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FIRST ASSIGNMENT
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FIRST ASSIGNMENT
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First Assignment
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Abstract
In a multi-cultural atmosphere, the management of ethics and
principal decision management helps in serving just in a fair
and square way. For the concerned metropolitan agency, a
proper action plan will be used managing all the aspects
including principle-based management and ethical decision
making in a multicultural environment. Racial discrimination in
the organization can be fought well by establishing
discrimination-free hiring practices in the organization. The
agency will be revising its business practices so that the lack of
officers can be managed well.
Action plan to address community concerns
In recent years, many employers have embraced the idea of
cultural diversity activities with the goal of making make a
comprehensive work environment condition. Most experts
concur that a differing workforce is a commendable yearning. In
any case, social decent variety can offer ascent to moral issues

that can be trying for chiefs and workers to determine. The
agency has faced some issues over the past years including the
concern of the society related to racial discrimination. Keeping
in view the concerns of the society, the organization has aimed
at coming up with some action plan so that the business
practices can be improved and the concerns of the society can
be addressed.
Family Knowledge about Palliative Care
Ernesto Pena Morgado

Ana G. Méndez
NR502: Research Proposal
February Session, 2019
Family Knowledge about Palliative Care
In the United States, the vast majority of palliative care is
performed in the home. It is obvious that in this scenario the
members of the family play a leading role. Most research
related to palliative care in the United States does not describe
the level of commitment of the patient and caregivers with such
care. (Dillon, 2016).
In a study presented about "How home hospice facilitates
patient and family engagement", his author, Dillon, describes
how some caregivers cheered for instruction on how to manage
their relatives palliative care in relation to the use of the
comfort kit, including the management of morphine in
relationship to be better prepared to relieve the pain of the
patient (Dillon, 2016, pp.595). Another wife described how the
education and holistic instruction provided was helpful in
dealing with and understanding the care that would be provided
to her husband. (Dillon, 2016).
The author concludes that offering instruction and education in
relation to such difficult issues as helping to face death, has an
important implication in the participation of the patient and the
family in palliative care, and is the first necessary step to train
patients and the family to make informed decisions (Dillon,
2016).

The hospital-based complex continuous care (CCC) provides
care to more than 28,000 Ontarians whose care needs exceed
hospital capabilities. It has become necessary to expand these
cares to the home environment as well as in long-term care
homes (LTC). Therefore, it is a priority that those who provide
palliative care are adequately trained to provide experiences of
palliative and end-of-life care (EOL) centered on the patient.
Training of the family and caregivers should also be done with
the aim of facilitating, accelerating and optimizing proper
management of these patients in their home environment.
(Konietzny & Anderson, 2017).
The studies reviewed agree that the more knowledge you have
about these services, the sense of security of people will
increase and their cooperation will be more effective, being
closely linked positively with their beliefs, knowledge and
concerns about palliative care. (Krevers & Milberg, 2015).
However, it has not found any study that demonstrates that the
distribution and dissemination of information can modify the
perceptions and sense of security regarding palliative care.
(Akiyama et al, 2015).
The purpose of the research is to explore the knowledge that
have the family members of patients admitted to hospice during
the palliative care, and if the implementation of an educational
meeting improve the knowledge about the topic.
Significance of the Practice Problem
There are about of 1.6 million Americans benefit annually from
palliative care, and the immense majority receive it in the
comfort scenario of their home. (National Hospice and
Palliative Care Organization [NHPCO], 2015).
The Patients, especially family members, must go through a
wide range of complex medical and social situations, however,
there is not yet much information on how hospice care could
encourage or hinder the commitment to such care. Promoting
that patients who can still actively contribute to their care is a
valuable achievement that improves health outcomes, the
patient's experience and reduces the cost of care (Dillon, 2016).

Dillon characterizes the patient's participation in direct care as
an "active association" between patients, family members and
health professionals (Dillon, 2016, p. 591).
Providing appropriate information about palliative care is vital,
as is instilling a sense of security in patients with life-
threatening illnesses and their families. Studies have indicated
that people’s sense of security is positively associated with
their beliefs, knowledge, and concerns about palliative care
(Igarashi et al., 2014). However, no empirical studies have
investigated whether the distribution of information can alter
perceptions and sense of security regarding palliative care.
(Krevers & Milberg, 2015).
Research Question
The central question of this investigation would be: “Does the
implementation of an educational meeting improve the
knowledge of the relatives of terminal ill patients, about the
importance and scope of the management and treatment of
palliative care”?
P- Family members of patients admitted to palliative care
services in St. Sophia nursing care in Miami, over 25 years and
under 65.
I- Educational meeting to Family members of patients admitted
to palliative care Services.
C- Knowledge of family members about palliative care
services, before and after of the educational meeting provided.
O- Increase of the knowledge of family members of
patients admitted to palliative care services after the education-
instruction given.
The objectives that will assist to answer the research question
will be:
1. To identify the knowledge of the relatives of patients with
terminal illnesses in relation to the treatment and the scope of
their care.
2. To establish if the implementation of an educational meeting
improves the knowledge of the relatives of terminal patients in
relation to the importance of treatment and the scope of

palliative care.
3. Analyze the need to implement periodic educational meetings
with family members of patients treated in hospice (continuous
care) for terminal illnesses, to improve their knowledge and
thereby improve the performance of the nurse who provides the
care.
Null Hypothesis: Educational intervention does not improve the
knowledge of family members about palliative care
Alternative Hypothesis: Educational intervention is able to
improve the knowledge of family members about palliative care.
Theoretical Framework
The most applicable theoretical framework in this study was
Lewin's theory, also known as "Lewin's three-step model change
management", very applicable to this research because it is the
one that most points out the need for change in the knowledge
of the family-caregivers on the palliative care of their sick
relatives enrolled in this care. Many havecriticized this theory
for the lack of fluidity and disregard for the dynamic interaction
that should exist between the nurse-family and the environment
in which care is provided. (Shirey, 2013).
This theory is used by nurses in specialized areas such as
palliative care, for various projects to improve quality in the
way care is provided to transform care at the bedside.
(Wojciechowski, 2016).
1. Defrost or conscientializing the problem, encouraging people
(relatives of the sick) to put aside past, inert forms or paradigms
that did not lead to any path of success and effective
development, breaking the balance or the supposed current
stability ( for example: educating them, challenging the St
Lewin's theory proposes that people or groups of them (relatives
of patients in palliative care) are strongly affected by
restraining forces or obstacles (unknowns) that counteract the
driving forces (palliative care) aimed at maintaining the status
quo of Sick, in turn the driving forces, or positive forces for

change, push in the direction that makes the change happen. The
tension between these two forces maintains balance. This model
consists of the following steps (Wojciechowski, 2016).status
quo, showing problems).
2. Change / move, which means going out to find alternatives,
demonstrating the benefits of the proposed change and reducing
the forces that slow down the change (for example,
brainstorming, new models of intervention, training, training).
3. Restart a freeze but now more integrative and stabilize a new
equilibrium in the system, making it a habit to resist changes
and the negative forces that oppose changes (for example,
celebrate success, keep training and monitor changes) and the
effectiveness of training and key performance indicators.
Bing shows in the results of your study “Unfreezing the
Flexnerian Model: introducing longitudinal integrated
clerkships in rural communities” as through the theory of Lewin
in the model of change in the three stages mentioned above,
achieve with the innovative LIC model, unfreeze the traditional
Flexnerian construct for rural areas.
(Bing, 2014, p. 1).
In the same way in this work through the implementation of
instruction-education to family members of patients admitted to
palliative care, the researcher of this study will demonstrate that
knowledge can be increased and the model of change can be
trusted in three steps that will help to unfreeze the ignorance of
family members regarding palliative care and, in this way,
improve the performance of nurses as providers of This care
with better results. in the achievement of our objectives.
Synthesis of the Literature
During the review of the bibliography selected to support this
study, Kelley & Morrison (2015) in a study published by in the
prestigious New England magazine in February 2015, found the
main problems that impede accessibility to the palliative care
are the multiple perceptions of these services between doctors
and patient-caregivers; family-caregivers have the belief that
palliative care are exclusive services for the terminals, and that

