The document discusses the connection between learning and memory. It explores how learning and different types of memory, such as implicit, explicit, and procedural memory, interact and allow people to learn and function. The document also examines case studies on how conditions like traumatic brain injury, disease, stress, and addiction can affect learning and memory. Various areas of the brain involved in learning and memory are discussed, such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and limbic system. The key relationship discussed is that learning and memory are interdependent processes - learning cannot occur without memory, and memories cannot be recalled or used without learning.

1. The Learning and Memory Connection
Kimberly Kocak, Pamela Foglesong, Brianna Duda, Lizette
Villavicencio, Maisha Wade
PSY/340
June 8, 2015
Dr. Purvi Patel
Memory and Learning
Memory and learning perform a complicated dance
involving multiple areas of the brain. Memory and Learning
can be affected by numerous events from Traumatic Brain
Injury (TBI), disease and stress, just to name a few. Memory is
implicit for learning but we have many different kinds of
memory and learning. We have implicit memory, explicit
memory, procedural memory, episodic memory, long-term and
short-term, sensory, sematic and working memories. Each play
a role in how we learn and interact with the world and view our
past, present and future. In this presentation we will explore
some of the interactions between memory and learning, look at
a few case studies and talk about types of treatments that are
available, depending on the area and extent of damage to certain
parts of the brain.
http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/03/12/stress-affects-
learning-and-memory/2031.html/ Image
2
Neuroanatomy of Learning and Memory
How do we learn?
Amygdala: An almond shaped mass of nuclei that is associated

2. with emotions, aggression, and memory. The amygdala receives
input about stimuli associated by learning with primary
reinforcers.
Hippocampus: The hippocampus is useful in learning a certain
amount of information. According to
Rolls (2000), “the hippocampus does appear to
be necessary to learn certain types of information, which have
been characterized as declarative, or
knowing that, as contrasted or procedural,
or knowing how, which is pared in amnesia.”
Learning is a behavior, in which an individual acquires
information. Learning is obtaining knowledge, in which the
brain is able to retain and store away. In order for knowledge to
be stored away, it needs memory, so, without memory, learning
would not be possible. “Not only does the amygdala receive
information about primary reinforcers (such as taste and touch),
but it also receives inputs about stimuli (e.g. visual ones) that
can be associated by learning with primary reinforcers” (Rolls,
2000). Primary reinforcers are used within operant conditioning
(learning technique), which are used as a reward for a specific
behavior. Primary reinfrocers do not need to be learned,
meaning, they come naturally.
3
Neuroanatomy of Learning and Memory
How do we remember?
The limbic system is important in the role of learning and
memory. The two major parts of the limbic system responsible
for memory include: amygdala and hippocampus.
“Small to moderate amounts of cortisol activate the amygdala
and hippocampus, where they enhance the storage and
consolidation of recent experiences” (Kalat, 2013). Cortisol is

3. an important part of storing memories.
The limbic system is located on both sides of the thalamus,
under the cerebrum. The hippocampus is important for the recall
of facts and events. The limbic system is responsible for an
individual’s emotions and memories. The hippocampus is
important in converting retained information from short-term
memory into long-term memory. When the hippocampus is
damaged, a person is unable to retain new memories. The
anatomy of the brain can do more than just retain information, it
can also store away that information for when it needs to be
remembered. The hippocampus is located within the temporal
lobe, which is related to the development of memories. The
hippocampus is important in converting retained information
from short-term memory into long-term memory. “One
hemisphere, usually the left, is functionally dominant,
controlling language and speech. The other hemisphere
interprets visual and spatial information” (cerebrum, 2015).
4
Neural Processes Related to Learning and Memory
The brain is made up of about 100 billion neurons, which
receive and transmit information to other neurons, in which
neurons receive and transmit information through the help of
axons and synapses.
Knowledge is passed from one neuron to another by axons that
travel along synapses, which is then stored in short- term
memory. “Researchers proposed that all information initially
entered a short-term storage, where it stayed until the brain had
time to consolidate it into long-term memory”(Kalat, 2013).

