2. and
responsibilities-individualized instruction and one-on-one tutor-
ing, small-group facilitation and enrichment-that relate directly
to school learning. Volunteers maximize teachers' effectiveness
by reinforcing their instruction. The use of volunteer teachers
provides a means to involve the community in education and
promote closer school-community relationships. A variety of
pedagogical challenges must be overcome in the training of vol-
unteer teachers so they can effectively and successfully operate
within the constraints of volunteer-teaching delivery programs.
Overview
Thousands of people without formal training in education or
pedagogy serve as volunteer teachers in the U. S. It has been
esti-
mated that one in five Americans volunteer some of their time
to
help out in local schools. And yet, there is a need to explore
ways
of increasing volunteerism in the public schools by developing
new volunteer programs in which community members can
further contribute to education (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Dean,
1987; Utah State Office of Education, 1988). Volunteer
teachers,
teaching assistants, and teacher aides assume different types of
teaching duties and responsibilities both inside and outside of
the conventional educational system. The utilization of volun-
teer teachers generally improves the educational opportunities
of
public school students by providing increased individualization.
The use of volunteer teachers is one successful way to stretch
the supply of teachers. Much of the work of bringing Ameri-
can education and U. S. schools back to "excellence" will be
due to hundreds of isolated local efforts involving thousands of
3. part-time volunteers. Real and positive change in education will
be brought about through local efforts, catalyzed by volunteers,
giving of their time, knowledge and personal resources to sup-
port and sustain young people in securing the education they
need to become responsible, well-rounded adults and succeed
in today's high-tech, information-rich world (Cetron & Gayle,
1991; Wagener, 1996).
Abstract
Overview
History
Further Insights
Types of Volunteers
Programs
America Reads Challenge & Teach Baltimore
TESOL & ESL Programs
Cooperative Extension Service
Duties & Responsibilities
Viewpoints
Advantages
Public Schools
Involving the Community
5. One of the first programs to use volunteers as teachers was the
Peace Corps during the 1960s and 1970s. The Peace Corps'
roots
and mission can be traced to early 1960 when Senator John F.
Kennedy challenged students at the University of Michigan
to serve their country while working in developing countries.
Later, as President, Kennedy sent thousands of Peace Corps
volunteers into service overseas. Over 190,000 Peace Corps vol-
unteers have worked in 139 host countries across the globe on
issues ranging from environmental preservation to information
technology, business development and AIDS education. Today's
Peace Corps' volunteers are involved in teaching and addressing
the educational needs of children worldwide. Volunteers have
served as teachers of science, mathematics, computers, agricul-
ture and many other subjects (Adhikary, 1972; Blatchford,
1970;
Peace Corps, 2007).
Head Start is another government-sponsored program that has
actively promoted using volunteers and community resources
since its inception in 1965. Head Start programs promote school
readiness by addressing the social- and cognitive-development
needs of children and providing a variety of services-
educational,
health, nutritional-to enrolled children and families. Head Start
parents are engaged as volunteers in their children's learning
and
in meeting their educational and literacy goals. Four out of five
parents of children in Head Start programs volunteer to serve
as teachers' aides or to provide other needed services (Cetron
& Gayle, 1991; Head Start Bureau, 1989; Office of Head Start,
2007).
The past decade or two has seen the increased use of college
graduate volunteer teachers with the growth of the Teach for
America program. Teach for America's first year of operation
6. was in 1990 when 500 men and women began teaching in six
low-income communities across the U. S. Teach for America
was founded by Wendy Kopp, a Princeton University college
senior, who proposed the teacher corps in her undergraduate
thesis. Teach for America has grown to become the nation's
larg-
est provider of teachers for low-income communities (Fenzel &
Flippen, 2006; Teach for America, 2006).
Further Insights
Types of Volunteers
Volunteer teachers are members of the larger, local community.
They are parents or other interested adults who offer themselves
as volunteers to work in schools and serve as valuable instruc-
tional resources, part-time teachers, teaching aides, teaching
assistants or special tutors and mentors. Many parents have the
desire to help with their children's education and may initially
become involved in their preschool programs. Other volunteers
were actually teachers themselves before they started their own
families. Parents and others who want to act as volunteer teach-
ers can be recruited through the parent-teacher association or
the
school newspaper (Acquafredda, 1993; Cetron & Gayle, 1991;
Lewis & Doorlag, 1987).
Corporate volunteerism is another avenue which can help to
meet public educational needs. Major corporations are becoming
involved and finding ways to revitalize local schools. Corpo-
rate philanthropists have even built and staffed schools in some
instances. Volunteers from local businesses are eager to back
up teachers, and industry workers can serve as a large supply
of potential volunteers. Professionals in business and industry
have knowledge of technical subjects and fields; more so than
graduates of teachers' colleges. Corporate volunteer teachers
can
provide education and training in careers, vocational programs
8. Volunteer Teaching Opportunities
another program developed as an instructional model for teach-
ing literacy to vocational students (Bond, 2002; Clymer, 1989;
Heimberger, 1978; Siddall, 1999). Volunteer teachers are used
in
alternative urban middle schools for at-risk children from low-
income homes. Another after-school enrichment and prevention
activity program for middle-school students uses community
volunteers to provide instruction and support. Teach Baltimore
is a program using trained volunteer teachers to prevent summer
learning loss in low-income, public elementary-school students
(Borman, Rachuba, Hewes, Boulay, & Kaplan, 2001; Fenzel &
Flippen, 2006; Greaser, 1995).
