large variation in chemical composition of
plastic products ( Rosato, 1998 ).
Inthe polymeric material, however, non-polymeric components such as residual monomers,
oligomers, low molecular weight fragments, catalyst remnants, polymerisation solvents and a
wide range of additives can be present ( Crompton, 2007 ). Several of these are hazardous to
human health and the environment, for instance carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic for reproduction,
sensitising and hazardous to the aquatic environment with long lasting effects. Since the non-
polymeric compounds usually are of low molecular weight and are either weakly bound or not
bound at all to the polymeric macro-molecules, they, or their degradation products, can be
emitted from the plastic product (Crompton, 2007; OECD, 2004) to air, water or other contact
media (e.g. food).
Many additives are hazardous for human health and the environment. Some are especially
hazardous, for instance brominated flame retardants used to retard ignition and prevent fire from
spreading; some phthalate plasticizers mainly used to make PVC flexible; and lead heat
stabilizers used to prevent degradation of PVC during processing ( Murphy, 2001 ). Several
polybrominated flame retardants are very persistent, very bioaccumulating and toxic, and are
listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) (Secretary - general
UN, 2009). Among the phthalate plasticisers the most hazardous ones, i.e. BBP, DEHP and
DBP, are classified as toxic for reproduction (category 1B). BBP is also very toxic to aquatic

2. organisms with long lasting effects ( European Parliament and Council, 2008; European
Commission, 2009 ). In addition, these phthalates, as well as DEP ( diethylphthtalate ) and
DCHP ( dicyclohexyl phthalate ), are being evaluated for endocrine disrupting properties (
Groshart and Okkerman, 2000; Okkerman and vander Putte, 2002 ). The lead compounds used in
heat stabilizers are classified as toxic for reproduction (category 1A), very toxic to the aquatic
environment with long lasting effects (both acute and chronic), and may cause damage to organs
( European Parliament and Council, 2008 ).
Release of hazardous substances from plastic products to air, extraction fluids, water, food, food
simulants, saliva and sweat have been shown by chemical analysis. Examples of substances
studied and released from various plastic products include phthalates ( Rijk and Ehlert, 2001;
Tønninget al., 2010 ), brominated flame retardants (Kim et al., 2006), bisphenol A ( Brede et al.,
2003; Geens et al., 2010; Sajiki et al., 2007; Olea, 1996 ), bisphenol-A dimethacrylate (
Olea,1996 ), lead, tin and cadmium (Al - Malack, 2001), formaldehyde and acetaldehyde
(Mutsuga et al., 2006; Özlem, 2008 ), 4-nonylphenol (Fernandes et al., 2008; Loyo-Rosales et
al., 2004 ), MTBE ( methyl tertbutyl ether ), benzene ( Skjevrak, 2003 ) and many other volatile
organic carbons ( Henneuse-Boxus and Pacary, 2003; Lundgren et al.,1999 ). In several of the
mentioned studies the released concentrations are low ( e.g. comparedto guideline values ), but in
others they are considerably higher. The size and type of emissions from plastic products are
controlled by many factors. The content of non-polymeric substances controls what can be
released, while other factors control the potential of release into a surrounding medium, i.e. the
migration potential. Migration is generally favoured if the polymer matrix is permeable; if the
size of gaps between polymer molecules is larger than the size of migrant; if the migrant is small,
has a similar solubility parameter as the polymer and is volatile; if the temperature is high; and if
the surrounding medium is water for water soluble migrants, fat containing for hydrophobic
migrant and acidic for metals (Brydson, 1999; Sheftel, 2000 ).
Polymer Processing
In the last few decades, polymers have emerged as a cost-effective, flexible solution for
numerous applications in the materials and chemical processing industries. Because of their light
weight, impact strength and processability at relatively low temperatures, plastic and rubber parts
have experienced enormous growth in demand, despite surging oil prices and competition from
alternatives such as metals and glass. At the same time, global competition continues to put
pressure on profit margins and time to market, pushing manufacturers to constantly innovate in
the areas of product performance and production efficiency.
Virtual prototyping, supported by the breadth and power of ANSYS software, has proven to be a
cost-effective approach to designing and manufacturing better polymer products faster and