4. The process in which information makes its way to long-term
memory can occur in seconds, but sometimes, as people become
distracted, information can be lost forever. As the information
is being transmitted across the neuron’s axons, some
information can be lost, which is why, as we try to recall
memories, we sometimes cannot remember it all. Once the
information has made its way to long-term memory, the more
frequently that information is processed the more our brains can
store and remember the information. Neuroplatiscity is changes
in neural pathways; pathways that connect parts of the brain.
Changes within neural pathways can be a result of an
individual’s environment, behavior, thinking, etc.
5
A Functional Perspective: Learning and Memory
Acquiring Skills and Knowledge
Learning can be permanent and come about in many ways.
Requires many types of stimuli and may or may not help form
memories.
Recollection of Acquisitions
Memory cannot occur without learning
Can be formed over a long or short period of time and recalled
in various forms
Emotional memories are often the strongest, regardless of
positive or negative. (Wesson, 2012). One may listen without
remembering, and one may remember without recalling how
they originally learned that information. Learning and memory
correlate functionally because without the ability to hold
memories, learning would be impossible. In addition, without
the ability to learn, there would be no memories to recall.

5. Learning is the process of acquiring skills and knowledge, while
memory is the process of recalling what has been learned. Many
times we can make memories without noticing. When we try to
learn something, such as class work, the stimuli we encounter
via reading and listening, helps to form memories. We can then
later recall what we previously heard, read, or saw, certainly
easier than we could without the ability to form memories. The
most important part of the relationship between learning and
memories, is the functional concept that one cannot work
without the other. The concept of learning and forming
memories encompasses much more than remembering where you
left your keys. Rather, it helps people navigate the world in a
way that allows to neurological growth and development.
Wesson, K. (2012, March 1). LEARNING & MEMORY: How
Do We Remember and Why Do We Often Forget? Retrieved
June 4, 2015, from http://brainworldmagazine.com/learning-
memory-how-do-we-remember-and-why-do-we-often-forget/
6
Memory and Learning are Interdependent
People with memory loss (amnesia) still have learning abilities
through a type of memory called Procedural Memory, the ability
to develop motor skills. Having motor skills allows you to learn
new things. (Kalat, 2013)
Examples of Procedural Memory:
Riding a bike
Using a fork
Putting on shoes
The examples described all end with a person learning how to
master the task.
Henry Molaison was able to learn how to read backwards, he
knew he could do this but was not aware of how he learned this

6. skill. Other people have also been able to learn skills enough to
even get basic jobs or jobs that require a person do a repetitive
task on a daily basis. (Kalat, 2013) Procedural memory is often
called nondeclarative memory.
7
“Performance improves in normal individuals for several days
(circles). H.M. also improved (boxes), indicating that his ability
to learn this type of procedural nondeclarative memory was
intact, despite the fact that he was unable to form declarative
memories of the task. That is, every day, he had no memory of
the tester or testing situation and required new instructions as to
what the rules were.”(Lombroso,2008)
Matteofarinella.wordpress.com
Any damage to the hippocampus can affect the memory
depending on the extent of the damage or if it is removed
the results can be memory loss which can also affect the
learning abilities of the person.
The picture above shows the improvement of H.M over a period
of four days doing a task and showing improvement. The picture
shows that in fact those with memory loss can learn motor
skills. H.M had to be reminded daily of the instructions on how
to do the task since he didn’t remember again showing an
improvement in motor skills. (Lombroso,2008)
8
Learning
Learning is associated with different types of Memory
Paired-associate Learning – requires learning associations

7. between previously
unrelated pairings of stimuli is thought to engage
declarative memory.
(Poldrack, 2001) Declarative memory is also known
as Procedural
memory.
Fear Conditioning Learning is similar to classical
conditioning but the reward is not pleasant but it’s
rather painful. This type of learning is associated
with nondeclarative memory. (Lombroso, 2008)
Feed-back based learning in this type of learning the
person is given a task but
the researcher gives clues to cue the person to
respond. (Poldrack, 2001) This type of learning is
associated with declarative memory.
Delayed matching-to-sample task or nonmatching- in this
type of learning the subject is presented with a choice
to pick the correct answer and on the nonmatching the
subject needs to identify the opposite. Both are
associated with declarative memory. (Kalat,2013)
Just like in Pavlov’s classical conditioning in fear conditioning
the subject which tends to be animals or more specific rodents
learn to associate and memorize the specific tone with pain and
not food like classical. Although it’s not the best type of
learning we can still see that memory and learning is
interdependent. Spatial memory is useful to find your way
around, one example could be a type of maze and learning how
to find your way around.(Kalat, 2013)
9
PTSD Effects on Memory Case Study