the term palliative care is equivalent to hospice, which would
cause patients to react adversely due to the loss of hope. The
perceptions of doctors, in a recent survey showed that almost
90% of adults in the United States had no knowledge or had
limited knowledge of what palliative care is. (Kelley &
Morrison, 2015). Later in that same study, they point out that
more than 90% of respondents they would like palliative care
for themselves or their families and that they should be
universally available. (Kelley & Morrison, 2015).
In another study conducted in India was found that the majority
of family-caregivers enrolled in palliative care of their relatives
(FCG), 88.6% had a lack of awareness about pain assessment
and management, 86.8% of them could not decide how and
when to do one intervention, 97.7% had a lack of knowledge
about the disease. It was found that in the family-caregivers,
55.1% had a lack of knowledge about the evaluation of pain and
its management in cancer. Since FCGs lacked knowledge about
the care of cancer patients, there is a need to establish an
awareness program to increase knowledge about the evaluation
and management of symptoms in patients with cancer. (Nayak et
al., 2018).
Reviewing other literatures on palliative care that deals with the
need to educate and instruct relatives and patients with cancer
about their care, Harden et al. (2017) detected that there is a
lack of knowledge and trust among care providers to participate
in educational-instructional talks in a meaningful way about
palliative care and ignorance among family members and
caregivers (p. 233). They concluded that when each facet of the
care team and the family understands its role in palliative care,
the talks will be early, deep and meaningful and will focus on
the patient's objectives, values and preferences and prejudices
against palliative care are a potential barrier to quality end-of-
life care. (Harden et al., 2017).
The foregoing is argued by studies such as the one carried out
in Mumbai, India, where is demonstrated the implications of the
education of caregivers in the quality of palliative care. In this

study, the need for knowledge in caregivers were evaluated. The
results found here show that there are some barriers to the
provision and administration of palliative care, among others,
the need for more education and training. Participants stated
that in many cases they did not feel adequately prepared in the
case of relatives to accept one or another form of treatment for
them, and expressed the need for additional training in
palliative care. (Ghoshal et al., 2018).
There have been few largescale community-wide interventions
to distribute appropriate information about palliative care, and
no studies have investigated their impact on cancer patients,
their families, and the general public. (Akiyama et al., 2015).
Akiyama conducted a 3-year community educational
intervention and evaluated the effects of distributing such
information at the community level, and explored associations
among levels of exposure, perceptions, knowledge, and the
sense of security achieved. (Akiyama et al., 2015).The results
obtained were encouraging in some way and demonstrated the
effectiveness of education to improve knowledge about
palliative care. Overall perceptions of palliative care, opioids,
and receiving care at home improved significantly among the
general public and families, but not among the patients at the
community level. However, multiple regression revealed that
patients of extensive exposure category had significantly more
positive perceptions of palliative care to those of no exposure
category (Akiyama et al., 2015, p. 348).
Practice Recommendations
In the previous study, the authors Harden et al. (2017), found as
a limitation to their work, to know if this project is a
sustainable educational method, and on the other hand If nurses
continue with educational talks with family members and
palliative care patients to improve their knowledge about these
services, they will recommend re-evaluating the knowledge of
nurses and providers of this care to establish whether the
improvement in their knowledge and his educational work was
lasting (p 237).

The obstacles to the self-management of patients in palliative
care by their family caregivers, found in the study conducted by
Schulman-Green et al. (2018), include the lack of understanding
both of the different care options (curative / palliative / hospice
care), as well as the objectives and goals of the care, that can
lead to self-management that does not correspond with the goals
of care. In that same study Schulman-Green et al. (2018), a
psychoeducational intervention, to caregivers was done with the
purpose of improving their knowledge in relation to care
options and the objectives of communication of care as part of
an auto-management program. In the intervention group, the
results showed a mean effect size for a better knowledge of the
care options during the first month, with a sustained effect at
three months. As regards self-management, the sustained effect
was after three months, and a decrease in the burden for the
caregiver per month. Those who participated in the intervention
talked more frequently with a nurse about the goals of the care
and reported less uncertainty and more hope at three months.
(Schulman-Green et al., 2018),
The psycho-educational intervention test used: Managing
Cancer Care: A Caregiver's Guide (MCC-CG ©) had a
preliminary proven efficacy, being well received by the
relatives of the patients. As a limitation of the study, they
mentioned that the size of the sample was not large enough to
be so significant, so they recommended more study among a
larger sample to test MCC-CG ©, and simultaneously apply
another with a patient intervention: Managing Cancer Care: A
Personal Guide (MCC-PT ©), to improve self-management.
(Schulman-Green et al., 2018).
In other research conducted and reviewed, the authors refer to
the lack of knowledge among patients, care providers and
family members. The results demonstrated the insecurity and
lack of education among clinical nurses when discussing
palliative care with their patients and families, which
unquestionably had a negative impact on the performance of
nurses when it came to providing hospice care. (Moir et al.,

2015). They focused on the educational needs of the nursing
staff of hospitalized patients, mentions the difficulty of
communicating with family members and patients as an obstacle
in the knowledge that they should have to take care of at home.
This study showed that less experienced nurses expressed some
discomfort when communicating with end-of-life patients and
their families, which results in less knowledge of patients and
family members about the dilemma they face when they move
from palliative care to EoL (End of life). (Moir et al., 2015).
Therefore, the authors recommend that it is necessary to further
explore the educational needs among nurses, family members
and patients regarding palliative care.
This exploration can lead to the development of educational
interventions designed to increase the comfort of nurses by
talking to patients and their families and to a greater knowledge
of family members and patients in relation to palliative care. As
a recommendation, the authors advise for future studies, focus
more on assessing the specific educational needs of the enrolled
parties in the care, as they are mainly patients and above all
family, in this care (Moir et al., 2015).
Project Setting
The project of this work will be carried out in the palliative
care staff agency ST. Sophia Nursing Care, in Miami. The
mission is to provide Hospice agencies (Compassionate,
Kindred, Seasons and Vitas) with the necessary staff to provide
highly qualified palliative care, to provide dignified and
humane care and help them die with comfort to patients in states
terminals of a chronic disease in which they can have up to 6
months of life expectancy, and which can be shortened by an
exacerbation or other intercurrent phenomenon. It also has the
mission of giving emotional support and helping the families of
the sick to deal with the situation, reducing the emotional and
economic burden they may assume. There are staff of LPN and
RN who provide services in 12 hours of work in 2 shifts; from
8:00 AM to 8:00 PM and 8:00 PM to 8:00 AM for most hospice
agencies. In the case of Vitas, which generally, according to the

complexity of the cases, place a CNA in the morning shift, the
shifts will be from 8:00 AM to 7:00 PM and from 7:00 PM to
8:00 A.M.
In this study I chose Lewin's theory of change as the one that
best fits the objectives of the research, because through an
educational intervention, it seeks to unfreeze the ignorance that
family members have of patients admitted to palliative care, in
terms of understanding the management of them, the reason, the
objective and the need to apply medicines that promote comfort
and help them have a dignified death, without suffering,
arguments not very well understood, and that in this way they
become a positive factor and collaborator of the
multidisciplinary team that supports this care. This structure of
change is very well designed and represented by Lewin as
already explained in a previous section.
Project Description: methodology
The theoretical framework found most applicable in this study
was Lewin's theory also known as "Lewin's three-step model
change management” very applicable to this research because it
is the one that most points out the need for change in the
knowledge of the family of patients enrolled in palliative care.
1. Defrost or conscientializing the problem, encouraging people
(relatives of the sick) to put aside past, inert forms or paradigms
that did not lead to any path of success and effective
development, breaking the balance or the supposed current
stability.
This first step coincides in the present study with the phase of
unfreezing the old beliefs held by the relatives of patients
admitted to palliative care that this care causes an acceleration
in the death of their relatives and that the use of drugs at this
stage has in the end, this will be done through education and
instruction on the objectives of the program.
2. Change / move, which means going out to find alternatives,
demonstrating the benefits of the proposed change and reducing
the forces that slow down the change (for example,
brainstorming, new models of intervention, training, training).

Once the old beliefs of the participants in the study have been
defrosted, through the training, training, brainstorming and
implementation of educational programs, the benefits obtained
by these changes, their relatives and them will be explained;
The application of medications to relieve the burden of
suffering, the best comfort and the release of relatives from the
emotional burden to which they are subjected at this stage.
3. Restart a freeze but now more integrative and stabilize a new
equilibrium in the system, making it a habit to resist changes
and the negative forces that oppose changes (for example,
celebrate success, keep training and monitor changes) and the
effectiveness of training and key performance indicators.
In this step 3 we will freeze again but the new ideas already
established, with the new behavioral change brought by the new
knowledge acquired in relation to palliative care and monitor
the persistence of this knowledge to make its stable and lasting
learning and replicate it or do it extensive to the rest of the
relatives enrolled in this care.
A quantitative observational analytical study will be conducted
with a pre-post educational intervention for a maximum of 25
participants, over 25 years and under 65, family of patients with
terminal illness who will be admitted to palliative care at St.
Sophia hospice agency in Miami, Miami County, in hospice
services, to explore the knowledge that participants have about
the management and treatment of their family members admitted
for palliative care.
The main objective of the study is to know if the educational
meeting is able to improve the knowledge of the participants
enrolled in the care of their relatives during palliative care. A
long-term goal, based on the results, is to implement an
educational intervention design to prepare the relatives of
patients in palliative care, improving their knowledge about this
service.
The participants will be selected by a convenient sample.
Criteria for inclusion will be: Spanish-speaking caregivers of
patients admitted to palliative care services St. Sophia hospice

