1. Avoiding Poor Selection & Development of Expatriates
James N. Banner
Manchester Metropolitan University

2. Avoiding Poor Selection & Development of Expatriates: A Literature Review
With more countries becoming part of the global marketplace the need for competent
expatriate managers has grown exponentially (Yeaton & Hall, 2008). There are many
different theories as to what successful programmes consist of, and the direction taken to
effectively train an expatriate manager. Failure, of foreign assignments can usually be
narrowed down to a handful of common cited reasons such as, poor pre departure training,
a lack of support, or a sojourner not being able to adapt to his new work environment. As
the use of expatriate managers has grown significantly over the past twenty years, so has
amount of research dedicated to it, and now international human resource managers are
better equipped than they have ever been to develop strategies that avoid failure. That
said, this paper will cover three main topics which emerge many times in the literature, to
avoid the poor selection and development of expatriates, and focus on procedures and
strategies necessary to deploy a successful foreign assignment. These main topics are:
selection of potential candidates, pre departure cross-cultural training, and effective
repatriation efforts.
SELECTION
Selecting the perfect candidate for a foreign assignment within an international firm has
become an increasingly complex task for most companies (Harvey & Novicevic, 2001). What
we know about the selection process today, and how it is performed, is largely based upon
empirical studies that investigate the individual attributes and technical competency of
successful past expatriate managers (Holopainen & Bjorkman, 2005).Initial selection models
focused on technical expertise, while more recent attempts based selection on identifying
personal characteristics that could help promote the odds of success (Harvey & Novicevic,
2001). Even though models used by selection managers may vary with region, the main idea
has centred on the potential employees capabilities and characteristics.
There is no real agreement between authors and researchers as to the relevant criteria the
candidate should be measured. Speculation on the criteria has led to multiple studies from
different regions. Suggestions included many areas for measure such as, professional and
family relationships, experience, managerial talent, potential, adaptability, technical
awareness of business systems, interest in foreign assignments, independence, ability to
communicate, emotional stability, sensitivity to change, motivation, maturity, and
leadership. The best attempt simplifying these criteria comes from Mendenhall and Oddou
(1985). They narrowed down four which include reinforcement substitution, stress
reduction and technical competence; others orientation including willingness to
communicate, and relationship development; a perceptual aspect; and cultural toughness.
Harvey (1985) and Tung (1987) discovered that the inability of the expatriate’s spouse to
adjust a different culture and setting to be one of the more important issues. This has led to
many multinational firms not only interviewing the employee, but their spouse as well.
Selection managers feel more secure knowing that a spouse is supportive, willing, and

3. motivated to be a part of the relocation. Goodman (2012) highlighted that the selection
method used, will vary by the expatriates themselves, by the country in which they live, and
the position they hold within the company. Different regions and nations will have their own
more distinctive way of measuring the aptitude of candidates based on their own cultural
morals and values (Brewster, 1990). In order to change rates of failure in future
assignments, selection managers and companies must build appropriate evaluation models
that examine these characteristics to filter out those most likely to fail.
TRAINING
Cross-cultural training and the technique in which multinational firms use to train future
expatriate managers varies widely. The cross-cultural training provided by most companies
however is inadequate, or completely non-existent (Selmer, 2000; Waxin & Panaccio 2005).
Research suggests the training provided to expatriates and their families is very important.
As a result authors have spent the last decade applying research to the qualitative nature of
the programs companies apply to expatriate development (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005;
Goodman, 2012). It is agreed that pre-move training and cross-cultural discussions can help
employees acclimate to working and living in new countries by both human resource
professionals and researchers (Forster, 2000).
Selmer (2000) takes an interesting perspective of cross-cultural training and the best time to
educate individuals on assignment. She suggests that the timing can be crucial in the
effectiveness of the programme, from her experience expatriates seem more eager to learn
post arrival rather than pre-departure. With first impressions being imperative in business
there is more risk involved in training upon arrival. Looking at literature covered this year in
culture shock theory, and the way it affects both individuals and employees alike, the
message is clear that training and support is crucial from the beginning of the assignment
until completion. Cavusgil et al (1992) agree that a well thought out pre-departure
orientation and training programme can ease the acculturation process for the expatriate
and their family.
Considering suggestions from the aforementioned authors, a training program that
supported a prospective expatriate during pre-departure and post arrival times would likely
be more ideal. Sims and Schraeder (2004) propose this method as not only useful, but an
effective way of reducing the culture shock an expatriate and their family may experience.
Frequently, expatriates pass a period of adjustment as they become familiar with the
differences of their new culture. The psychological effects this adjustment period has on the
individual can be minimized with any training provided (Solomon, 1994).
Some are sceptic as to the validity of cross-cultural training in decreasing culture shock.
Many senior managers insist such training is entirely too expensive or ineffective. It can cost
tremendous amounts of money providing thorough training and while initial cost may be
justifiable, it is hard to see any real return on investment (Harrison, 1994). However, in a