TESOL & ESL Programs
Volunteer teachers have been widely used in language-learning
programs and courses such as TESOL-Teachers of English to
Speakers of Other Languages-and ESL-English-as-a-Second
Language. A Phoenix, Arizona program uses parent volunteers
to teach Spanish to fifth and sixth graders. In another program,
a cohort of working adults from a local area along the Arizona-
Mexico border serve as volunteer teachers, teacher interns and
teaching assistants to teach bilingual Spanish-English classes
for elementary special-education students. Other related volun-
teer language-teaching efforts include tutoring refugees to read
English, preparing young welfare mothers for their GED exams,
and teaching illiterate and near-illiterate youthful offenders how
to read (Acquafredda, 1993; Dean, 1990; Kutner, 1992; Murray,
1999; Snow, 2006; Ver Velde, Ver Velde, Prater, & Minner,
1999).
Cooperative Extension Service
Parents have been recruited and used as volunteer teachers
to teach practical living skills such as cooking, sewing, auto
mechanics and crafts to students. Senior-citizen homemak-
9. ers have been used as high-school volunteer home-economics
class teachers of areas such as canning and preserving foods.
The Cooperative Extension Service maintains a system of state-
wide volunteer teachers. Teens have also gotten into the act and
have served as volunteer teachers of a web-based 4-H extension
curriculum (Bolton, 2007; Gouse, 1979; Henry, 1974; Safrit,
Edwards, & Flood, 2004).
Schools have offered adult education as a community service
and have made use of volunteer teachers in teaching adult basic
education or ABE classes. A variety of other programs have
used
volunteers to teach adults in an informal "free university" set-
ting. The YWCA also uses volunteer teachers in adult-education
programs (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Davies, 1976; Kutner, 1992;
Wu & Carter, 2001).
There are additionally various informal, nontraditional educa-
tional entities that make use of volunteer teachers. For example,
zoos, museums and parks use volunteer teachers called docents
to fulfill their educational missions (Albuquerque Biological
Park, 2007).
Duties & Responsibilities
Volunteer teachers, teaching assistants, teacher aides, and in-
class
resource specialists face many of the same duties and responsi-
bilities as regular classroom teachers. For example, they may
have
roles in curriculum development, instruction and assessment.
They
may apply the same basic principles of teaching and learning,
edu-
cational theory and different modes of teaching in various
contexts
and environments. They must often address the same classroom
10. issues in planning and preparing for teaching. They confront
many similar problems in planning successful lessons, classes
and
courses. They must develop practical and relevant teaching
activi-
ties, teaching materials and instructional aids for classroom use.
They must decide on the instructional methods and classroom
pro-
cedures to be implemented (Draves, 1976; Snow, 1996).
Capable volunteer teachers and tutors can handle many tasks
relating directly to school learning. They can provide specific
lessons, instructional assistance, special classroom presenta-
tions and one-on-one tutoring to problem students. In addition
to instructional support in certain subject areas, adult and parent
volunteers can perform clerical duties and housekeeping chores.
They can serve as members of curriculum development com-
mittees, participants in various extracurricular activities, and
as consultants for planning and improving the school physical
plant and facilities. Volunteers can be given increased roles and
responsibilities as they demonstrate competence inside and out-
side the classroom (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Fenzel & Flippen,
2006; Holleman, 1975; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987).
Volunteer teachers can assist in areas such as
tutoring/mentoring,
enrichment, small-group facilitation, negotiation/conflict reso-
lution and student affirmation. Volunteers can usually specify
areas of interest such as working directly with individual stu-
dents, working with small groups, supervising activities outside
the classroom or performing clerical duties. Among the more
clerical duties are grading papers, providing library supervi-
sion, helping with non-routine events such as career days and
chaperoning field trips (Draves, 1976; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987;
Shifflett, 1994; Wagener, 1996).
12. Schmitz, 1973; Murphy, Mahoney, Chen, Mendoza-Diaz, &
Yang, 2005; Utah State Office of Education, 1988; Wagener,
1996).
In addition, they can relieve teachers of "non-professional"
duties and free them up to spend more time giving individual
attention to students who need it most.
Parents as volunteers can be utilized within school settings to
enrich students' experiences and educational opportunities. Par-
ents can act as role models and resource persons. Parents are in
a good position to discover children's interests and to perceive
their emotional reactions to learning situations. At the same
time,
the experience of working in school classrooms broadens par-
ent-volunteers' knowledge and appreciation of the educational
process (Haimberger, 1978; Haley, 1985; Hollerman, 1975;
Powell, 1986).
Involving the Community
The use of volunteer teachers provides a means to involve the
community in education, increase intergroup involvement and
promote closer school-community relationships. Forming part-
nerships with homes, businesses and other organizations can
improve public relations among schools, teachers and the com-
munity. Volunteer teaching programs use community resources
to enrich educational opportunities. They "mine" the expertise
of local community volunteers whose work experience is rel-
evant to teachers' subject matter. They match the specific needs
of school teachers with the interests, skills, talents and time of
volunteers (Education Development Center Inc., 1994; Haley,
1985; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Utah State Office of Education,
1988).
Local community volunteers from businesses and industry can
support the professional development of classroom teachers
13. by contributing a resource that is otherwise difficult to obtain-
released time. This affords teachers the opportunity to meet
together during school hours without hiring costly substitute
teachers (Education Development Center Inc., 1994).
Disadvantages
Overall, few disadvantages are reported regarding volunteer
programs in schools. However, implementing a program neces-
sitates resources in oversight and organization.
Organization & Training
Volunteer teacher programs face bureaucratic hurdles and
associ-
ated red tape. They need to be properly supported and
maintained,
and require a structural organization and administrative over-
sight such as a volunteer coordinator, an advisory committee,
ongoing management and supervision. Program policies must
be implemented by program managers, volunteer coordinators
and staff. Teachers must supervise and monitor the performance
of volunteers. Evaluation components need to be developed and
administered. Before all of this happens, volunteers need to be
recruited, screened, interviewed and placed. In some cases,
there
may be difficulties in matching volunteer teaching interests
with
areas of volunteer needed in school districts (Fenzel & Flippen,
2006; Haley, 1985; LeVine & Schmitz, 1973; Lewis & Doorlag,
1987; Powell, 1986; Walker, Scherry, & Morrow, 1999).