agency in Miami, Miami County, in hospice services over 25
years and under 65. The exclusion criteria will be those that do
not speak Spanish under 25 and over 65 that do not belong to
ST. Sophia and not be involved with the palliative care of your
sick relative. After the IRB approval, the principal investigator
will hold a meeting with authorization from the St. Sophia
Home Care agency (Appendix 1- Letter of support) with the aim
of explaining to those who will take part in the research,
potentially, and who meet the inclusion criteria, that others are
willing to participate, the purpose of this study and, at the same
time, we will explain to the selected sample, the objectives of
this research as well as its benefits, both for their sick relatives
and for them. An informed consent will be explained
(Appendix-2) to be signed, and an Information to participate in
a study / investigation will be presented too (Appendix-3).
Informational page A brief survey as a structured instrument of
10 questions pre-test will be taken, with short answers (yes or
no), with a maximum of 15 minutes to be completed (Appendix
4) that will assess the knowledge that family members have,
enrolled in home care, especially about the management of the
sick relative, in this service, its scope and the treatment
modalities used. After this a date and time will be agreed upon
to hold an educational meeting.
After 15 days there will be another meeting in which they will
participate to carry out the education and instruction of 30
minutes, necessary, on the unknown aspects on the subject, they
will have 5 minutes to dissipate doubts about the topic, and 15
minutes to apply a post -test in a summative evaluation leading
to a final formative evaluation will serve as a way to
definitively evaluate whether the implementation of the
educational meeting improved the level of knowledge among the
participants, and compare the before and after synthesizing the
results in numbers. The instrument is valid for the purposes of
the objective of the work.
The questionnaire will not include any personal data or private
information to prevent breaches of confidentiality. The

information will be saved in an office enabled by the principal
investigator in duly sealed envelopes. All information will be
preserved for a period of no more than 5 years after the study is
published. After this time all the documents will be destroyed
and discarded. Only the tutor and the principal investigator of
the study will have access to the information obtained.
In this study, the variables analyzed will be: Dependent:
Knowledge that the relatives of the patients have in relation to
the scope of management and treatments during their palliative
care. The independent is the educational instructional meeting
that will be made to the relatives of the patients. Frequencies
and percentages will be used for qualitative variables. A test
known as dependent T-test will be applied to the participants to
detect significant differences between the recognition scores
obtained in the surveys applied to family members, before and
after the educational meeting.
According to the IRB criteria, it is essential to maintain the
confidentiality and privacy of the participants in an act of
respect for human rights. These criteria provide protection
through the application of the aforementioned informed consent,
before enrolling in the study.
In the same way, the study will be guided by the ethical
principles that exist in every investigative process where human
beings are enrolled as a vehicle of protection for the
participants. The application of these IRB criteria dictates that
the protection of human rights is achievable if the study
approach complies with the other stipulated criteria of the NHI,
FWA, essential to approve the investigation. In addition, the
administration of the ST. Sophia agency will be requested the
permission to carry out the investigation and ensure that the
investigation has been duly approved, and you have all the
support and help of the administrative body. All the
aforementioned requirements will be obtained before
participating in the study in order to protect the human rights of
the participants.
The principal investigator will explain that this study has a

minimum risk which will be related to fatigue during the
completion of the questionnaire. It will be made clear to the
participants that if at any time during the investigation they do
not feel comfortable with the questionnaire or the education-
instruction that will be given and they decide to leave the study,
they can do it at any time without implications for their
relatives or for they. There will be no benefits or gifts for
participating in the recruitment and there will be no monetary
rewards before or after the study. But other types of benefits for
both the participant, patient, and society would be, obtain
knowledge about the care of their relative with terminal illness
in palliative care, through the instruction and education
received in order to be better prepared to perform and
collaborate in the care and management of your relative.
Project Evaluation Results
I will use a package for statistical analysis used in social
sciences, known as (SPSS 25) that will be used in order to
organize the collected data, validate them and finally analyze
them. Frequencies and percentages will be used for qualitative
data. I will apply a dependent Student´s T-test distribution
because it is a small sample (<30) with population standard
deviation unknown, to detect significant differences between
the score, before and after the educational meeting about the
knowledge of relatives in relation to what concerns palliative
care. Indicators of central tendency and dispersion: Medians,
Means (M), Standard Deviations (SD) and Standard Errors of
the Mean (SEM) will be estimated for quantitative variable.
Taking into account the objective for which this study was
designed, we hope that with the educational meeting could
improve the knowledge of the relatives of admitted patients for
palliative care, attending to the areas where this knowledge will
be more deficient. Notwithstanding this achievement, we know
in advance that we will have to face some limitations that the
research has, such as the small sample selected, as well as the
method of selection of the sample that was convenient, which
we know is not a scientific sample. A sampling bias will be

expected. In the same way, having worked with the Spanish
speaking population to be the majority in the city of Miami,
limits the cultural and religious characteristics and beliefs of
the sample, which can be a variable that could be of great
influence on the results with a potential of bias not studied
because it is not an interest of the author for this work, which
limits the conclusions to which we can finally arrive, and the
generalization of the results in the surveys.
The evaluation process will involve both the formative and
summative evaluation approaches. Formative evaluation will
take place during the implementation process. It will, therefore,
occur during the preliminary project stages. Likewise, the
formative assessment will also take place during the progress of
the project. Besides, this formative evaluation will involve the
assessment of whether the implementation of educational
meetings improve the level of knowledge amongst family
members of patients admitted to palliative care. The outcomes
realized from such a preliminary formative evaluation before
the intervention sets the baseline findings for the whole study.
The influence of the educational meetings implementation is
assessed depending on the current PICO question that was
mentioned above. On the other side, a summative evaluation
takes place after the intervention process. The evaluation of
these PICO questions occurs following the implementation of
the educational meetings whereby questionnaires will be re-
administered to family members of patients admitted to
palliative care over 25 years old and under 65.
Results obtained before and after the educational meeting is
analyzed and will undergo a summative evaluation to come up
with conclusive findings. Therefore, outcomes realized from the
study will be evaluated in line with the PICO questions. Such
evaluation enables to examinates of whether the project has
achieved the expected research findings or not. Relevantly, the
summative evaluation will besides entailing in an evaluation of
whether it would be beneficial to establish a long-term objective
which will involve the establishment of educational meeting for

all new admitted patients for palliative care.
Notwithstanding the above, we can anticipate that an
educational meeting will be able to improve the knowledge of
the relatives of patients receiving palliative care and who are
actively enrolled in their management as part of the team. This
will help them to better understand the objective of these cares,
their general management and the justification of the treatment
in the way of supporting the symptoms that generated the care,
and with them we can give a more efficient support to the needs
of these patients in its final stage, effectively administering
dignified and human care, the central objective of care in these
stages. With this achievement we can replicate this study and
magnify it in order to universalize the knowledge in this field
that increasingly increases its usefulness and use, especially in
the home setting, with the economic savings for the family, and
institutions, and decrease in the emotional burden for family
caregivers.
Discussion and Implications for Nursing and Healthcare
Studies that demonstrate the implications of the education of
practitioners and caregivers in the quality of palliative care, is
argued in a study that was conducted in Mumbai, India, where
the need for knowledge in the caregivers was evaluated. The
results found here show that there are some barriers to the
provision and administration of palliative care, among others;
the need for more education and training. Participants stated
that in many cases they did not feel adequately prepared to
carry out discussions and interventions on patients or in the
case of relatives to accept one or another form of treatment for
them, and expressed the need for additional training in
palliative care. (Ghoshal et al., 2018).
In a review conducted of an investigation carried out in the
United Kingdom, it was determined that education and training
through instruction were identified as important facilitators of
collaborative work within the components of the palliative care
team, fundamentally among caregivers. There are many studies
that identify education for generalists and caregivers as a

priority. (Hudson, P., Quinn, K., Ohanlon, B., & Aranda, S.
2008).
There is a clear need to develop and implement educational
interventions to support palliative care providers and their
families in the management and treatment of these patients and
how to address the additional significant barriers of the unique
"cure-oriented" culture of mentalities of the doctors, ensuring
that this also has a positive impact in remodeling the mentality
of the relatives in relation to what is handled as palliative care,
so that this way it also positively impacts the practice of
nursing that in the end are the executors of these careful . All
the advantages explained, of achieving greater instruction, will
result in optimizing the care and performance of nursing in
palliative care.
We recommend continuing to expand studies aimed at exploring
the knowledge in family members of patients admitted to
palliative care with larger samples, representative of more
diverse populations and to add behavioral studies of variables
that may hinder the acquisition of knowledge, using modalities
of sample selection scientific studies, which are representative
of the populations studied
Plans for Dissemination
From the most recent practical evidence in the field of research
has shown that when disseminating the information and results
of a research study is more effective to use different types of
media. In this study, face-to-face interaction will be an
important resource to fulfill the purpose of generalizing the
results of the study. For this purpose, a Power Point
presentation of no more than 30 minutes will be presented in
which a practical summary of the whole study will be presented
to classmates and the teacher. A copy will also be delivered in
Word and another with Poster design. The poster will include a
summary information in consideration of the complete study. A
copy of the complete study will be delivered to the library of
Ana G. Mendez University, South Florida Field for anyone who
wants to learn about the information provided.

