The study of the human being can be narrowed down into what is referred to as psychology. The chapter presented various theories which touch directly on the human living. These theories have then been explained, and good examples of the same have been given. Having read some blog postings, my friend at home became very stressed, and deviated from the normal manner in which he carried out some various tasks. He became withdrawn and over time, stopped being talkative. Depression began to creep in, and I could tell that he was going through some issues. Upon inquiring what the issues were, he told me that in most of the blog postings that he read, the main topic addressed was on how the female population preferred the quiet kinds of people to the more talkative kind and therefore, this friend of mine decided to be quiet. However, having read the chapter, I understand that human beings are social beings and that everyone has a different level of sociality, which is guided by our emotions (Fredrickson, 2001). For this reason, I would use this concept to motivate this friend of mine to continue socializing like he was previously, with more insistence on his friends who like him for his ability to speak openly. In addition, I would motivate him to understand the difference between his emotions, arousal, and personality, as understood from the theories by individuals such as James-Lange, Cannon-Brad, Schachter-Singer and others. Understanding himself along these lines would enable him to better understand his personality, and in a manner that would ensure he does not go through such an episode again. From what I have learned from the chapter, people are different and understanding everyone as a unique person is the first step towards enjoying the kind of life that a person leads (Carducci, 2009). In conclusion, the above is an outline of how I would motivate the person. References Carducci, B. J. (2009). The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. · Instinct theory (now replaced by the evolutionary perspective) focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors. · Drive-reduction theory focuses on how we respond to our inner pushes. · Arousal theory focuses on finding the right level of stimulation. · Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs focuses on the priority of some needs over others. · How does social networking influence us? 1. As social creatures, we live for connection. Asked what he had learned from studying 238 Harvard University men from the 1930s to the end of their lives, researcher George Vaillant (2009) replied, "The only thing that really matters in life are your relationships to other people." A South African Zulu saying captures the idea: Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu—"a person is a person through other persons." · The Social Effects of Social Networking By connecting like-minded people, the Internet serves as a social amplifier. It also functions as an online dating matchmaker. As electronic comm ...

1. The study of the human being can be narrowed down into what
is referred to as psychology. The chapter presented various
theories which touch directly on the human living. These
theories have then been explained, and good examples of the
same have been given.
Having read some blog postings, my friend at home became
very stressed, and deviated from the normal manner in which he
carried out some various tasks. He became withdrawn and over
time, stopped being talkative. Depression began to creep in, and
I could tell that he was going through some issues. Upon
inquiring what the issues were, he told me that in most of the
blog postings that he read, the main topic addressed was on how
the female population preferred the quiet kinds of people to the
more talkative kind and therefore, this friend of mine decided to
be quiet.
However, having read the chapter, I understand that human
beings are social beings and that everyone has a different level
of sociality, which is guided by our emotions (Fredrickson,
2001). For this reason, I would use this concept to motivate this
friend of mine to continue socializing like he was previously,
with more insistence on his friends who like him for his ability
to speak openly. In addition, I would motivate him to
understand the difference between his emotions, arousal, and
personality, as understood from the theories by individuals such
as James-Lange, Cannon-Brad, Schachter-Singer and others.
Understanding himself along these lines would enable him to
better understand his personality, and in a manner that would
ensure he does not go through such an episode again. From what
I have learned from the chapter, people are different and
understanding everyone as a unique person is the first step
towards enjoying the kind of life that a person leads (Carducci,
2009).
In conclusion, the above is an outline of how I would motivate
the person.

2. References
Carducci, B. J. (2009). The Psychology of Personality:
Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons.
· Instinct theory (now replaced by the evolutionary perspective)
focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors.
· Drive-reduction theory focuses on how we respond to our
inner pushes.
· Arousal theory focuses on finding the right level of
stimulation.
· Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs focuses on the priority
of some needs over others.
· How does social networking influence us?
1. As social creatures, we live for connection. Asked what he
had learned from studying 238 Harvard University men from the
1930s to the end of their lives, researcher George Vaillant
(2009) replied, "The only thing that really matters in life are
your relationships to other people." A South African Zulu
saying captures the idea: Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu—"a
person is a person through other persons."
· The Social Effects of Social Networking
By connecting like-minded people, the Internet serves as a
social amplifier. It also functions as an online dating
matchmaker. As electronic communication becomes part of the
"new normal," researchers are exploring how these changes
affect our relationships.
· What physiological factors produce hunger?
2. Deprived of a normal food supply, Keys' semistarved
volunteers were clearly hungry. But what precisely triggers
hunger? Are the pangs of an empty stomach the source of
hunger? So it seemed to A. L. Washburn. Working with Walter
Cannon (Cannon & Washburn, 1912), Washburn agreed to
swallow a balloon attached to a recording device (Figure 4).
When inflated to fill his stomach, the balloon transmitted his