Volunteers should be well-trained. Orientation and training
sessions normally need to be planned and conducted for instruc-
tional volunteer personnel in effective teaching and tutoring
strategies. Materials used in development workshops to train
volunteers need to be formulated and constructed. Various peda-
gogical challenges must be overcome in the training of
15. Volunteer Teaching Opportunities
Research has determined that the training of volunteer teacher
associates should generally include observation, classroom ses-
sions, a public school practicum and two full days of work per
week at a local school (Wagener, 1996). The use of volunteer
teachers in a rural primary school has been found to increase
reg-
ular classroom-teacher planning time, general instructional time
and individualized-instructional time (Shifflett, 1994). The use
of trained college student volunteers to prevent summer
learning
loss of low-income, public elementary school students showed
consistent, although not statistically significant, positive effects
for high attendance participants (Borman et al., 2001). The use
of community volunteer 'mentors' to provide individualized sup-
port and guidance to gifted children in research techniques and
in conducting independent research studies has been found to be
efficacious (Cellerino, 1981).
Terms & Concepts
Clerical Duties: Tasks performed in support and assistance to a
professional such as a teacher in a school classroom.
Docents: Volunteer teachers which are used by zoos, museums,
parks and other informal educational programs to fulfill their
educational missions.
Enrichment: Offering additional, supplementary learning oppor-
tunities and activities of special interest to some students (e.g.,
gifted students) typically outside or beyond the normal or core
curriculum.
Extension Curriculum: An educational program or course of
16. study provided in the extended community-outside the conven-
tional school settings; includes distance education and web-
based
courses.
Instructional Adjuncts: Individuals associated with and serv-
ing in auxiliary capacities to teachers in performing educational
duties and fulfilling related responsibilities; teaching assistants.
Practicum: An educational assignment offering practical, active,
"on-the-job" experience in a specific work setting (e.g., an
intern-
ship in a public-school classroom).
Released Time: Time during normal school hours in which
teachers are freed from their regular duties in order to meet for
professional development.
Teacher Corps: An organized national, statewide or local group
of teachers serving together and performing roles toward a
common purpose under shared leadership.
Volunteerism: The practice of giving and performing voluntary
services without associated cost or obligation.
Volunteer Teachers: Teachers, and related instructional support
personnel, who provide varied educational services inside and
outside of traditional, conventional school classrooms on a vol-
untary or free-will, and usually no-cost, basis.
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25. education. Journal for a Just & Caring Education, 4 (1),
65-77.
Essay by R. D. Merritt, PhD
Dr. R. D. Merritt has a Doctorate in education/curriculum &
instruction with a specialization in science education from New
Mexico
State University, Las Cruces. He has multiple degrees in both
education and science and he has worked professionally in both
fields.
In addition to serving as an educational consultant, he is also a
freelance and contract writer and is the author of numerous
publications
including refereed journal articles and resource books.
Copyright of Volunteer Teaching Opportunities -- Research
Starters Education is the property
of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or
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I'll Never Do It Again By: Clift, Elayne. Chronicle of Higher
26. Education,
v55 n38 pA33 May 2009. (EJ847210)
ERIC
COMMENTARY
I'll Never Do It Again
I trained for it, I tried it, and I'll never do it again. While online
teaching may be the wave of the future
(although I desperately hope not), it is not for me. Perhaps I'm
the old dog that resists new tricks. Maybe I
am a technophobe. It might be that I'm plain old-fashioned.
This much I can say with certainty: I have years of experience
successfully teaching in collegiate
classrooms, and online teaching doesn't compare. So I'll just
chalk up my first and only venture to
experience and make my way back to the traditional academy.
Here are five reasons why.
1. "Virtual community" is the ultimate oxymoron. It is an
inherent contradiction in terms -- like saying
one is "fresh from the tennis court." While some people find the
anonymity enabling and are able to bond
with their cybergroup and engage in true confessions, I find it
extraordinarily difficult to communicate with
27. people for whom I have no face, no persona, no body language,
no in-the-moment exchange. To me, virtual
anything is by definition not real. In the case of the classroom,
it is a substitute for an actual space in which
people physically gather to explore, discuss, grapple, and grow
together in the true spirit of learning and
meaningful exchange.
2. The lack of immediacy in communication is maddening. I met
my British husband 38 years ago when
we both worked in Washington. When his job ended and he
returned to London during a tenuous time in our
relationship, it took us at least seven days to have a
conversation, let alone an argument. (Those were not
only pre-computer days; overseas phone calls were still
considered a luxury.) I revisited that experience
every time I read and responded to students' posts, waiting to
see what they would say the next time I
heard from them, all the while worrying that my feedback might
be misinterpreted and thus hurtful or
confusing. I can think of no more important place for immediate
communication to occur than in a classroom
where difficult subjects are being discovered and debated. It is
essential, in my view, that a teacher be able
to probe, clarify, comment in the moment. That moment is lost
28. in a virtual community.
3. The quality of education is compromised in online learning.
My first experience with "distance
learning" did not occur in an online course, but it did involve
adult learners and minimal face-to-face time. I
taught in an adult degree program in which faculty members met
with students only periodically -- two
weeks a year or on selected weekends. The rest of the student-
teacher dialogue occurred through the mail.
I never felt that the independent research that the students were
undertaking completely matched what they
might have learned from a structured curriculum designed to
expose them, in a systematic way, to theories
and key thinkers in their fields of interest. I can say
unequivocally that students were given credit for
independent work that never would have passed muster in a
traditional course of study.
Similarly, in online teaching, I was only able to introduce
students to a limited amount of material outside of
the textbook readings; it is simply impossible to replicate a
lecture online. Nor could I adequately help them
develop better writing and critical thinking skills or to foster
original ideas because there simply wasn't
enough time or a proper forum. For one thing, online courses, in
29. my experience, are too big; I can't give
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each student enough attention. That load contributes to the poor
quality of discourse -- an interchange that,
in traditional classrooms, is not only my reward but a way for
students to realize their own intellectual
growth.