3. cheaper than ever before. The scalability of ANSYS software provides engineers with the
flexibility to quickly create new polymer processes, investigate important details of processes,
examine the effects of alternative materials, and test extremely innovative approaches
In considering polymer designs and processes, comprehensive multiphysics functionality is often
needed to generate a complete virtual model that reveals the interactions between different
system components. ANSYS software enables engineers to investigate material modifications,
operating condition adjustments and process changes. R&D initiatives such as Innovative
techniques that can lead to major process advancements — can be investigated at a much lower
cost, and with a much lower degree of risk.
Engineering simulation solutions from ANSYS are widely used across all polymer processing
applications.
Blow Molding
Software from ANSYS can help process engineers overcome a number of challenges in the area
of blow molding, including the critical problem of achieving optimal parison thickness. ANSYS
tools support mechanical simulations of compression, top loads and drops to ensure optimal
material thickness and product performance. The solutions address all phases of various types of
blow molding, including extrusion, injection, stretch and 3-D extrusion. Each phase presents
numerous design challenges that can be addressed with flow modeling and analysis.
Coating
ANSYS solutions help engineers to address the complexities and tight tolerances of coating
processes, in which correct thickness and uniform application are vital. Simulation software from
ANSYS supports the engineering challenges presented by complex fluid rheology and free-
surface deformation. The technology has proven capabilities to analyze a wide variety of coating
processes, including slot, slide, curtain, blade, and forward and reverse roll for wire, cable and
optical fiber coating.
Extrusion
Virtual simulation can help engineers to enhance the extrusion process by modeling critical
components, such as screws, to ensure a high-quality end product. Software from ANSYS
quantifies mixing characteristics, residence time and shear rates in extruders, allowing engineers
to evaluate how design and operating condition modifications can affect mixing quality — as
well as gain a better understanding of the complex motion of particles in these devices. ANSYS
tools not only reveal the quality of the mixing and extruding process, but allow a qualitative
comparison of different mixing and extruding configurations.
Injection Molding
Software from ANSYS allows engineers to analyze various stages of the injection molding
process, including flow in the extruders. Simulation tools reveal the complex behavior that

4. occurs during the cooling process, especially important for composite materials. The technology
can be used to execute virtual mechanical tests, such as top-load testing, compression, drop
testing and fatigue analysis, to confirm that a new design will work under specified service
conditions during the expected life cycle.
Structural Analysis & Testing
Accurately modeling the behavior of plastic or rubber products involves complex multiphysics.
ANSYS provides unequalled technical depth in this area. The software supports accurate
modeling that is based on actual geometry, rather than idealized geometry. ANSYS tools help
engineers subject parts or assemblies to various mechanical or thermal stresses, yielding valuable
information about margins under normal working conditions, limits to rupture and resistance to
fatigue. Virtual prototyping identifies potential defects before prototype manufacturing, allowing
for inexpensive modifications of both product designs and manufacturing processes.
Thermoforming
Thermoforming is a cost-effective way to manufacture relatively complex product shapes, as it
does not require high temperatures or high processing pressures. However, it presents new
challenges related to obtaining the desired thickness distribution. ANSYS solutions enable
engineers to model temperature distributions, the application of stamps, the addition of a pre-
blowing stage, deformation during the cooling stage and other factors that affect material
thickness and uniformity. ANSYS technology also supports various mechanical tests such as top-
load testing, compression, stretching and drop testing.
Solution
Polymers are constructed from relatively small molecular fragments known as monomers that are
joined together.
Chemistry:
Properties:
Applications:
Physical properties of polymers
The physical properties of a polymer such as its strength and flexibility depend on:
Other substances ( besides monomers ) are often needed for polymerisation to occur, for instance
initiators, catalysts, and depending on manufacturing process, solvents may also be used. The
resulting plastic polymer can be blended with different additives, for instance plasticisers, flame
retardants, heat stabilisers, antioxidants, light stabilisers, lubricants, acid scavengers,
antimicrobial agents, anti-static agents, pigments, blowing agents and fillers, and is finally