Summary and Conclusion
As stated in the introduction, the purpose of the research is to
explore the knowledge that have the family members over 25
years old and under 65 of patients admitted to hospice during
the palliative care, and if the implementation of an educational
meeting improve the knowledge about the topic.
So far it has been possible to understand in the bibliography
reviewed ignorance that exists among the caregivers who are
enrolled in the palliative care of their relatives, as a main part
of the team that provides this care, usually in the home setting.
This lack of knowledge has been verified in our professional
performance and was what generated our concern that led to this
study. However, there is a need to complete other studies aimed
at obtaining more information about other variables such as
cultural level and cultural or religious beliefs that could affect
the acquisition of knowledge about this care, in the family. The
instrument designed to explore this knowledge will allow us to
guide, build and implement an educational-instructional meeting
aimed at improving the areas of ignorance, and at the same time
determine if it was valid and effective to be disseminated and
finally implemented. In this way it is expected to be able to
improve care services and thereby achieve the objectives of this
care; more comfort for the patient and decrease the economic
and emotional burden of the caregivers
Running head: FAMILY KNOWLEDGE ABOUT PALLIATIVE
CARE21
.
References
Akiyama, M., Hirai, K., Takebayashi, T., Morita, T., Miyashita,
M., Takeuchi, A., Eguchi, K. (2015). The effects of community-
wide dissemination of information on perceptions of palliative
care, knowledge about opioids, and sense of security among
cancer patients, their families, and the general
public. Supportive Care in Cancer,24(1), 347-356.

doi:10.1007/s00520-015-2788-4
Bing-You, R. G., Trowbridge, T. L., Kruithoff, C., & Daggett
Jr, J. L. (2014). ORIGINAL RESEARCH. Unfreezing the
Flexnerian Model: introducing longitudinal integrated
clerkships in rural communities. Rural & Remote Health, 14(3),
1–12. Retrieved from https://librarylogin-
um.suagm.edu/login?url=https://search-ebscohost-
com.librarylogin-
um.suagm.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ccm&AN=103896599
&site=ehost-live
Dillon, E. C. (2016). How home hospice care facilitates patient
and family engagement. Death Studies,40(10), 591-600.
doi:10.1080/07481187.2016.1203377.
Ghoshal, A., Damani, A., Dighe, M., Dhiliwal, S., & Muckaden,
M. (2018). Exploring education and training needs in palliative
care among family physicians in Mumbai: A qualitative
study. Indian Journal of Palliative Care,24(2), 139.
doi:10.4103/ijpc.ijpc_216_17
Harden, K., Price, D., Duffy, E., Galunas, L., & Rodgers, C.
(2017). Palliative Care: Improving Nursing Knowledge,
Attitudes, and Behaviors . Clinical Journal of Oncology
Nursing,21(5). doi:10.1188/17.cjon.e232-e238.
Hudson, P., Quinn, K., Ohanlon, B., & Aranda, S. (2008).
Family meetings in palliative care: Multidisciplinary clinical
practice guidelines. BMC Palliative Care,7(1).
doi:10.1186/1472-684x-7-12.
Igarashi A et al (2014) A population-based survey on
perceptions of opioid treatment and palliativecare units:OPTIM
study. AmJ Hosp Palliat Care 31(2):155–160
Kelley, A. S., & Morrison, R. S. (2015). Palliative Care for the
Seriously Ill. New England Journal of Medicine,373(8), 747-
755. doi:10.1056/nejmra1404684.
Konietzny, C., & Anderson, B. (2017). Comfort Conversations
in Complex Continuing Care: Assessing Patients’ and Families’

Palliative Care Needs. Perspectives: The Journal of the
Gerontological Nursing Association, 39(4), 14–22. Retrieved
from https://librarylogin-
um.suagm.edu/login?url=https://search-ebscohost-
com.librarylogin-
um.suagm.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ccm&AN=129270264
&site=ehost-live.
Krevers, B., & Milberg, A. (2015). The Sense of Security in
Care—Relatives Evaluation Instrument: Its Development and
Presentation. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 49(3),
586-594. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2014.06.019
Moir, C., Roberts, R., Martz, K., Perry, J., & Tivis, L. (2015).
Communicating with patients and their families about palliative
and end-of-life care: Comfort and educational needs of
nurses. International Journal of Palliative Nursing,21(3), 109-
112. doi:10.12968/ijpn.2015.21.3.109.
National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization [NHPCO].
(2015). NHPCO’s facts and figures: Hospice care in America.
Retrieved from http://www.nhpco.org/sites/
default/files/public/Statistics Research/2013_Facts_Figures. pdf
Nayak, M., George, A., & Vidyasagar, M. (2018). Perceived
barriers to symptoms management among family caregivers of
cancer patients. Indian Journal of Palliative Care,24(2), 202.
doi:10.4103/ijpc.ijpc_27_18.
Schulman-Green, D., Linsky, S., Jeon, S., Kapo, J., Ercolano,
E., Jeuland, J., & Mccorkle, R. (2018). Improving Cancer
Family Caregivers Knowledge of Care Options and Goals of
Care Communication: Results From a Pilot RCT. Journal of
Pain and Symptom Management,56(6).
doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2018.10.317.
Shirey, M. R. (2014). Lewin'stheory of planned change as a
strategic resource. Journal of Nursing Administration, 43(2),
69-72. doi: 10.1097/NNA.0b013e31827f20a9
Wojciechowski, E., Murphy, P., Pearsall, T., French, E. (2016).
A Case Review: Integrating Lewin's Theory with Lean's System
Approach for Change. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing,

10913734, Vol. 21, Issue 2.
Appendix -1
Appendix- 2
UNIVERSIDAD ANA G. MENDEZ
South Florida campus
MSN Program
Consentimiento informado para un estudio con riesgo mínimo
Family knowledge about palliative care
Descripción del estudio y el rol de su participación
Ernesto Pena lo está invitando a participar en un estudio de
investigación. Ernesto Pena, Investigador Principal y Profesora
Nancy Woelki, de la Universidad Ana G. Méndez (UAGM)
[SFC]. El propósito de esta investigación es conocer el
conocimiento que tienen los familiares de los pacientes con
enfermedades terminales, atendido en cuidados paliativos.
Su participación en esta investigación consistirá en dedicar 10
minutos para leer y discutir este consentimiento informado a los
participantes que fueron escogidos para participar y que
cumplan con los criterios para participar en este estudio.
Posterior a ello se tomará una breve encuesta de no más de 10
preguntas con respuestas cortas (sí o no) para explorar el

enfermedades terminales, admitidos en hospicio, para proveerles
cuidados paliativos. Después de 15 días se dará otra reunión en
la que participarán para realizar la educación e instrucción de
30 minutos, necesaria, sobre los aspectos desconocidos sobre el
tema, tendrán 5 minutos posteriores para disipar dudas sobre el
tópico, y 15 minutos para aplicar un post-test para conocer la
efectividad de la educación que se les dará ese mismo día.
A usted le tomará aproximadamente una hora y quince minutos
para completar este estudio.
Riesgos e Incomodidades
Hasta el momento el posible riesgo es el agotamiento que puede
haber durante el proceso de responder las preguntas y analizar
los examen y escuchar la conferencia. Sin embargo no debe
preocuparse, pues si en algún momento de la investigación,
usted no se siente confortable con las preguntas y decide no
continuar siendo parte del estudio, usted puede abandonar el
proyecto en cualquier momento.
Posibles Beneficios
El principal beneficio que se obtendrá con su participación en
esta investigación es poder conocer los principales aspectos
relacionados con el cuidado de pacientes con enfermedades
terminales en cuidados paliativos, en los que los familiares
enrolado en estos cuidados, tienen mayor desconocimiento, y
poder dar instrucción y educación sobre ellos, para de esta
forma el familiar esté de acuerdo en la manera en que se
realicen los cuidados y el manejo terapéutico, comprenda el
objetivo y la razón para estos cuidados y todo lo concerniente
al manejo de los pacientes y de qué forma los familiares pueden
cooperar e insertarse de forma efectiva en los cuidados del