8. Veltmeyer M, McFarlane A, Bryant R, Mayo T, Gordon E, Clark
C. Integrative assessment of brain function in PTSD: brain
stability and working memory. Journal Of Integrative
Neuroscience [serial online]. March 2006;5(1):123-138.
Available from: MEDLINE Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed
June 4, 2015.
http://www.gracepointwellness.org/109-post-traumatic-stress-
disorder/article/27967-memory-reconsolidation-and-treatment-
for-post-traumatic-stress-ptsd/Image
10
Addiction:
Relating Learning and Memory to the Process of Powerlessness
What happens when we remember too much or too powerfully?
In recent years, researchers and mental health professionals
have worked to understand and treat the causes of addiction.
There is a new view on the process of addiction, which is
strongly based in how people learn and retain memories. The
American Journal of Psychology suggests that there is a,
“…compelling case for a “pathological learning” model of
addiction that is consistent with long-standing observations
about the behavior of addicted people.” (Hyman, 2005).
Addiction is a serious disorder that effects millions of people
all over the world. Originally it was believed, by professionals,
that the basis of addiction rested on the idea that levels of
certain chemicals in the brain were “off”. That is only one part
of the process of most mental illness. In recent years,
researchers and mental health professionals have reevaluated
their theories and suggest that addiction is a disease based in

9. learning and memory. From the beginning, humans have learned
that by doing certain things and acting a certain ways can result
in some sort of reward. The use of substances and acting on
certain impulses can produce the same short-term reward effect.
As this idea grows, many people suffering from addiction have
been able to recover through programs and therapies designed to
help them re-learn, but this time in a positive manner.
Hyman, S. (n.d.). Addiction: A Disease of Learning and
Memory. Retrieved June 5, 2015, from
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1
414
[addiction definition photograph]. Retrieved from:
http://www.lifefocus.tv/addictions/
11
Addiction:
The Reward System
Drugs, alcohol, gambling, and feelings of sexual satisfaction
may not all seem like rewards, but the humans natural desire to
seek out what makes us feel “good”, says that they can be.
Addictive drugs and other substances can mimic satisfaction
similar to other positive and natural rewards in intended natural
life.
An addict may say to themselves:
Learned Behaviors: “If I use this drug, drink this alcohol, or
gamble this money, I will feel good for a matter of time.”
The Memories Involvement: “When I took these drugs, drank
that alcohol, and gambled that money, it made me feel good for
a matter of time.”
The rewarding properties of these substances and behaviors
depend on their ability to increase dopamine. It is in this
process that we find that the brain remembers and learns that if
we follow through with an act, that we can feel this desired
sensation. (Hyman, 2005).

10. The process of learning comes in many forms such as what we
see, what we hear, and what experiences stick with us. Through
these learning processes people develop memories related to
what they have learned. In addiction, when a person uses a
substance, or certain actions, to forget turmoil, deal with stress,
or to combat low self-esteem, what they are actually doing is
learning and developing memories. Unknown to them, these
learned behaviors and memories will make it twice as difficult
to stop the addiction process later on. This is why many people
suffering with addiction must “hit their rock bottom” in order to
receive help. Addiction effects people differently, but the
process of recovery is the same by re-learning and working
through those tough memories.
Hyman, S. (n.d.). Addiction: A Disease of Learning and
Memory. Retrieved June 5, 2015, from
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1
414
[risk and reward sign image]. Retrieved from:
www.realestateinsidermag.com
12
Case Studies on Addiction and Recovery
“I just wanted the memories to go away…” – Recovering Addict
(ADS, 2014).
Most case studies of this nature rely on the observation of the
researcher and the personal revelations of the addict.
In a recent study Terry Robinson and Kent Berridge state their,
“…critical analysis of the major theoretical explanations of how
drug-induced alterations in psychological function might cause
a transition into addiction…(including) the traditional hedonic
view that drug pleasure and subsequent unpleasant withdrawal
symptoms are the chief cause of addiction.”