4. Show me the money. I devoted at least three times as many
hours and triple the energy to online
teaching than was necessary for traditional courses. But I
received no additional compensation for that
effort. I considered that exploitation. Enough said.
5. Online teaching can be very punishing. In addition to the lack
of financial incentive that one might
reasonably expect from such an endeavor, it would have been
nice to feel that I had some down time and a
day off occasionally, as I did with classroom teaching. Sure, I
had to plan interesting classes in that setting,
deliver them in a lively fashion for three hours at a time, and
30. suffer the penalties of grading copious papers
and exams. But with my online course, I never had a day off.
Never! I tried to confine my reading days to
twice, then three times per week, but I just couldn't keep up
with all the posts, replies, planning,
announcements, tracking, grading, and so on unless I visited the
increasingly dreaded Blackboard almost
every day.
Then there were all the e-mail messages that I received from
students. This one didn't understand the
assignment. That one wanted to tell me why her assignment was
late. Another felt that my feedback was
too negative. Yet another wanted to apologize for the way she
had stated her position, and on and on.
Weary and obsessed, I began to feel that, despite my best
efforts, I was not up to the task, not in control,
not meeting my own standards. On top of that, I suspected my
students didn't like me very much. That hurt.
I began to break out in rashes and suffer sleepless nights.
That's when I knew that I would not do it again and would chalk
it up to experience -- even if that decision
meant hanging up my chalk altogether. Try to talk me down.
Tell me I didn't give it enough time. Call me
31. old-fashioned and out-of-date. Just don't call me to teach
online.
I'll leave that to (younger?) teachers who like living in a virtual
world of virtual students with virtual goals,
capacities, and ideas. Me? I'll stick to the virtues of live human
interaction -- in the classroom and elsewhere
-- in a world rapidly becoming, as some of my students might
say, "totally unreal!"
~~~~~~~~
By Elayne Clift
Elayne Clift has been a lecturer at various colleges and
universities since 1987. In 2005-6 she taught at
Payap University in Chiang Mai, Thailand. She is the author of
ACHAN: A Year of Teaching in Thailand
(Bangkok Books, 2007).
The Chronicle of Higher Education: (http://chronicle.com) 1-
800-728-2803 Copyright of Chronicle of Higher
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Strayer University Library
33. to the American Society for Training & Development, in 2006
companies in the United States spent almost $130 billion on
employee education and development, which roughly equates to
$1,040 per employee. In 2012 the figure was $164.2 billion —
and this after a prolonged nationwide downsizing of the U.S.
workforce (Miller, 2013). These figures represent direct costs,
such as training staff salaries, administrative costs, delivery
costs, and workshop costs (ASTD, 2007a).
Work-based education can be formal training, informal train-
ing, and embedded learning. Most consider formal training to
be “scheduled instruction delivered by a designated trainer in a
classroom or similar setting, whether in the workplace or else-
where. Informal training has referred to unscheduled instruction
or coaching provided by co-workers or supervisors during
work”
(Barron et al, 1997; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1996a,b, as
cited in Stern, Song & O'Brien, 2004). Embedded learning does
not involve interaction between employees and trainers, which
formal and informal training do. Instead, embedded learning is
solitary in nature and can take the form of written manuals,
com-
puterized training, and online, interactive materials available
through public or private websites (Stern et al., 2004).
Trainer Strategies
When funds are short, training is usually one of the first budget
items to be cut. Trainers need to be able to provide effective
train-
ing and be able to show management that the training offered is
effective and will pay off in the long run. According to Caudron
(2000), some strategies that can be used include:
• Linking training objectives to the company's strategies.
Trainers can look at the company's annual report, ask for
the top few objectives of each department, and gain an
34. understanding of the company's goals and strategies. By
understanding the company's specific objectives, they can
help assure that employees are all moving in the same
direction.
• Addressing the company's culture. Many times simply
presenting the information to employees is not enough.
There may be cultural barriers that affect employees'
Abstract
Overview
Trainer Strategies
Applications
Developing a Training Program
Types of Training Approaches
Evaluating Training
Training Techniques for Adult Learners
Outsourcing
Viewpoints
Terms & Concepts
Bibliography
Suggested Reading
Table of Contents
36. • Being discriminating of training suppliers. When looking
to select prepackaged lessons or bring in outside assis-
tance for training, it is important to make sure that the
outside vendors adhere to the same principles addressed
above to help ensure that employees are getting relevant,
effective training (Caudron, 2000, p. 36-37).
Applications
Developing a Training Program
Chang (1994) suggests the following steps to develop an effec-
tive training program:
• Conduct a needs analysis, determine if and how training
may help improve job performance, and create training
outcomes.
• Select the training approach or approaches that can best
support the training outcomes and improve job perfor-
mance.
• Produce all necessary training tools, such as handouts,
visual aids, etc.
• Use appropriate training techniques to present the materi-
als.
• Conduct assessments to determine whether the training
did help improve job performance and redesign or tweak
the training as necessary.
• Report assessment results to all stakeholders.
• Continue to follow through with assessment to make sure
participants are still using what they learned in training
(Chang, 1994).
37. A needs analysis should be completed in order to identify train-
ing needs, to make sure that training addresses the need and that
it is, in fact, necessary. Once training has been determined to be
necessary, it is then necessary to create training objectives and
design a training approach, taking into consideration who the
participants will be.
Types of Training Approaches
There are different learning approaches that can be used either
separately or in conjunction with each other:
• Training by lecture, in which the trainer delivers the
material to the class. This is the most frequently used
method.
• Structured discussion: conversations between participants
facilitated by the trainer.
• A panel discussion, which is short lectures or a discussion
by a variety of trainers or experts in the field, rather than
just one person.