enfermo. La información obtenida en el cuestionario no incluye
los nombres de los participantes y se conservarán por un
período de 5 años; se guardarán bajo llave en la oficina del
hogar del Investigador Principal en sobres separados. Después
de cinco años, todo cuestionario será destruido por una
trituradora de papel y serán descartados.Tendrán acceso a los
cuestionarios el Investigador Principal y su mentora. También
se protegerá la confidencialidad de los participantes enfatizando
en todo momento sobre la importancia de mantener toda
información anónima. No se requerirá que los participantes
incluyan sus nombres en los cuestionarios ni los participantes
serán identificados en ningún informe sobre el estudio”.
Protección de la Privacidad y Confidencialidad
Toda información relacionada a su identidad será manejada de
manera privada y confidencial y será protegida en todo
momento. Bajo ninguna circunstancia se compartirá información
del participante con terceros. Los datos recopilados se
guardarán en un lugar privado, seguro y bajo llave. Cualquier
documento recopilado será almacenado en la casa del
investigador principal por un periodo de cinco (5) años. Los
mismos estarán bajo la tutela del investigador principal Ernesto
Pena. Después de un periodo de 5 años, la información será
destruida (triturada).
Decisión sobre su participación en este estudio
Su participación en este estudio es totalmente voluntaria. Usted
tiene todo el derecho de decidir participar o no de este estudio.
Si usted decide participar en este estudio tiene el derecho de
retirarse en cualquier momento sin penalidad alguna.

Información contacto
Si usted tiene alguna duda o inquietud correspondiente a este
estudio de investigación o si surge alguna situación durante el
periodo de estudio, por favor contacte a Ernesto Pena,
[email protected] al (786) 291-0564. Si usted tiene preguntas
sobre sus derechos como sujeto de investigación por favor
comuníquese con la Oficina de Cumplimiento de la
Investigación del UAGM al 787-751-3120 o [email protected]
Consentimiento
He leído este documento y se me ha dado la oportunidad de
aclarar todas las dudas relacionados con el mismo. Por esta
razón estoy de acuerdo en participar en esta investigación.
______________________
________________________________________
Nombre del Participante Firmames/día/año
________________________
__________________________________________
Nombre del Investigador Principal Firmames/día/año
NOTA:
Es nuestra responsabilidad proveerle con una copia de este
documento. Favor de seleccionar la opción de su preferencia.
|_| Certifico que se me entregó copia de este documento.

|_| Certifico que se me ofreció copia de este documento y no
deseo tener copia del mismo.
Appendix- 3 Information to participate in a study /
investigation. Informational page
UNIVERSIDAD ANA G. MENDEZ
South Florida campus
MSN Program
Información para participar en un estudio/investigación
Hoja Informativa
Family knowledge about palliative care
Descripción del estudio/investigación y tu participación en el
mismo
Se realizará un estudio cuantitativoobservacional analítico con
una intervención educativa y un test pre-post, a un máximo de
25 familiares de pacientes con enfermedad terminal que serán
admitidos en cuidados paliativos en la agencia de cuidados
paliativos St. Sophia en Miami, Condado de Miami , para
explorar el conocimiento que los participantes tienen sobre el
manejo de sus familiares- pacientes en este servicio, así como
en el uso de medicamentos para controlar los diferentes
síntomas de ellos. La encuesta será aplicada por el investigador
Principal exclusivamente el cual se encargará únicamente de
procesar los datos de los test pre y post a la reunión educativa

que será impartida únicamente por el investigador principal.
El objetivo principal del estudio es saber si la reunión educativa
puede mejorar el conocimiento de los participantes enrolados
en el cuidado de sus familiares, durante los cuidados paliativos.
Un objetivo a largo plazo, basado en los resultados, es
implementar un diseño de intervención educativa para preparar
a los familiares de los pacientes en cuidados paliativos,
mejorando su conocimiento sobre este servicio.
[Este no es un documento llena blanco, por lo que es
importante leer e incluir la información que se le solicita].
Ernesto Penaestudiantey la Profesora Nancy Woelki, mentor, le
invita a formar parte de un estudio de investigación cuantitativo
analítico observacional que tendrá como objetivo conocer que
conocimiento tienen los familiares de pacientes admitidos en
servicios de cuidados paliativos para implementar una reunión
educativa-instructiva con el propósito de mejorar el
conocimiento que esté deficiente en relación a el manejo
general de los sus familiares enfermos durante estos cuidados,
asi como el fundamento de los tratamientos para el control de
los síntomas y poder examinar la efectividad de la educación
impartida. El propósito de este [estudio/investigación] es
[“explique en un lenguaje sencillo que pueda ser entendido
fácilmente”].
Su participación en este [estudio/investigación] consistirá en
dedicar 10 minutos para leer y discutir este consentimiento
informado a los participantes que fueron escogidos para
participar y que cumplan con los criterios para participar en este
estudio. Posterior a ello se tomará una breve encuesta de no más
de 10 preguntas con respuestas cortas (sí o no) para explorar el
enfermedades terminales, admitidos en hospicio, para proveerle
servicios de continuos careo cuidados paliativos. Después de 15
días se dará otra reunión en la que participarán para realizar la

educación e instrucción de 30 minutos, necesaria, sobre los
aspectos desconocidos sobre el tema, tendrán 5 minutos
posteriores para disipar dudas sobre el tópico, y 15 minutos
para aplicar un post-test para conocer la efectividad de la
educación que se les dará ese mismo día. [Describa los
procedimientos en un lenguaje sencillo que pueda ser entendido
fácilmente”].
Le tomará aproximadamente una hora y quince minutos para
completar este estudio. [indique un tiempo estimado] participar
de este [estudio/investigación].
Riesgos e Incomodidad
Hasta el momento el posible riesgo es el agotamiento que puede
haber durante el proceso de responder las preguntas y analizar
los examen y escuchar la conferencia. Sin embargo no debe
preocuparse, pues si en algún momento de la investigación,
usted no se siente confortable con las preguntas y decide no
continuar siendo parte del estudio, usted puede abandonar el
proyecto en cualquier momento.
[No conocemos de ningún riesgo e incomodidad que le pueda
ocasionar el participar en este[estudio/investigación] –O-[Existe
algún riesgo e incomodidad que pueda resultar de participar en
este [estudio/investigación]. Estos pueden ser[describa
cualquier riesgo o incomodidad que pueda ocurrir de participar
en este estudio] [Indicar que medidas se tomarán para minimizar
estos riesgos e incomodidades]
Posibles Beneficios
El principal beneficio que se obtendrá con su participación en
esta investigación es poder conocer el manejo y la justificación

para el tratamiento de los síntomas fundamentales de su familiar
enrolado en los cuidados paliativos, para de esta forma que
aumente su conocimientos sobre los cuidados que se le
proporcionan a su familiar y de qué forma los familiares pueden
cooperar e insertarse de forma efectiva en los cuidados del
enfermo [Describa el beneficio que obtendrá el participante o
cualquier otra persona al participar de este estudio] -O- [“No
tenemos conocimiento que al participar de este estudio usted
Tenga algún beneficio”. [De ser apropiado, puede añadir:“Este
estudio/investigación le puede ayudar a entender…” (Debe ser
breve)].
Incentivos
(El investigador debe describir cualquier incentivo que vaya
ofrecer para promover la participación en el estudio). (ej.,
dinero, regalos, cursos o créditos). [Si no ofrecerá incentivos
puede omitir esta sección.]
(Si el investigador está ofreciendo créditos por su participación
en esta investigación, debe especificar que esos créditos
también están disponibles realizando otro tipo de actividades
que no sean de investigación y que emplean la misma cantidad
de esfuerzo y de tiempo. El investigador puede referir al
participante a otras personas para recibir información al
respecto. [Si no ofrecerá créditos por la participación puede
omitir esta sección.]
Protección de la Privacidad y Confidencialidad
Toda información relacionada a su identidad será manejada de
manera privada y confidencial y será protegida en todo
momento. Bajo ninguna circunstancia se compartirá información
del participante con terceros. Los datos recopilados se
guardarán en un lugar privado, seguro y bajo llave. Cualquier
documento recopilado será almacenado en la oficina de la casa

del investigador principal por un periodo de cinco (5) años en
sobres separados. Los mismos estarán bajo la tutela del
investigador principal Ernesto Pena. La información obtenida
en el cuestionario no incluye los nombres de los participantes.
Después de cinco años, todo cuestionario será destruido por una
trituradora de papel y serán descartados. Tendrán acceso a los
cuestionarios el Investigador Principal y su mentora. También
se protegerá la confidencialidad de los participantes enfatizando
en todo momento sobre la importancia de mantener toda
información anónima. No se requerirá que los participantes
incluyan sus nombres en los cuestionarios ni los participantes
serán identificados en ningún informe sobre el estudio”.
(Describa el grado de confidencialidad que se le dará a los
datos de los participantes que deseen ser parte del estudio).
Decisión sobre su participación en este estudio
Su participación en este estudio es totalmente voluntaria. Usted
tiene todo el derecho de decidir participar o no de este estudio.
Si usted decide participar en este estudio tiene el derecho de
retirarse en cualquier momento sin penalidad alguna.
Información contacto
Si usted tiene alguna duda o inquietud correspondiente a este
estudio de investigación o si surge alguna situación durante el
periodo de estudio, por favor contacte a Ernesto Pena,
[email protected], o al teléfono (786) 291-0564. Si usted tiene
preguntas sobre sus derechos como sujeto de investigación por
favor comuníquese con la Oficina de Cumplimiento en la
Investigación del SUAGM al 787-751-3120 o [email protected]
Una copia de esta carta informativa le será entregada.