4. review of 50 empirical studies done by Black and Mendenhall (1990) it was discovered that
pre-departure training had positive impact on adjustment.
REPATRIATION
Literature considers this one of the more crucial stages in expatriate management. It has
been noted in studies that approximately 20 to 50 percent of expatriates returning from
their overseas assignments resign within the first two years (Stroh, Gregersen & Black 1998;
Bossard & Peterson, 2005). Developing human resource strategies to improve the retention
rate of repatriation are still currently developing in today’s companies. The cost of
mismanaging the reintegration of returning expatriates are huge, and if an organization
cannot retain employees the entire process turns into a waste of money and human capital
(Bailey & Dragoni, 2013).
Keeping that in mind, Oddou (1991) suggests that explaining the importance of the
assignment and the realistic impact before departure to the host country is a necessary for
success. During a study of 18 senior human resource managers within 10 different
companies by Dragoni and Bailey (2013) it was discovered that the managers considered
successful repatriation as having an employee return as a better leader and who is also open
to new ideas. Now that the company’s employee is back from assignment, properly
managing the new international knowledge the individual has acquired is essential (Yeaton
& Hall, 2008). If a career path and guidance is not in place, as it is at most corporations, the
repatriate may find themselves in a position below their level of aptitude or experience.
McLean and Nery – Kjerfve (2012) mention the repatriation time is beleaguered with
uncertainty for expatriates and their families. As mentioned before corporations rarely have
anything in place to help reintegrate employees back into their home country, and this is
when what is known as reverse culture shock can likely occur. Reverse culture shock is when
an employee returns home from their international assignment and experiences a negative
emotion dip. The W-Curve model created by Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963) in Figure 1
illustrates this.
Figure 1.

5. Among the companies and managers interviewed by Dragoni and Bailey (2012) many cited
that the repatriation process used consisted of three major categories: job placement upon
return, facilitation of knowledge transfer to other employees, and support to expatriates.
Job placement is where the human resource department has prepared an ideal position for
the expatriate up to six months be they return. Facilitating the transfer of knowledge is a
process in which the human resource manager will put together luncheons or set up a
forum to share their experience and lessons learn while on assignment, and expatriate
support is where the expatriate and their family will be given cultural training in order to
attempt avoiding the aforementioned reverse culture shock among other reintegration
objectives. However, despite the importance of international assignments, many of the
companies interviewed stated that they do not employ an adequate repatriation process
(Ibid).
A Recommended Program of Action: To Avoid Poor Selection & Development
SELECTION & RECRUITMENT
Human resources will need to first discuss with senior management goals they’re looking to
reach with the future expatriate. Selection of the right candidate is crucial, and creating a
pool of high-potential candidates to select from may take time. That being said, it is
suggested that the position be designed and made known to the company, and the public (if
applicable) within six or more months of the desired departure date. Hiring managers
should be looking for a person who possess not only the required technical competency, but
also qualified individual attributes. Likely candidates should show and eagerness to grow
personally and professionally, and also be prepared to have their cultural knowledge put to
the test when it is possibly least expected. Past experiences which are favourable to the
selection process includes; involvement in student exchange programs, boarding schools,
and living with parents on overseas assignments either in military or business. As this would
highlight a candidate’s ability to adapt to a foreign culture successfully (Yeaton & Hall,
2008).
Attributes of the ideal candidate include, but are not limited to; good language skills, strong
desire to work overseas, knowledge of the host culture, previous travel experience,
supportive family and spouse, behaviourally flexible, and is able to deal with stress
effectively. Candidates with families will need to interview together, as it is highly important
he/she is supportive of the move and possess the same qualities as the future expatriate.
Technical competency, in a multitude of areas, should also be thoroughly observed. Ideal
technical skills include, but are not limited to; systems knowledge, application certifications,
coding/programming, equipment mechanics knowledge, and information security. If a
candidate is selected from outside the company, hiring managers should allocate the
appropriate amount of time to educate.