• Case studies, which are written descriptions of relevant
situations that contain enough details so participants can
discus specifics and come to conclusions.
• Skill application reenacts specific situations so that
partic-
ipants can create their own on-the-job situations of issues
and get input from the trainer and other participants.
• Simulation gives a detailed description of a situation
that contains programmed decision points that teams of
participants can discuss (Chang, 1994).
Producing the necessary training tools includes determining
39. they were supposed to learn from the training. Sometime after
training has been completed, or after a suitable time for ongoing
training, it should be determined if participants are actually
using
it on the job, making the training useful and effective.
Company-
focused results should also be evaluated to be able to show the
link between training and the results desired by the
organization.
This can be difficult to prove in some cases because other inter-
nal and external factors can also contribute to something like an
increase in sales-a competitor goes out of business, prices were
lowered, etc. The overall organizational impact should also be
measured by looking at pre-training data and post-training mea-
surements. All of these measurements can help show the benefit
of training (Wade, 1998).
In evaluating company-focused results, the results can be gen-
erally broken down into two categories: hard skills and soft
skills. Saving time, increasing production, lowering cost, and
increasing quality are examples of hard skills. Soft skills are
more difficult to measure and can include improved work prac-
tices, better management or team skills, increased initiative,
and improved company climate or culture. There are four kinds
of measures that can be used in analyzing hard skills (Wade,
1998):
• Time. Is there a decrease in the amount of overtime, an
improvement of on-time deliveries, a decrease in turn-
around time, an increase in the number of commitments
completed on time, etc.
• Output. Has there been an increase in the number of
sales, the percentage of new clients, the number of prod-
ucts produced, etc.
40. • Quality. Is there a decrease in the amount of work that
had to be redone, a decrease in the number of production
problems, an increase in the number of jobs successfully
completed, etc.
• Cost. Has there been a decrease in inventory costs,
replacement costs, overtime costs, additional employee
costs, etc.
Soft skills are more difficult to measure because they are usu-
ally based on employees' behaviors and attitudes, but they can
be
measured to some degree. There are four kinds of measures that
can be used in analyzing soft skills (Wade, 1998):
• Work Practices. Is there an improvement in
attendance,
a decrease in the number of safety violations, a decrease
in employee tardiness, an increase in the number of
people willing to work overtime, etc.
• Management/Team Skills. Is there an improvement in
the use of active listening skills, an increase in the num-
ber of conflicts successfully handled, an increase of team
decision-making opportunities, etc.
• Promotion Potential and Initiative. Is there an
increase
in the number of new ideas implemented, the number
of training sessions or conferences attended, number of
projects successfully completed, etc.
• Climate/Culture. Is there a decrease in the number of
discrimination complaints filed, number of employee
grievances filed, employee turnover rate, etc.
41. Training Techniques for Adult Learners
Adults learn differently than children. For many adults, they
must want to learn in order to learn. It has also been contended
that adults only learn what they feel they need to learn, which
can
really put pressure on trainers to make sure participants under-
stand the relevance of the training. Adults also learn by doing,
by being able to solve practical, real-life problems, by applying
what they have already done and know and by having the trainer
use a variety of training methods (Wilson, 1994).
First and foremost, trainers must be knowledgeable about the
subject matter they are going to present, especially since they
are
going to be presenting to people who may already be familiar
with the subject matter and have difficult questions to ask.
Train-
ers must also be adept at verbal and nonverbal delivery because
it does not make any difference if they are the most knowledge-
able person in the world on the subject if they cannot express
their ideas and thoughts in a way that participants can under-
stand and relate to. Nonverbal skills, such as hand gestures,
body
movements, facial expressions, and the amount of eye contact
made can affect how a trainer is perceived and accepted by the
participants.
Since most adults prefer visuals and handouts for reference, it
is important to create effective program materials. When pro-
ducing visuals for display in the room, it is important that they
be visible and easy to read by everyone in the room. Visuals
should also be kept simple with just keywords or phrases and
not full sentences and paragraphs, which are difficult to read
and
remember. All information presented should be updated and fac-
tual. Even one piece of outdated material can reflect poorly on
43. playing.
By providing objectives to participants at the beginning of
train-
ing, participants are able to see the overall picture of what they
are expected to learn and know what will be covered and in
what
order. Having the objectives also allows them to judge for them-
selves if they are learning, which also gives them an
opportunity
to do some follow up if necessary. Active participation allows
participants to interact with coworkers and the trainer. This
helps
create an atmosphere where participants feel free to share their
thoughts and ideas and ask questions. By keeping these prin-
ciples in mind, adults are more likely to be engaged, actively
learn, and transfer what they have learned in class to their jobs
(Gaibraith & Fouch, 2007).
Outsourcing
In larger organizations where it is necessary to implement sys-
tem-wide training programs, outsourcing is popular as a means
of producing quick, cost-effective training. As of 2006, train-
ing outsourcing was about $1 billion business and is expected
to grow. For companies that provide training, companies that
are geographically far flung and do not have training programs
already in place can provide them with rather lucrative business
contracts in the millions of dollars. A few examples of training
outsourcing contracts for 2006 and 2007 include an $18 mil-
lion multi-year contract, a $67 million five-year contract, a
$127
million five-year contract, and a $340 million ten-year contract
("Training Outsourcing to Exceed $1 Billion," 2007). Mergers
are also making outsourcing of training more popular. When a
merger occurs, there are a lot of people who need to be trained
about the new company, what its values and vision are, and
44. what
new skills they will be expected to know ("Mergers Transform-
ing Outsourced Training," 2006).
Viewpoints
Some issues that corporate trainers have to deal with are that
the people who need the training most are not the ones sent or
the ones who voluntarily come; that management often wants
a course to be shortened, which does not afford enough time
needed to meet all the course objectives and effectively present
the training; and that sometimes trainers are even undermined
by
managers who tell their employees that they may be being
taught
to do something one way but they want them to do it a different
way. With these potential obstacles in mind, Ketter (2006) sug-
gests there are a few ways that trainers can get management's
support for employee training and development programs:
• Trainers should link the training to the company's busi-
ness plan and goals to show why the training can be
useful to employees.