Appendix- 4
Cuestionario (Questionnaire)
Preguntas
Sí
NO
1- Conoce que son los cuidados paliativos?
2- Conoce que significa tener una enfermedad crónica en estado
avanzado o terminal?
3. Conoce porque su familiar ha sido puesto en cuidados
paliativos?
4. Conoce usted que objetivo tiene los cuidados paliativos?
5. Conoce usted los síntomas principales que van a ser
controlados?
6- Conoce los tratamientos que recibirá su familiar y como
trabajan esos medicamentos.
7. Está de acuerdo con que su familiar reciba morfina u otros
opioides y/o sedantes e hipnóticos?
8. Alguien le explicó cuál es el alcance de los cuidados, hasta
donde se puede llegar y hasta donde no?
9. Conoce sus derechos y deberes en los cuidados como

familiar?
10. Conoce como se manejan los cuidados paliativos en su
familiar específicamente?
References
7 Advantages of a Multicultural Workplace. (2016). Retrieved
23 September 2019, from https://www.nintex.com/blog/7-
advantages-multicultural-workplace/
Adler, N. (1983). Organizational Development in a
Multicultural Environment. The Journal Of Applied Behavioral
Science, 19(3), 349-365. doi: 10.1177/002188638301900311
Atkinson, G. (2018). How principle-based management can stop
your employees leaving. Retrieved 23 September 2019, from
https://www.kalido.me/how-principle-based-management-can-
stop-your-employees-
leaving/?doing_wp_cron=1569263670.765094995498657226562
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Connerley, M., & Pedersen, P. (2005). Leadership in a diverse
and multicultural environment. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage
Publications.
Gayk, R. (2010). Using Principle-Based Management. Retrieved
23 September 2019, from
https://firerescuemagazine.firefighternation.com/2010/05/01/usi
ng-principle-based-management/#gref
Henderson, T. (2017). 11 Strategies For Achieving A More
Diverse And Productive Work Environment. Retrieved 23
September 2019, from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2017/01/20/
11-strategies-for-achieving-a-more-diverse-and-productive-
work-environment/#de391a974d07
Importance of Ethical Leadership in Criminal Justice. (2017).

Retrieved 23 September 2019, from
https://online.lsua.edu/articles/criminal-justice/importance-of-
ethical-leadership-in-criminal-justice.aspx
Kramer, L. (2018). Retrieved 23 September 2019, from
https://legalbeagle.com/6386561-ethics-important-criminal-
justice.html
Leonard, K. (2019). The Advantages of Multiculturalism in the
Workplace. Retrieved 23 September 2019, from
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-multiculturalism-
workplace-15239.html
Reynolds, K. (2016). 5 Strategies for Promoting Diversity in the
Workplace Hult Blog. Retrieved 23 September 2019, from
https://www.hult.edu/blog/promoting-diversity-in-workplace/
Selart, M., & Johansen, S. (2010). Ethical Decision Making in
Organizations: The Role of Leadership Stress. Journal Of
Business Ethics, 99(2), 129-143. doi: 10.1007/s10551-010-
0649-0
Ethics in Criminal Justice
2
Ethics in Criminal Justice
In Search of the Truth
SAM S. SOURYAL
Professor Emeritus, Sam Houston State University
3

First published 2015 by Anderson Publishing
Published 2015 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an
informa business
Acquiring Editor: Pamela Chester
Editorial Project Manager: Ellen S. Boyne
Project Manager: Mohana Natarajan
Designer: Matthew Limbert
Sixth Edition: © 2015 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
Fifth Edition: 2011
Fourth Edition: 2007
Third Edition: 2003
Second Edition: 1998
First Edition: 1992

No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from
the publishers.
Notices
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury
and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use of operation of any methods,
products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own
experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
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compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own
safety and the safety of
others, including parties for
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to
infringe.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are

protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may
be noted herein).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Application Submitted
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
ISBN 978-0-323-28091-4 (pbk)
4
In memory of Dr. T. Henry Souryal, my mentor, my friend, and
my brother.
He was not ours, and he was not mine.
He was a gift from God who succeeded, a little bit, in making
the world a little better, and when he was
finished, he silently yet gallantly went Home.
5
Contents
Preface
Foreword

Acknowledgments
On the Virtues of Man
Chapter 1 Acquainting Yourself with Ethics: A Tour of the
Ethics Hall of Fame
Overview
Exhibit 1—Knowledge and Reasoning
Exhibit 2—Intellect and Truth
Exhibit 3—The Nature of Reality
Exhibit 4—The Nature of Morality
Exhibit 5—Nature of Goodness
Exhibit 6—Actions and Consequences
Exhibit 7—Determinism and Intentionalism
Exhibit 8—The Ethical Person
Review Questions
References
Chapter 2 Familiarizing Yourself with Ethics: Nature,
Definitions, and Categories
Overview
Warning: The Deception of Occupational Subculture

The Philosophy of Wisdom
The Nature of Ethics
The Scope of Ethics
Ethical Theory
Credibility of Ethics
Categories of Ethical Theory: Normative and Metaethics
Normative Ethics: Deontological and Teleological
Historical Origins of Ethics
Review Questions
References
Chapter 3 Understanding Criminal Justice Ethics: Sources and
Sanctions
Overview
Ethics of Natural Law
Ethics of Religious Testaments
Ethics of Constitutional Provisions
Ethics of Law
Professional Codes of Ethics
Philosophical Theories of Ethics

6
Review Questions
References
Chapter 4 Meeting the Masters: Ethical Theories, Concepts, and
Issues
Overview
The Stoicism School: Ethics of Freedom from Passion, Moral
Fortitude, and Tranquility (Epictetus)
The Hedonistic School: Ethics of the Pursuit of Pleasure
(Aristippus and Epicurus)
The Virtue School: Ethics of Knowledge and Moral Character
(Plato and Aristotle)
The Religious (Scholastic) School: Ethics of the Love of God
(Augustine and Aquinas)
The Naturalistic School: Ethics of Egoism and Power (Hobbes
and Nietzsche)
Ethics of Utilitarianism (Bentham)
Ethics of Duty and Reason (Kant)
The Existential School: Ethics of Moral Individualism and
Freedom of Choice (Sartre and de Beauvoir)

Ethics of Social Justice (Rawls)
Review Questions
References
Chapter 5 The Ambivalent Reality: Major Unethical Themes in
Criminal Justice Management
Overview
The Imperative of Ethics in Criminal Justice
A House on the Sand: The Spoils of Management
The Harvest of Shame
Principle-Based Management
Rushmorean Criminal Justice Agencies
A Profile of Rushmorean Courage: Coleen Rowley, the FBI
Agent Who Directed Her Boss
The Extent of Corruption in Criminal Justice Agencies
Review Questions
References
Chapter 6 Lying and Deception in Criminal Justice
Introduction and Confession
General Theory of Lying

The Origins of Lying
The Doctrine of Veracity
Can Lying Be Morally Justifiable?
Basic Rules on Lying
The Extent of Lying
Institutional Lying in Criminal Justice
Conclusions
Review Questions
References
Chapter 7 Racial Prejudice and Racial Discrimination
Overview
Glimpses of Racism in Criminal Justice
Nature of Racial Injustice
The Ethical View of Racial Injustice
7
Basic Theory of Prejudice
Prejudice and Knowledge

Targets of Prejudice
Types of Prejudice: Cultural and Psychological
Basic Theory of Discrimination
Roots of Racism
Institutional Racism
Exploratory Issues in Racism
Moral Guidelines in Understanding Racism
Conclusions
Review Questions
References
Chapter 8 Egoism and the Abuse of Authority
Overview
Glimpses of Egoism in Criminal Justice
Perceptions of Egoism in Criminal Justice
The Blindness of Egoism
Types of Egoism
Official Responsibility: The Antidote for Natural Egoism
Capital Punishment as State Egoism