6. MANAGING CULTURE SHOCK WITH PRE & POST DEPATURE TRAINING
To increase the likeliness of success, once the employee has been screened and brought on
board, the company will need to provide thorough training at both the pre-departure and
post-departure stages to prepare for foreign assignment. An adequate training program will
include but is not limited to; language training, cultural customs programs, family support
programs, and living arrangement assistance.
Educating a future expatriate will help to ease his/her transition from one culture to
another. Language training (if necessary) can be taught in many different ways, ranging from
very expensive to free. This will make manoeuvrability easier, as the expatriate will be able
to navigate. A sense of surrounding and control can help have an anxiolytic effect when
placed in unfamiliar environments.
Cultural training, and the expatriate’s acceptance of the destination culture and customs is
paramount. What one country may find acceptable, another may not. Bateman and Snell
(2004) mention most people identify a lack of cultural understanding as a main reason for
failure. In reality, a lack of understanding of one’s own culture and conditioning can be just
as detrimental to the assignment. Being said, it is a hiring manager’s responsibility to
educate and reinforce this knowledge. Encourage expatriates to identify themselves in both
cultures and enjoy the international profile while going between two cultures.
Post departure training may be the best time to reach your expatriate. Selmer (2000)
suggest travellers on assignment prefer this time period the most. It gives a person the
chance to apply training then and there, and delaying assignment responsibilities for an
acclamation period such as this is recommended. Post departure or arrival training is a
continuance of all basic and in depth training commenced before departure.
EXPATRIATE SPOUSE/PARTNER AND FAMILY SUPPORT
The cross-cultural training and education of a spouse can make or break an assignment.
Spouses are forced to build a new network of friends, learn languages, care for children in
an unfamiliar environment, and with his/her partner gone rely entirely on themselves to see
daily tasks are accomplished. He/she will be completely immersed in the culture from the
time of arrival until repatriation occurs. Proper training parallel to the expatriate can reduce
the spouse’s vulnerability to culture shock.
Programs need to be in place to help families establish connections before they depart, and
after they arrive. The sooner a spouse can become connected to their community and
establish an identity in the host country the better. Annual flights home to see family must
be a standard practice.

7. REPATRIATION
Multinational firms can increase their odds of retaining their expatriate by having the
correct repatriation polices in place. It is the job of human resources to be sure an
appropriate position is available within the company that continues to challenge the
individual into the coming years. Some expatriates may feel they have lost ground after
being on assignment, due to lack of new systems knowledge or a feeling of being out of the
loop during their away years. Repatriation needs to be just as big of an opportunity as
expatriation was to the individual.
It is important that the knowledge obtained during the assignment is recorded and
transferred to employees elsewhere in the company, as well as, senior management. HR can
foster this by coordinating corporate events, luncheons, and regular office meetings.
If an expatriate on assignment wishes to remain in the host country, a program should be in
place to see that an employee, first and foremost, is clear of what this means for them.
Salary may decrease, housing may disappear, and health insurance may change, among
other country specific factors.
BENEFITS
The benefits are shared between the company and the manager. Companies can look at the
assignment as an opportunity to seize foreign market share, expand operations within
countries they already occupy, share invaluable knowledge with those next in line to be on
assignment, and bring new ideas to the office table in their home country.
Expatriate benefits start the day of recruitment. Managers may granted a higher salary,
which is also subject to be higher, given the environment or risk associated with the host
country. Housing can be paid for along with removal, and health insurance covered.
Dependent on the host country, managers can look forward to having their children taught
in foreign schools, which again hinges on which host country is lived in.
Benefits can be maximised with good communication. Programs, and online collaboration
websites available in today’s society offer huge advantages to companies, where
communication far and wide are crucial. It goes without saying that an expatriate who feels
important for the entirety of their trip are more likely to perform favourably.

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