• Trainers can also involve participants' managers during
the needs analysis portion of training development. This
will show managers that their employees will be learning
competencies that can help improve the way business is
done.
• Trainers should report the results of the needs analysis
and send managers a proposed course outline so that they
can see how the training can help their employees and
take any comments received by managers into consider-
ation when fine tuning the course.
45. • Trainers can also gather the managers together for a brief
meeting a few weeks before the training begins to tell
them again about the course, hopefully get their buy-in,
and then they will encourage their employees to attend -
or require that they participate.
• Trainers can also have managers who are supportive of
the proposed training program come to a training session
and help present in their areas of expertise.
• Trainers should gather the participants together after a
few weeks so they can report on the benefits they have
received from the training and conduct a cost-benefit
analysis to show the practical success of the training
(Ketter, 2006).
The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that by 2010 the coun-
try will face a shortage of 10 million skilled workers (cited in
Gaibraith & Fouch, 2007), which means even more training may
be necessary than currently exists. By following sound training
techniques, adult learning theories, and conducting appropriate
follow up, training programs can satisfy even the most skeptical
person and prove that they can help improve a company's
bottom
line by helping employees become more productive and confi-
dent in their jobs, which can also help reduce employee
turnover
rates.
Terms & Concepts
Assessment: Assessment is the act of judging the value of the
training.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: A cost-benefit analysis is a technique
47. ASTD (2007b). Excellence in practice awards. Retrieved
November 18, 2007, from http://www.astd.org/ASTD/
aboutus/AwardsandBestPractices/excellenceInPrac-
ticeAwards/
Blaschke, L. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A
review of heutagogical practice and self-determined
learning. International Review of Research in Open &
Distance Learning, 13(1), 56-71. Retrieved December 15,
2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=ehh&AN=71275487&site=ehost-live
Caudron, S. (2000). Learning revives training. Workforce,
79(1), 34. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO
Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.
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1520&site=ehost-live
Chang, R. (1994). Developing high-impact training. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.
Freifeld, L. (2013). Solving today's skill gaps. Training, 50(6),
52-57. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online
Database Education Research Complete. http://search.
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83125&site=ehost-live
Gaibraith, D. & Fouch, S. (2007). Principles of adult learning.
Professional Safety, 52(9), 35-40. Retrieved November
15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=aph&AN=26502803&site=ehost-live
Ketter, P. (2006). Management's commitment to training. T+D,
60 (10), 95. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO
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Mergers transforming outsourced training. (2006). Workforce
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from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier.
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ph&AN=23544228&site=ehost-live
Miller, L. (2013). ASTD's 2013 state of the industry report:
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December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database
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Wade, P. (1998). Measuring the impact of training. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.
51. Adult Education > GED Programs
Abstract
General Educational Development (GED) programs are the most
widely recognized form of secondary-level adult education in
the United States and Canada. GED programs give high school
dropouts of all ages the opportunity to earn a General Equiva-
lency Degree by passing the GED certification exam. The GED
exam is produced and administered by the American Council on
Education's (ACE) GED Testing Service. Though most states do
not require test-takers to undergo any formal preparation, many
local community colleges, secondary schools, and other com-
munity centers offer preparation courses. Books and practice
tests can also help students study on their own. Those who pass
the test can benefit from improved employment and postsecond-
ary educational opportunities, as well as greater self-
confidence.
Critics of the test claim that its availability increases the high
school dropout rate, and that a GED certificate is not as
valuable
as a high school diploma. Educators and lawmakers are
currently
debating the feasibility of offering the GED in Spanish.
Overview
General Educational Development (GED) programs are the most
widely recognized form of secondary-level adult education in
the United States and Canada. GED programs give individuals
of all ages who did not graduate high school the opportunity
to earn a General Equivalency Degree, or GED certificate, by
demonstrating sufficient cognitive skills and mastery of key
high school curriculum subject areas. GED program participants
demonstrate these skills not through classroom attendance and
52. participation, but by passing the GED exam. Those who pass the
GED test are no longer counted as dropouts, but are considered
high school graduates in state, local, and federal educational
sta-
tistics (Smith, 2003).
The GED exam is produced and administered by the American
Council on Education's (ACE) GED Testing Service and
Pearson,
an education publisher. The 2002 version of the exam was really
a battery of five standardized tests made up of nearly 300 mul-
tiple choice questions and one essay, and taking slightly less
than
8 hours to complete. The 2014 test has four sections: Reasoning
Through Language Arts, Science, Social Studies, and Mathe-
matical Reasoning and is aligned with Common Core Standards.
Even though the tests are geared towards specific areas of
study,
each portion of the exam is designed to test for the same "set of
basic cognitive skills" (Boesl, Alsalam, & Smith, 1998, p. ix).
Test takers must be able to recall some factual knowledge, but
it is far more important that they exercise fundamental critical
thinking skills. In the math section, for example, test takers do
Abstract
Overview
Preparing for & Taking the GED Exam
The Origins of the GED Program
Applications
What are the Benefits to Earning a GED?
54. not need to memorize mathematical formulas, but they do need
to know how to use the formulas (provided in the exam) to solve
math problems (Boesl et al., 1998).
Besides creating the GED exam, ACE also sets its minimum
passing requirements. In the early years of the GED, exams
were fairly easy to pass. In the years between 1954 and 1960,
for
example, between 76% and 80% of test-takers passed the exam
each year (Boesl et al., 1998, p. 8). This is because, in order to
pass the test, test-takers simply had to beat the chance factor,
or choose more correct answers than could be accounted for
by chance (Smith, 2003). ACE's standards have become more
stringent over the years, and currently test-takers must score at
more than double the chance factor in order to pass the GED
exam. Additionally, state assemblies are free to legislate pass-
ing requirements that exceed those set by ACE, and many states
choose to do so (Smith, 2003).