11. (Terry and Berridge, 2003).
Treatment Options
Addicts who wish to begin recovery are mostly successful in
programs such as twelve-step self-help groups. (Moos and
Timko, 2008).
Twelve-Step recovery groups require a change in thought
processes and taking responsibility for ones actions. It is in this
way that the addict can learn a new way of life.
An addict who also undergoes psychiatric therapy while in
recovery groups is less likely to relapse.
Anonymous support groups have been proven to help addicts
move past their destructive, learned behaviors and into a better
way of life.
A case study on addiction by Terry Robinson and Kent Berridge
sheds more light onto how learning and memory play key roles
in the process of addiction. Essentially, what they suggest is
that the basis of addition lies in learning that when a person
uses, they feel better, and when they go through withdrawl, they
must use again to regain that feeling the substance caused. It is
in this way that people who are attempting to recovery from
addiction become frightened. They ask themselves what life
may look like without that behavior or drug and wonder if it is
worth the pain to conquer their addiction. The good news is that
there are many treatment options for those suffering from
addiction. The most popular and successful of these treatments
is twelve-step and cognitive behavior therapies. Twelve-step
has been known to work for those who put the effort into
acquiring the tools to help them. A common saying in these
groups is, “Keep coming back, it works if you work it, so work
it you’re worth it,”
Moos, R., & Timko, C. (2008). Outcome research on twelve-
step and other self-help programs. In M. Galanter, & H. O.

12. Kleber (Eds.), Textbook ofsubstance abuse treatment (4th ed.
pp. 511-521). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2003). Addiction. Annual
Review of Psychology, 54, 25-53. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/205819384?accountid=458
Case Studies. (2014, August 11). Retrieved June 5, 2015, from
http://www.ads-uk.org/caseList.php
13
PTSD Effects on Memory Case Study
Subject
55 Year old Male
4 month history of depressed mood
2 prominent intrusive thoughts daily
Effects
Memory intrusion and lack of concentration
Social and Occupational functioning
Depressed mood
Working memory disruptions
Mr. L presented with a recent history of a break-up with two
daily intrusive thoughts. One was an argument prior to the
ending of the relationship and one was before the ending of the
relationship. These intrusive thoughts were creating stress,
depressed mood, lack of concentration and anxiety related to the
thoughts and depressed mood. The intrusive thoughts along
with the secondary symptoms were causing disruption to his
daily life and occupation. Mr. L. decided to seek treatment.
Veltmeyer M, McFarlane A, Bryant R, Mayo T, Gordon E, Clark
C. Integrative assessment of brain function in PTSD: brain
stability and working memory. Journal Of Integrative
Neuroscience [serial online]. March 2006;5(1):123-138.
Available from: MEDLINE Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed
June 4, 2015.

13. http://www.gracepointwellness.org/109-post-traumatic-stress-
disorder/article/27967-memory-reconsolidation-and-treatment-
for-post-traumatic-stress-ptsd/Image
Kandris E, Moulds M. Can Imaginal Exposure Reduce Intrusive
Memories in Depression? A Case Study. Cognitive Behaviour
Therapy [serial online]. December 2008;37(4):216-220.
Available from: Academic Search Complete, Ipswich, MA.
Accessed June 4, 2015.
14
Assessment and Treatment
PTSD Effects on Memory Case Study
Assessment
Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV
Self-report questionnaire
Conducted by a clinical psychologist
Diagnosis
MDE (Major Depressive Episode)
With anxiety/stress related issues
Manifesting with memory and functional obstruction
Creating PTSD (post traumatic disorder) from the life
experience
Treatment-IE (Imaginal Exposure)
90 minute sessions 2x weekly appointments to re-enact the
events with the therapist
Daily home re-enactment of the events
Outcome – 6 months
No longer had MDE symptoms
Anxiety reduced significantly
Thoughts were no longer intrusive
Thoughts no long negatively effecting social or occupational
functioning