Egoism—Ethics of Means and Ends
Ethical Guidelines
Conclusions
Review Questions
References
Chapter 9 Misguided Loyalties: To Whom, to What, at What
Price?
Overview
The Continuing Controversy
The Ideal of Loyalty
The Grammar of Workplace Loyalties
The Physiology of Personal Loyalty to Superiors
The Peculiar Nature of Personal Loyalty to Superiors
The Paradoxical Nature of Personal Loyalty to Superiors
Two Controlling Realities
Three Self-Evident Truths
Logical Findings
Cultural and Ethical Concerns
Unionized versus Nonunionized Agencies

The Goliath of Disloyalty
The Strain of Personal Loyalty to Superiors
Arguments in Support of Personal Loyalty to Superiors
Arguments Against Personal Loyalty to Superiors
The Ethical Imperative: The Duty-Based Thesis
Review Questions
8
References
Chapter 10 Ethics of Criminal Justice Today: What Is Being
Done and What Can Be Done?
Overview
The Dual Essence of Criminal Justice: The Social Order and the
Moral Order
The Dual Practice of Criminal Justice: The Ideal Model and the
Serviceable Model
Where Do We Go from Here?
Review Questions
References

Chapter 11 Ethics and Police
Overview
The Problematic Nature of Policing
The Peculiar Environment of the Police
The Semiprofessional Professionals
The Police Prerogative to Abuse Power
The Police in Search of a Soul
The Intellectual Virtue: Ethics of Democracy
The Moral Virtue: Ethics of Shunning Corruption
Hedonistic and Obligatory Corruption
The Obligatory Ethic Not to Deceive
Can Corruption Be Administratively Stopped?
Review Questions
References
Chapter 12 Ethics and Corrections (Prisons)
Overview
The Corrections Debate
Ethics of Life for Life: The Influence of Beccaria

Ethics of Life for Life: The Morality of Punishment
Ethics of Life for Life: The Moral Justifications for Prisons
Ethics of Life for Life: A Society That Loves Walls
Ethics of Life for Life: Putting Pain Back into Prisons
From the Ethics of Life for Life to the Ethics of Man and
Corrections: Changing Attitudes About Prisons
Ethics of Contemporary Corrections
Ethics of Man and Corrections: What Good Is Brutality?
Ethics of Man and Corrections: The Scapegoating Theory
Ethics of Man and Corrections: The Holier-than-Thou Syndrome
Ethics of Man and Corrections: We’re All Doing Time
Ethics of Man and Corrections: Postcards from Prison
Ethics of Man and Corrections: Rehabilitation Through Inner
Corrections
Corruption of Prison Personnel
Review Questions
References
Chapter 13 Ethics of Probation and Parole
Overview

9
The Professional Orientation of Probation and Parole
The Borderless Community
The Yellow Wind
Romancing the Stone or Stoning the Romance: Ethics of
Community-Based Corrections
The Case for Community-Based Corrections
The Case Against Community-Based Corrections
Work Strategies of Probation and Parole Practitioners
Common Unethical Practices in Probation/Parole
Ethical Choices in Probation/Parole
Review Questions
References
Chapter 14 The Truth Revealed: Enlightenment and Practical
Civility Minimize Criminality
In Essence
Evolution of Enlightenment
Enlightenment Defined

The Enlightened Mind
Development of Practical Enlightenment
The Hybrid of Enlightenment and Civility
Endorsing Enlightenment
The Other Twin: Practical Civility
Practical Civility Defined
Evolution of Practical Civility
What Do the Theorists Say?
Practical Civility by George Washington
Practical Civility by James Q. Wilson
Practical Civility by Tom Morris
Practical Civility by James O’Toole
Five Stories to Remember
Significant Reflections
A Final Word
Review Questions
References
Author Index

Subject Index
10
Preface
Despite advances in the legal and technological aspects of
criminal justice, practitioners continue to face
difficult moral choices. These include whether to arrest, use
deadly force, prosecute, offer plea bargaining,
impose punishment, and, from an organizational standpoint,
whether to comply with policy, cooperate with
supervisors, or treat the public equitably. As in other public
service sectors where discretion is essential,
individual and institutional ethics become major vectors.
Surprisingly, while the consequences of such choices
continue to cause great public anguish, the moral grounds for
these choices have seldom been examined.
In a free society, issues of crime and punishment are perhaps
the most deserving of the moral imperative of
justice—a quality the state must extend freely to the guilty and
the innocent alike. Moral behaviors need no
validation by the state, because they constitute justice unto
themselves. Thus, in responding to immoral
behaviors, civilized governments cannot rightfully employ
immoral means. Succinctly stated, the more
civilized the state, the more willing it is to address the “worst in
us” by the “noble means” available.
The purpose of this book is not to question the value of the law
as the primary instrument of criminal
justice, but to present ethics as an “umbrella of civility” under
which the law can be more meaningful, rational,

and obeyable. By way of analogy, if the law is compared to the
Old Testament, ethics is comparable to the New
Testament. They complement each other, making Christianity
blissful and tolerable. This view of ethics may
not impress hardened practitioners who believe that we “live by
the law” but forget that we also “die by the
law.” By the same token, this view may not enthuse students
who are so enamored with the trimmings of
criminal justice that they overlook its noble substance. To both
of these groups, there is one rational reply: “No
one is free until we can see the truth of what we are seeking.”
Without capturing the truths of criminal justice,
we are left with images that may be not only irrational, but also
disgraceful.
This book rejects the cynical view that ethical knowledge and
moral character are peripheral to the
administration of justice. Indeed, every action in the
administration of justice is directed either by the moral of
a rule or policy, or by the moral judgment of the practitioner
who implements it. Furthermore, the obligation
to “establish justice and insure domestic tranquillity” continues
to be the central force behind any act of
criminal justice. Therefore, without a fresh look at our
weaknesses, biases, and prejudices, the young discipline
of criminal justice will grow into a degenerative field; more like
a temple without a god, a body without a soul,
and a theory without a meaning.
In this book, students and practitioners will be introduced to the
fundamentals of ethical theory, doctrines,
and controversies, and the rules of moral judgment. They will
be exposed to the ways and means of making
moral judgment—but not in specific situations. That is beyond
the capacity of any book, and must be left to the
minds and hearts of the well-informed practitioner. Knowledge

will be presented in two forms: (1) a thematic
perspective, which will examine ethical principles common to
all components of the discipline, such as
wisdom, goodness, morality, and justice, as well as the common
vices of deception, racial prejudice, and
egoism; and (2) an area-specific perspective, which will address
the state of ethics in policing, corrections, and
probation and parole.
Every academic discipline or professional field is born and
slowly grows from an infant into maturity. In the
process, practitioners test its limits, establish its boundaries,
and legitimize its claims. During the maturation
process, serious excesses and failures appear that create
contradiction between the goals of the field and the
means by which objectives are to be met. In attempting to
reason away contradiction, an introspection usually
occurs urging caution, denouncing falsity, and searching for the
truth. This introspection gradually hardens,
constituting the collective conscience of the discipline—its
soul. Eventually, the soul becomes instrumental in
halting intellectual ostentation, in exposing fallacies, and in
reaffirming basic values. This collective conscience
keeps a vigilant eye whenever new technology is introduced or a
major policy shift is inaugurated. In time, the
membership of the discipline or field comes to recognize that
collective conscience and call it by its true name:
professional ethics.
11
The field of criminal justice is certainly young, but not too
distant from maturity. It lacks a unifying
philosophy that can give it autonomy and inner strength.

Primary issues of crime and justice still beg for
clarification. Secondary issues continue to frustrate rationality;
for instance, the role of the police in
maintaining order, the role of prosecutors in controlling entry
into the system, the role of judges in dominating
the sentencing process, the role of victims in reclaiming the
central court of justice, and the role of lawbreakers
in sabotaging the system by ingenious means. All such claims
compete in an environment of ambiguity,
egoism, and fear. The resulting picture is a mosaic of
incoherence and lack of scruples. Consequently, the field
has not proven successful beyond mere survival. Its efficacy has
been questioned, both from within by its
officials, and from without by its users. Few artificial reforms
have been introduced in the area of criminal
justice management, the field’s most logical instrument of
reform. Top management is often controlled by a
syndicate of lobbying bureaucrats who lack integrative thinking
and, at times, the tenacity to reason away
simple problems. Middle managers are unwitting brokers who
“dance on the stairway”; they are as hesitant to
face those at the top as they are reluctant to confront those at
the bottom. Frontline workers operate as an
army of “apparatchiks,” or functionaries. They suffer from
bureaucratic fatigue, a disturbing subculture, and a
confused view of reality.
The introspective voice of ethics in criminal justice is yet to be
heard louder and louder as the comforting
shriek of a first-born infant heralds the coming of age of his
parents. Until it is, criminal justice will continue to
be perceived with uneasiness and suspicion.
With these well-intended thoughts, this work is dedicated to the
better understanding of ethics—the
indestructible soul of criminal justice.