Approximately once every decade, ACE designs an entirely new
GED test. These overhauls change not only the content but also
the actual form of the test in order to reflect general changes
in high school curriculum. In 1988, for example, the essay sec-
tion was added to what had theretofore been an entirely multiple
choice exam (Smith, 2003). Over the years, the trend in these
overhauls has been away from the recall of factual knowledge
and towards the testing of overall critical thinking abilities
(Smith, 2003). The latest GED exam was introduced in 2014,
amending not only the content but also the mean of taking the
test. Paper tests were eliminated in 2013, with fully online tests
being implemented in January 2014.
Preparing for & Taking the GED Exam
The GED exam is administered locally, and is usually given at
local secondary schools, community colleges, or other educa-
tional community centers. Each state sets its own policies as to
55. who is eligible to take the GED exam. Many states require test
takers to be 18 years of age or older, but offer special
exemptions
for test-takers as young as 16 years of age. Some states require
test-takers to pass a practice test before they sit for the GED;
others do not. States also decide what type of credential is given
to those who pass the test. Most states issue either an equiva-
lency certificate or an adult education diploma (Miller, 2006).
In most states, no type of formal preparation is required in
order to take the GED exam (Smith, 2003). However, test-tak-
ers utilize a variety of preparation methods. Test preparation
courses and adult education courses are offered at many local
community colleges, secondary schools, and other community
educational centers (Pluviose, 2006). If test-takers cannot attend
such a course, or prefer to study on their own, books and prac-
tice tests are available. Many cable and publicly supported TV
stations also offer programming geared towards GED test prepa-
ration (Smith, 2003). Finally, a significant number of GED test
takers prepare for the test while incarcerated. The Department
of
Correctional Services offers evening classes, Adult Basic
Educa-
tion (ABE) literacy programs in both Spanish and English, and
additional instruction for inmates at all primary and secondary
educational levels. Most prisons run both pre-GED programs for
inmates whose cognitive and reading abilities are below the 9th
but above the 5th grade level, and GED programs for inmates
with abilities above a 9th grade level (Nuttal, Hollmen, &
Staley,
2003).
The Origins of the GED Program
The General Educational Development program was conceived
during World War II as an alternative way to enable returning
56. vet-
erans to resume high school educations that had been
interrupted
by military service (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). The Roosevelt
administration intended the GED exam to prevent the return of
veterans into the civilian population from causing an economic
depression. If veterans could quickly and easily earn GED cer-
tificates, then they could seek higher education with the help of
the GI Bill instead of flooding the job market. The
administration
also hoped that the existence of the GED certificate would quell
public opposition to the drafting of teenagers (Smith, 2003).
At this early stage, the GED certification exam was available
only to veterans. Colleges and universities looked upon a Gen-
eral Equivalency Diploma favorably, as they were pre-disposed
to admit veterans whose education would be funded by the GI
Bill (Smith, 2003). Even as ACE began exploring the use of the
GED among non-veterans, making it available to civilians in
1947, most states continued to prohibit civilians from taking
part
in GED programs (Miller, 2006; Smith, 2003). By 1959, how-
ever, most GED test-takers were non-veterans; and by 1974 all
50 states awarded all GED test-passers, regardless of military or
civilian status, high school equivalency diplomas (Smith, 2003).
Currently, the majority of GED test-takers are both civilians
and
relatively recent high school dropouts.
Applications
What are the Benefits to Earning a GED?
The U.S. Department of Education, working in concert with the
National Library for Education, has identified several beneficial
effects of participating in a GED program and earning a GED
certificate:
58. ment to employers and associates and may correspondingly lead
to increases in wages and professional responsibilities.
The GED & Post-secondary Educational Opportunities
Research has shown that the GED certificate is perhaps most
valuable not as stimulus to revenue growth, but as a stimulus to
higher education (Brown, 2000). High school dropouts cannot
enroll in college and university courses without a GED certifi-
cate. Two-thirds of GED program participants indicate that they
are in fact taking the GED in order to become eligible for
higher
education programs (Smith, 2003). In addition, GED certificate
holders tend to participate in vocational and other non-college
or university-affiliated educational programs more often than
other high school dropouts (Baycich, 2003). While GED certifi-
cate holders are more likely than other dropouts to earn a
college
degree, they are still less likely than high school graduates to
earn one (Smith, 2003).
The GED as a Self-Confidence Booster
Many high school dropouts develop low self-esteem. Low self-
esteem has been shown to contribute to negative behaviors such
as poor work performance and even crime. Participating in a
GED
program can help break this cycle by boosting self-confidence
and serving as the first step in improving the circumstances of a
high school dropout's life. Anecdotal evidence strongly supports
this conclusion (Boesel et al., 1998).
Viewpoints
Does the GED Raise the High School Dropout Rate?
Currently, nearly 50% of GED test-takers are age 19 or younger.
In 2001, GED certificates constituted 19% of all high school
credentials awarded by state departments of education (Smith,
2003). Many experts believe that these trends towards more and
59. younger GED test-takers indicate a troubling conclusion: The
GED may actually encourage students to drop out of high school
(Rachal & Bingham, 2004). In many U.S. states and throughout
Canada, dropouts must be aged 19 or older in order to take the
GED exam. This rule is intended to prevent students from drop-
ping out of high school in order to earn a GED sooner than they
could earn a high school diploma. However, most states offer
exemptions so that students as young as 16 years of age often
take the exam (Miller, 2006). The fact that a steadily increasing
percentage of GED test-takers are of high school age suggests
that dropouts may leave high school with a predetermined inten-
tion of earning a GED. Some students choose to do this because
they see a GED program as an easier path than high school
(Rachal & Bingham, 2004). If a student is struggling in school
and perceives a GED as having equal status with a traditional
high school diploma, then it would make sense for that student
to drop out of high school and sit for the GED exam. After all,
passing the exam requires much less time and energy than does
completing high school (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). In some
states, such as Florida, high-stakes testing - whereby students
must pass certain standardized exams in order to earn a diploma
-
exacerbates this situation. Students in these states who may
have
trouble passing state exams drop out of school in order to take
and pass the less rigorous GED exam (Fratt, 2004).