14. Mr L. was given as assessment where her met the DSM-IV
clinical requirements for MDE (Major Depressive Episode). No
medications were used in his treatment. The hypothesis was
that the sensory feature of his memory was malfunctioning
causing related depressive mood, anxiety and daily dysfunction
in normal activities. IE (Imaginal Exposure) was used to force
the brain to relive the experience, work out the unresolved
details and the over exposure to the sensory system took away
the anxiety. Instead of trying to suppress the memories Mr L.
was asked to face them, relive them and therefore resolve them.
The brain learned how to cope with the traumatic life event.
Again we see how learning and memory are closely related. In
some cases we need to assist the brain in learning to cope with
stressors, especially traumatic stressors. In this case the
sensory overload created a malfunction in the sensory memory
system and the images and event continued to replay. Through
IE treatment the brain learned to resolve the sensory issue and
return to normal functioning. In addition, Mr. L. learned how to
handle future negative life events.
Kandris E, Moulds M. Can Imaginal Exposure Reduce Intrusive
Memories in Depression? A Case Study. Cognitive Behaviour
Therapy [serial online]. December 2008;37(4):216-220.
Available from: Academic Search Complete, Ipswich, MA.
Accessed June 4, 2015.
http://www.gracepointwellness.org/109-post-traumatic-stress-
disorder/article/27967-memory-reconsolidation-and-treatment-
for-post-traumatic-stress-ptsd/ Image/PTSD Case Study
http://www.minddisorders.com/Del-Fi/Exposure-
treatment.html/Image
15
Conclusion
We’ve explored several case studies and learned how
memory and learning are irreversibly linked. We’ve discussed

15. different areas of the brain that contribute to memory, memory
loss, permanent injury and alternative treatments to overcome
loss. The one thing we know for sure is that very specific areas
of the brain effect very specific parts of our memory. We do
not lose our memory completely, we lose portions of our
memory and therefore ourselves, our history and our futures.
There is always hope. We are learning each day through
modern technology how to identify the areas affected and come
up with new and creative ways to overcome or workaround the
challenges of memory loss. We are also starting to understand
how we learn.
How we learn affects how we educate, rear our children,
train individuals for new jobs and retain our cognitive abilities
as we age. The impact and implications of memory and learning
are at the core of how we evolve as a species.
References
ADS, Case Studies. (2014, August 11). Retrieved June 5, 2015,
from http://www.ads-uk.org/caseList.php
Hyman, S. (n.d.). Addiction: A Disease of Learning and
Memory. Retrieved June 5, 2015, from
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1
414
Kalat, James. W. (2013). biological Psychology (11th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning
Lombroso, P. J. (2008, November). Learning and Memory, Part
I: Brain Regions Involved in Two Types of Learning and
Memory. Journal of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(11), 1228-1232.
doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318186e638
Moos, R., & Timko, C. (2008). Outcome research on twelve-

16. step and other self-help programs. In M. Galanter, & H. O.
Kleber (Eds.), Textbook of substance abuse treatment (4th ed.
pp. 511-521). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Poldrack, R. A., Clark, J., Pare-Blagoev, E., Shohamy, D., & al,
e. (2001). Interactive memory systems in the human brain.
Nature, 414(6863), 546-50.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35107080
Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2003). Addiction. Annual
Review of Psychology, 54, 25-53. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/205819384?accountid=458
Veltmeyer M, McFarlane A, Bryant R, Mayo T, Gordon E, Clark
C. Integrative assessment of brain function in PTSD: brain
stability and working memory. Journal Of Integrative
Neuroscience [serial online]. March 2006;5(1):123-138.
Available from: MEDLINE Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed
June 4, 2015.
Wesson, K. (2012, March 1). LEARNING & MEMORY: How
Do We Remember and Why Do We Often Forget? Retrieved
June 4, 2015, from http://brainworldmagazine.com/learning-
memory-how-do-we-remember-and-why-do-we-often-forget/
http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/03/12/stress-affects-
learning-and-memory/2031.html/ Image/Introduction
http://www.gracepointwellness.org/109-post-traumatic-stress-
disorder/article/27967-memory-reconsolidation-and-treatment-
for-post-traumatic-stress-ptsd/ Image/PTSD Case Study