3. stomach contractions. Washburn supplied information about his
feelings of hunger by pressing a key each time he felt a hunger
pang. The discovery: Washburn was indeed having stomach
contractions whenever he felt hungry.
· Do you eat more when eating with others? Most of us do
(Herman et al., 2003; Hetherington et al., 2006). After a party,
you may realize you've overeaten. This happens because the
presence of others tends to amplify our natural behavior
tendencies (a process called social facilitation).
· Unit bias occurs with similar mindlessness. Working with
researchers at France's National Center for Scientific Research,
Andrew Geier and his colleagues (2006) explored a possible
explanation of why French waistlines are smaller than American
waistlines. From soda drinks to yogurt sizes, the French offer
foods in smaller portion sizes. Does it matter? (One could as
well order two small sandwiches as one large one.) To find out,
the investigators offered people varieties of free snacks. For
example, in the lobby of an apartment house, they laid out
either full or half pretzels, big or little Tootsie Rolls, or a big
bowl of MM’s with either a small or large serving scoop. Their
consistent result: Offered a supersized standard portion, people
put away more calories. In other studies (Wansink, 2006, 2007),
even nutrition experts helped themselves to 31 percent more ice
cream when given a big bowl rather than a small one, and 15
percent more when scooping with a big rather than a small
scoop. Portion size matters.
· Food variety also stimulates eating. Offered a dessert buffet,
we eat more than we do when asked to choose a portion from
one favorite dessert. For our early ancestors, these behaviors
were adaptive. When foods were abundant and varied, eating
more provided a wide range of vitamins and minerals and
produced fat that protected them during winter cold or famine.
When a bounty of varied foods was unavailable, eating less
extended the food supply until winter or famine ended (Polivy
et al., 2008; Remick et al., 2009).

4. James-Lange Theory: Arousal Comes Before Emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and Emotion Occur
Simultaneously
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Arousal + Label =
Emotion
Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Does Cognition Always Precede
Emotion?
Summary of Emotion Theories
Theory
Explanation of Emotions
Example
James-Lange
Emotions arise from our awareness of our specific bodily
responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.
We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid.
Cannon-Bard
Emotion-arousing stimuli trigger our bodily responses and
simultaneous subjective experience.
Our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid.
Schachter-Singer
Our experience of emotion depends on two factors: general
arousal and a conscious cognitive label.
We may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending
on the context.
Zajonc; LeDoux
Some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious
appraisal.
We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before
labeling it as a threat.
Lazarus
Cognitive appraisal ("Is it dangerous or not?")—sometimes
without our awareness—defines emotion.
The sound is "just the wind."
Psychodynamic theories of personality view human behavior as
a dynamic interaction between the conscious and unconscious
mind, including associated motives and conflicts. These theories

5. are descended from Freud's psychoanalysis, Freud's theory of
personality and the associated techniques for treating
psychological disorders. Freud's work was the first to focus
clinical attention on our unconscious mind.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
Stage
Focus
Oral (0-18 months)
Pleasure centers on the mouth—sucking, biting, chewing
Anal (18-36 months)
Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with
demands for control
Phallic (3-6 years)
Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual
feelings
Latency (6 to puberty)
A phase of dormant sexual feelings
Genital (puberty on)
Maturation of sexual interests
· Projective tests aim to provide this "psychological X-ray," by
asking test-takers to describe an ambiguous stimulus or tell a
story about it. The clinician may presume that any hopes,
desires, and fears that people see in the ambiguous image are
projections of their own inner feelings or conflicts.
· The most widely used projective test left some blots on the
name of Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach [ROAR-shock;
1884-1922]. He based his famous Rorschach inkblot test, in
which people describe what they see in a series of inkblots
(Figure 21), on a childhood game. He and his friends would drip
ink on a paper, fold it, and then say what they saw in the
resulting blot (Sdorow, 2005). Do you see predatory animals or
weapons? Perhaps you have aggressive tendencies. But is this a
reasonable assumption? The answer varies.
· Abraham Maslow's Self-Actualizing Person

6. · Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Perspective
The "Big Five" Personality Factors
(Memory tip: Picturing a CANOE will help you recall these.)
Disorganized
←Conscientiousness→
Organized
Careless
Careful
Impulsive
Disciplined
Ruthless
←Agreeableness→
Soft-hearted
Suspicious

7. Trusting
Uncooperative
Helpful
Calm
←Neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability)→
Anxious
Secure
Insecure
Self-satisfied
Self-pitying
Practical
←Openness→
Imaginative
Prefers routine
Prefers variety
Conforming
Independent
Retiring
←Extraversion→
Sociable
Sober
Fun-loving
Reserved
Affectionate

8. Comparing the Major Personality Theories
Personality Theory
Key Proponents
Assumptions
View of Personality
Personality Assessment Methods
Psychoanalytic
Freud
Emotional disorders spring from unconscious dynamics, such as
unresolved sexual and other childhood conflicts, and fixation at
various developmental stages. Defense mechanisms fend off
anxiety.
Personality consists of pleasure-seeking impulses (the id), a
reality-oriented executive (the ego), and an internalized set of
ideals (the superego).
Free association, projective tests, dream analysis
Psychodynamic
Jung, Adler, Horney
The unconscious and conscious minds interact. Childhood
experiences and defense mechanisms are important.
The dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious motives
and conflicts shape our personality.
Projective tests, therapy sessions
Humanistic
Rogers, Maslow
Rather than examine the struggles of sick people, it's better to
focus on the ways healthy people strive for self-realization.
If our basic human needs are met, we will strive toward self-
actualization. In a climate of unconditional positive regard, we
can develop self-awareness and a more realistic and positive

9. self-concept.
Questionnaires, therapy sessions
Trait
Allport, Eysenck, McCrae, Costa
We have certain stable and enduring characteristics, influenced
by genetic predispositions.
Scientific study of traits has isolated important dimensions of
personality, such as the Big Five traits (conscientiousness,
agreeableness, neuroticism, opennes, and extraversion).
Personality inventories
Social-Cognitive
Bandura
Our traits and the social context interact to produce our
behaviors.
Conditioning and observational learning interact with cognition
to create behavior patterns.
Our behavior in one situation is best predicted by considering
our past behavior in similar situations.