Read the following excerpt and answer the questions that follow Please note all questions are based on the below The need to develop global managers has been widely recognised in literature (Holopainen and Bjorkman, 2005; Riusala, 2000 and Suutari, 1999). For example, 85 per cent of the Fortune 500 firms surveyed do not think that they have an adequate number of global leaders (Gregersen et all, 1998). International assignment is seen as one of the major tools and a powerful strategy for developing global leaders. In line with this, Derr (1993) states that expatriation is the top strategy for internationalising a young manager. The foreign assignment is also a good management tool as the assignment is generally a higher position than the previous domestic one and this makes the assignment an important learning opportunity for the expatriate. As organisations become globalised, there is an increasing challenge to use expatriates on international assignments to complete strategically critical tasks (Gregersen & Black 1992, Brewster 1998, Downes & Thomas 1999). Multinational corporations (MNCs) use expatriates, not only for corporate control and expertise reasons in vital global markets, but also to facilitate entry into new markets or to develop international management competencies (Bird & Dunbar 1991, Boyacigiller 1991, Rosenzweig 1994, Shaffer, Harrison & Gilley 1999, Forster 2000). While it is recognised that Human Resource Management (HRM) problems are more complex in the international environment, there is also increased evidence to suggest that the management of international human resources is increasingly being acknowledged as a major determinant of success or failure in international business (Tung 1984, Dowling 1999, Hiltrop 1999). For renowned and established MNCs, failure to be able to communicate and coordinate their activities in international business has the potential to plunge them into a crisis. The crises confronting MNCs includes failed assignments due to premature return of expatriates and the loss of their returned expatriates due to poor repatriation. These crises, due to poor expatriate management, can therefore threaten the organisations performance and capabilities in the international arena. Expatriates may be losing their security blanket, but the challenges and potential longterm rewards of taking an international assignment are growing. Most global organisations see international experience as a prerequisite for promotion to the top jobs. Although this experience can be gained from working in crossborder teams and projects, expatriation remains the preferred way of creating a global mindset amongst managers. However, there is a need for new skills and abilities amongst expatriates, and for far more careful planning and monitoring of assignments by organisational headquarters. The literature on expatriate management tends to take one of two perspectives. First, much literature focuses on the individual expatriate's.

1. Read the following excerpt and answer the questions that follow
Please note all questions are based on the below
The need to develop global managers has been widely recognised in literature (Holopainen and
Bjorkman, 2005; Riusala, 2000 and Suutari, 1999). For example, 85 per cent of the Fortune 500
firms surveyed do not think that they have an adequate number of global leaders (Gregersen et
all, 1998). International assignment is seen as one of the major tools and a powerful strategy for
developing global leaders. In line with this, Derr (1993) states that expatriation is the top strategy
for internationalising a young manager.
The foreign assignment is also a good management tool as the assignment is generally a higher
position than the previous domestic one and this makes the assignment an important learning
opportunity for the expatriate.
As organisations become globalised, there is an increasing challenge to use expatriates on
international assignments to complete strategically critical tasks (Gregersen & Black 1992,
Brewster 1998, Downes & Thomas 1999).
Multinational corporations (MNCs) use expatriates, not only for corporate control and expertise
reasons in vital global markets, but also to facilitate entry into new markets or to develop
international management competencies (Bird & Dunbar 1991, Boyacigiller 1991, Rosenzweig
1994, Shaffer, Harrison & Gilley 1999, Forster 2000).
While it is recognised that Human Resource Management (HRM) problems are more complex in
the international environment, there is also increased evidence to suggest that the management of
international human resources is increasingly being acknowledged as a major determinant of
success or failure in international business (Tung 1984, Dowling 1999, Hiltrop 1999). For
renowned and established MNCs, failure to be able to communicate and coordinate their
activities in international business has the potential to plunge them into a crisis. The crises
confronting MNCs includes failed assignments due to premature return of expatriates and the
loss of their returned expatriates due to poor repatriation. These crises, due to poor expatriate
management, can therefore threaten the organisations performance and capabilities in the
international arena.
Expatriates may be losing their security blanket, but the challenges and potential longterm
rewards of taking an international assignment are growing. Most global organisations see
international experience as a prerequisite for promotion to the top jobs. Although this experience
can be gained from working in crossborder teams and projects, expatriation remains the preferred
way of creating a global mindset amongst managers.
However, there is a need for new skills and abilities amongst expatriates, and for far more careful
planning and monitoring of assignments by organisational headquarters.

2. The literature on expatriate management tends to take one of two perspectives. First, much
literature focuses on the individual expatriate's adjustment to working and living conditions
abroad. Scholars have mapped such adjustment conceptually (e.g. Black et al 1991; Naumann,
1993) and have examined it empirically (e.g., Bjorkman and Schapp, 1994; Black and Porter,
1991).
The research generally concludes that adjustment is related to such variables as expatriate
background (e.g., overseas experience, pre-transfer preparation), job (e.g., job nature, role
perceptions) and personal factors such as family/partner adjustment (Black and Gregersen, 1991;
Black and Mendenhall, 1991).
Representative studies that focus on the individual expatriate include the following: practical
steps to succeed as an expatriate (e.g., Mendenhall & Oddou, 1988; Tu & Sullivan, 1994);
repatriation (Napier & Peterson, 1991; Harvey, 16 1989); turnover (Birdseye & Hill, 1995);
loyalty (Banai & Reisel, 1993); career management issues (Feldman & Thomas, 1992); and
success (Black & Porter, 1991; Boyacigiller, 1990).
A second research stream has examined the types of international Human Resource Management
(HRM) practices used by multinational firms in general (Tung, 1981, 1988; Ondrack, 1985) and
in particular affiliates (e.g., Derr and Oddou, 1993). Such work addresses practices comprising of
staffing, performance appraisal, training, compensation, and career management in MNCs (e.g.,
Harvey, 1989; Tung, 1981, 1982, 1984). Specific topics include selection criteria, cross-cultural
training, expatriate pay practices, and the use of expatriates' knowledge upon return (Black and
Gregersen, 1991).
QUESTION
3.1. Analyse the various factors that contribute to the individual expatriate's successful
adjustment to working and living conditions abroad.( 25) MARKS
Student to expand on the factors that may support successful adjustment to a new working
and living condition for expatriates.