In terms of human capital theory, the GED may thus offer a
disincentive to invest in education (Boesel et al., 1998). Com-
pleting a GED program takes only a fraction of the classroom
time associated with a traditional high school diploma (Smith,
2003; Georges, 2001). If students who would otherwise stay in
school choose to dropout because of the availability of the
GED,
then the GED is encouraging students to invest less time and
60. energy - less human capital - in their futures.
An Alternative to High School?
Some high school administrators take a different approach to
this issue. They tout GED programs as a welcome alternative
for problem students who cause disruptions among the gen-
eral school population (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). Sylvia E.
Robinson, the executive director of the General Educational
Development Testing Service, shares this view. She wants to
explicitly market the GED exam to high school students as an
alternative path for students who are having a difficult time in
school and contemplating dropping out (Pluviose, 2006). This
strategy is viewed as an effective practice because GED cer-
tificate holders are counted as graduates in state and federal
educational statistics. So long as dropouts earn GED
certificates,
schools can remove disruptive students without raising the over-
all high school dropout rate. In addition, schools do not have to
fund their own night courses for problem students if they move
these students directly into GED courses (Smith, 2003).
Critics charge that marketing the GED as an alternative to high
school "amounts to administrative collusion in the dropout cul-
ture" (Rachal & Bingham, 2004, p. 38). Adult educators are
especially frustrated by this approach because it contributes to
the trend towards younger GED test-takers. GED programs have
historically been the cornerstone of U.S. adult education, and
when recent high school dropouts enroll in such programs, fed-
eral money earmarked for adult education is in effect
subsidizing
youth education (George & Schaefer, 2002; Rachal & Bingham,
2004).
Still others argue that the availability of the GED exam to
young
high school dropouts has not raised the dropout rate. While it is
62. 1998). On average, high school graduates have spent 861 more
hours completing core curriculum subject work than GED cer-
tificate holders (Smith, 2003). Most GED test-takers never make
up for the number of hours they missed by dropping out of high
school (Boesel et al., 1998). Even if GED test-takers spend a
significant amount of time studying for the exam, they still
expe-
rience less classroom time than high school graduates (Georges,
2001). Because GED certificate holders have invested less time
and energy in their secondary school education, they tend to
reap
fewer rewards from it.
There is another important way in which a GED certificate is
not
comparable to a high school diploma. Unlike a diploma, a GED
certificate does not indicate the internalization of institutional
norms (Smith, 2003). In order to earn a high school diploma,
students must adapt to and follow certain normative behaviors
associated with school. They must respect teachers, come to
class
on time, complete homework, and follow myriad other rules. In
contrast, GED certificate holders do not need to surmount any
of these "institutional barriers" - they only need to pass an exam
(Smith, 2003, p. 376). Many GED test-takers dropped out of
high school not because they lacked the cognitive skills needed
to complete their coursework, but because they were unable to
assume acceptable attitudes and behaviors at school (Brown,
2000). Evidence shows that prospective employers are aware of
this situation and value a GED less than a high school diploma
precisely because it signals unsuitability to a structured work-
place environment (Smith, 2003). This perceived lack of a
strong
work ethic makes some GED certificate holders less employable
than high school graduates (Brown, 2000).
63. The United States Armed Services has come to exactly this
conclusion. Due to higher attrition rates associated with GED
certificate holders, the military does not view a GED as equiva-
lent to a high school diploma (George & Schaefer, 2002).
Military
researchers have found that GED certificate holders have attri-
tion rates double those of high school graduates and comparable
with those of high school dropouts (Boesel et al., 1998).
Accord-
ingly, in its three tier system, the military rates GED certificate
holders as more desirable recruits than high school dropouts but
less desirable recruits than high school graduates. The military
has also decided that no more than 10% of new recruits each
year
can have a GED certificate rather than a high school diploma
(George & Schaefer, 2002).
The GED also appears to be less valuable than a high school
diploma in the realm of higher education. There is evidence that
GED certificate holders who pursue higher education earn lower
grades and have lower graduation rates than do high school
grad-
uates (Boesel et al., 1998). The rate at which GED certificate
holders complete postsecondary educational programs is low for
all but vocational programs (Smith, 2003).
Spanish Language GED
Some recent immigrants and Spanish-speaking youth choose to
take the GED because their English skills are too poor to make
finishing high school and earning a diploma feasible (Zehr,
2006). One study has shown that 44% of Hispanic high school
students were expected to drop out of school in 2006 alone
(Pluviose, 2006). The Spanish language version of the test was
released in 2013; however, it was available only in conjunction
with the computerized test. This meant that the Spanish test was
65. GED Programs
General Equivalency Degree (GED): One of the meanings
denoted by GED; refers to the certificate earned by those who
pass the GED exam.
High School Diploma: Credential given to students who com-
plete all of the curricular and extracurricular requirements
mandated by state and local educational agencies.
High School Dropout: A student who leaves high school before
completing the requirements for a diploma.
Human Capital: The knowledge and skills that allow a person to
engage in productive labor in return for payment.
Vocational Training/Education: Non-academic education that
prepares students for careers that require manual or technical
skills.
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Essay by Ashley L. Cohen;
Edited by Karen A. Kallio, M.Ed.
Ms. Kallio earned her B.A. in English from Clark University
and her Master's in Education from the University of
Massachusetts at
Amherst. She lives and works in the Boston area.