5. processed into a plastic product. There are many different plastic polymers and several thousand
different additives, which results in an extremely large variation in chemical composition of
plastic products ( Rosato, 1998 ).
Inthe polymeric material, however, non-polymeric components such as residual monomers,
oligomers, low molecular weight fragments, catalyst remnants, polymerisation solvents and a
wide range of additives can be present ( Crompton, 2007 ). Several of these are hazardous to
human health and the environment, for instance carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic for reproduction,
sensitising and hazardous to the aquatic environment with long lasting effects. Since the non-
polymeric compounds usually are of low molecular weight and are either weakly bound or not
bound at all to the polymeric macro-molecules, they, or their degradation products, can be
emitted from the plastic product (Crompton, 2007; OECD, 2004) to air, water or other contact
media (e.g. food).
Many additives are hazardous for human health and the environment. Some are especially
hazardous, for instance brominated flame retardants used to retard ignition and prevent fire from
spreading; some phthalate plasticizers mainly used to make PVC flexible; and lead heat
stabilizers used to prevent degradation of PVC during processing ( Murphy, 2001 ). Several
polybrominated flame retardants are very persistent, very bioaccumulating and toxic, and are
listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) (Secretary - general
UN, 2009). Among the phthalate plasticisers the most hazardous ones, i.e. BBP, DEHP and
DBP, are classified as toxic for reproduction (category 1B). BBP is also very toxic to aquatic
organisms with long lasting effects ( European Parliament and Council, 2008; European
Commission, 2009 ). In addition, these phthalates, as well as DEP ( diethylphthtalate ) and
DCHP ( dicyclohexyl phthalate ), are being evaluated for endocrine disrupting properties (
Groshart and Okkerman, 2000; Okkerman and vander Putte, 2002 ). The lead compounds used in
heat stabilizers are classified as toxic for reproduction (category 1A), very toxic to the aquatic
environment with long lasting effects (both acute and chronic), and may cause damage to organs
( European Parliament and Council, 2008 ).
Release of hazardous substances from plastic products to air, extraction fluids, water, food, food
simulants, saliva and sweat have been shown by chemical analysis. Examples of substances
studied and released from various plastic products include phthalates ( Rijk and Ehlert, 2001;
Tønninget al., 2010 ), brominated flame retardants (Kim et al., 2006), bisphenol A ( Brede et al.,
2003; Geens et al., 2010; Sajiki et al., 2007; Olea, 1996 ), bisphenol-A dimethacrylate (
Olea,1996 ), lead, tin and cadmium (Al - Malack, 2001), formaldehyde and acetaldehyde

6. (Mutsuga et al., 2006; Özlem, 2008 ), 4-nonylphenol (Fernandes et al., 2008; Loyo-Rosales et
al., 2004 ), MTBE ( methyl tertbutyl ether ), benzene ( Skjevrak, 2003 ) and many other volatile
organic carbons ( Henneuse-Boxus and Pacary, 2003; Lundgren et al.,1999 ). In several of the
mentioned studies the released concentrations are low ( e.g. comparedto guideline values ), but in
others they are considerably higher. The size and type of emissions from plastic products are
controlled by many factors. The content of non-polymeric substances controls what can be
released, while other factors control the potential of release into a surrounding medium, i.e. the
migration potential. Migration is generally favoured if the polymer matrix is permeable; if the
size of gaps between polymer molecules is larger than the size of migrant; if the migrant is small,
has a similar solubility parameter as the polymer and is volatile; if the temperature is high; and if
the surrounding medium is water for water soluble migrants, fat containing for hydrophobic
migrant and acidic for metals (Brydson, 1999; Sheftel, 2000 ).
Polymer Processing
In the last few decades, polymers have emerged as a cost-effective, flexible solution for
numerous applications in the materials and chemical processing industries. Because of their light
weight, impact strength and processability at relatively low temperatures, plastic and rubber parts
have experienced enormous growth in demand, despite surging oil prices and competition from
alternatives such as metals and glass. At the same time, global competition continues to put
pressure on profit margins and time to market, pushing manufacturers to constantly innovate in
the areas of product performance and production efficiency.
Virtual prototyping, supported by the breadth and power of ANSYS software, has proven to be a
cost-effective approach to designing and manufacturing better polymer products faster and
cheaper than ever before. The scalability of ANSYS software provides engineers with the
flexibility to quickly create new polymer processes, investigate important details of processes,
examine the effects of alternative materials, and test extremely innovative approaches
In considering polymer designs and processes, comprehensive multiphysics functionality is often
needed to generate a complete virtual model that reveals the interactions between different
system components. ANSYS software enables engineers to investigate material modifications,
operating condition adjustments and process changes. R&D initiatives such as Innovative
techniques that can lead to major process advancements — can be investigated at a much lower
cost, and with a much lower degree of risk.
Engineering simulation solutions from ANSYS are widely used across all polymer processing
applications.
Blow Molding
Software from ANSYS can help process engineers overcome a number of challenges in the area
of blow molding, including the critical problem of achieving optimal parison thickness. ANSYS

7. tools support mechanical simulations of compression, top loads and drops to ensure optimal
material thickness and product performance. The solutions address all phases of various types of
blow molding, including extrusion, injection, stretch and 3-D extrusion. Each phase presents
numerous design challenges that can be addressed with flow modeling and analysis.
Coating
ANSYS solutions help engineers to address the complexities and tight tolerances of coating
processes, in which correct thickness and uniform application are vital. Simulation software from
ANSYS supports the engineering challenges presented by complex fluid rheology and free-
surface deformation. The technology has proven capabilities to analyze a wide variety of coating
processes, including slot, slide, curtain, blade, and forward and reverse roll for wire, cable and
optical fiber coating.
Extrusion
Virtual simulation can help engineers to enhance the extrusion process by modeling critical
components, such as screws, to ensure a high-quality end product. Software from ANSYS
quantifies mixing characteristics, residence time and shear rates in extruders, allowing engineers
to evaluate how design and operating condition modifications can affect mixing quality — as
well as gain a better understanding of the complex motion of particles in these devices. ANSYS
tools not only reveal the quality of the mixing and extruding process, but allow a qualitative
comparison of different mixing and extruding configurations.
Injection Molding
Software from ANSYS allows engineers to analyze various stages of the injection molding
process, including flow in the extruders. Simulation tools reveal the complex behavior that
occurs during the cooling process, especially important for composite materials. The technology
can be used to execute virtual mechanical tests, such as top-load testing, compression, drop
testing and fatigue analysis, to confirm that a new design will work under specified service
conditions during the expected life cycle.
Structural Analysis & Testing
Accurately modeling the behavior of plastic or rubber products involves complex multiphysics.
ANSYS provides unequalled technical depth in this area. The software supports accurate
modeling that is based on actual geometry, rather than idealized geometry. ANSYS tools help
engineers subject parts or assemblies to various mechanical or thermal stresses, yielding valuable
information about margins under normal working conditions, limits to rupture and resistance to
fatigue. Virtual prototyping identifies potential defects before prototype manufacturing, allowing
for inexpensive modifications of both product designs and manufacturing processes.
Thermoforming
Thermoforming is a cost-effective way to manufacture relatively complex product shapes, as it

8. does not require high temperatures or high processing pressures. However, it presents new
challenges related to obtaining the desired thickness distribution. ANSYS solutions enable
engineers to model temperature distributions, the application of stamps, the addition of a pre-
blowing stage, deformation during the cooling stage and other factors that affect material
thickness and uniformity. ANSYS technology also supports various mechanical tests such as top-
load testing, compression, stretching and drop testing.