Sam S. Souryal
Huntsville, Texas
2014
12
Foreword
As a professor of political science and a retired federal prison
warden, I am very familiar with the concept of
The Social Contract—we willingly give up or limit some
personal liberty in exchange for the organization and
protection of our government. The questions that always
surround this trade are how much freedom we give
up versus how much protection we really need. This is an
exceptional debate to have in class, and I give my
students time to digest the implications and ask them to tell me
what is an acceptable balance between these
opposing needs. Students love to verbally fist fight over this
question that is both a theoretical abstraction and
a real-life imposition. They make their arguments based on the
underlying assumption that government is
made up of ethical, fair-minded people who are working hard at
taking care of their responsibilities while not
crossing over into what some would consider to be too much
government in our lives.
But this classroom discussion always takes an unusual turn
when I throw in the possibility that some
individuals in our government may be corrupt. That is, some of
the men and women that are paid to protect

us, or represent us, may have ulterior motives or rules of
behavior that work counter to our expectations.
Ethics in government may not always rise to the standard we
expect. This is why the arguments in this book,
presented in an admirably clear prose style, courageously urge
readers to consider and abide by two sets of
moral principles accumulated since the beginning of time,
mostly by philosophers. Without such principles the
world would be at a loss as to whether people are living
truthfully or living deceptively. If it is the former, they
would deservedly enjoy a “life worth living.” If it is the latter,
their pool of knowledge would simply be limited
to historical shreds of dogmas, traditions, myths, and, of course,
lies. While it is true that laws are designed to
enhance the former reasoning and to minimize the latter
occurrences, people, especially in unenlightened
environments, may be unable to tell the difference; hence, the
imperative of learning and exercising moral
principles. Foremost among these principles, especially in the
field of Criminal Justice, are those prohibiting
lying and deception, racial prejudice and racial discrimination,
egoism and the abuse of authority, as well as
misguided loyalties.
Also as a former leader in the United States Department of
Justice, I was occasionally surprised by
unprofessional staff behavior that ranged from misfeasance to
malfeasance, minor violations of policy to
behavior that was clearly against the law. To this day I am
shocked when I read of law enforcement personnel
violating their oath and the public trust, particularly when they
have been fully trained in the expectations of
the agency and the standards of conduct. The public holds
police and correctional staff to a higher standard
than others…and rightly so. Somehow it does not seem
necessary to teach and train law enforcement personnel

about the necessity of doing the right thing. I mean, after all is
said and done, it seems rather redundant to
have to tell those that enforce regulations and the law that they
must comply with the same. It is axiomatic
that police, correctional officers, and other agents of justice
follow the rules. Indeed, it was the English
philosopher Edmond Burke (1729–1797) who advocated that the
most malicious sin in public service occurs
when governments violate their own rules. Yet we read every
day about new examples of justice practitioners
being terminated, arrested, or sentenced for violating the public
trust…our trust. We hear of bribes,
unacceptable use of force, simple lying, theft of public
property, and hundreds of other examples of immoral
activity. It seems bad enough when an individual citizen
violates our norms of behavior, but when a public
servant does so it borders on the absurd. We have high
expectations. Yet, some would say that applied ethics is
relative to a situation and dependent upon an individual’s
interpretation of the immediate facts. If our life is in
danger, most of us do not stop to consider the relevance of
Natural law, State law, or Federal law, (laws we had
taken a solemn oath to observe). the morality of an appropriate
response, or the constitutionality of swift
action that must be taken—survival and all of that. Still, we
require police, correctional, parole and probation
personnel to always respond in a legal, moral, and reasonable
manner. In our democratic republic we expect
public servants to respond to all of us with respect.
In this book, although unethical and illegal behaviors on the
part of law enforcement personnel are
13

discussed, it is critical to remember that those who violate our
expectations and precepts of justice and fairness
are not representative of the many officials that do their work
well. As one who worked in the field for over
thirty years, I was very proud to be associated with colleagues
who were professional, reasonable, and fair to
all in their daily work. The vast majority of men and women
with whom I was associated were honest public
servants in every sense of the term.
Dr. Souryal’s exceptional text looks at ethics in the field of
criminal justice from both the philosophical and
the pragmatic points of view. From the former, he focuses on
the phenomenon of enlightenment, and from the
latter he focuses on the inevitable need for civility, explaining
the impact of these two essential phenomena on
understanding the human condition. He is an educator and
presents the issue of ethical decision-making, and
where it goes awry, from the clear vision of a scholar who
understands and outlines the history of the field of
ethics and how it relates to people in the arena of justice.
Souryal presents a thematic approach to ethics and
offers guidance to various justice fields on how moral decision-
making can be reinforced in subfields of justice
in America.
Sam Souryal does challenge the system as he considers the
cause and effect of unethical behavior within the
field of criminal justice. He presents concerns that force us to
question if agencies are unclear as to their
expectations of behavior. This text is important to all of us and
helps shape the dialog in the classroom and in
the field.
Dr. Peter M. Carlson

Professor of Public Administration
Christopher Newport University
Newport News, VA
14
Acknowledgments
Inspiration for this book came from my students. To be precise,
it came from undergraduates who were
dedicated to the ideals of criminal justice, yet were dismayed by
its image. They could not comprehend the
“schizophrenic ballad” of criminal justice: How could it be that
criminal justice practitioners serve such a
“noble cause,” yet many of them are accused—and, worse still,
found guilty—of so much injustice and cruelty,
and so many acts of corruption?
In my early years of teaching, I responded to my
students’skepticism by naively suggesting that the problem
was inadequate control. So, I wrote about discipline,
supervision, and other administrative tools. In later years,
I also naively thought that the problem was a lack of guidance.
So, I wrote about motivation, leadership, job
enrichment, and similar managerial tools. In recent years it
became apparent to me that, while administration
and management have a major role to play, the “schizophrenic
ballad” of criminal justice is the product of the
ethical indifference of practitioners, especially those who claim
to be administrators and managers. While
many of these may appear to be efficient, effective, eloquent,

and polished, in reality many may still be
dishonest and immoral.
Criminal justice is essentially a moral function, and
professional criminal justice agencies must operate in an
environment of moral values. When these values are
internalized in the soul of practitioners, agencies flourish
in professionalism and decency, and when they are not, they
sink in the toxicity of corruption and decay. In
the latter case, the situation can be reversed only through a
Herculean effort by conscientious practitioners and
administrators who possess the moral fortitude to stem the tide
and restore institutional morality.
The intellectual guidance offered by the works of John Kleinig,
Sissela Bok, Peter Manning, Samuel Walker,
Herman Goldstein, Charles Friel, and Michael Braswell was
instrumental in treating this difficult subject. I
quoted them frequently and liberally. I wish I was able to read
their minds, to penetrate their reasoning, and to
engage them in the dialectics of crime, justice, and ethical
values. If I erred, however, in responding to their
challenges, only my passion for justice is to blame.
My thanks are due to all those who assisted in this project,
especially Gerald Jones (the constant skeptic),
George Eisenberg (the interpreter of history), Adam Trahan (the
silent enhancer), and Dennis Potts (the
outspoken critic, the kind every doctoral program should have—
and keep!). They painstakingly read several
drafts of this manuscript and provided me with invaluable
insights into the workings of many criminal justice
agencies with which I was barely familiar. Dennis Potts, in
particular, was concerned about making this book
“more friendly.” I am glad I did not take his advice, because too
many friendly books remain on the shelf.

Perhaps that is also a reason why Mr. Potts—who had left
academe when the first edition appeared—has
recently returned! I owe a very special thanks to Elisabeth
Roszmann Ebben, who was my editor at
Elsevier/Anderson Publishing for many editions of this text. She
has been helpful, patient, and always a joy to
work with.
15
On the Virtues of Man
Three monkeys sat in a coconut tree
Discussing things as they are said to be.
Said one to the others, “Now listen you two,
There’s a certain rumor that can’t be true.
That man descended from our noble race,
The very idea is a dire disgrace.
No monkey ever deserted his wife.
Starved his babies and ruined their life.
And you never heard of a mother monk
Leaving her babies with others to bunk;
Or passing them on from one to another
’Til they hardly know who is their mother.
And another thing, you will never see
A monk build a fence around a coconut tree
And let all the coconuts go to waste.
Forbidding all other monks to taste.
Why, if I built a fence around this tree,
Starvation would force you to steal from me.
And here’s another thing a monk won’t do,
Go out at night and go on a stew
And use a club or a gun or a knife
To take some other monkey’s life.

Yes, man descended, the ornery cuss,
But brother, he didn’t descend from us.”
Author Unknown
16
1
Acquainting Yourself with Ethics
A Tour of the Ethics Hall of Fame
They honestly consider they are doing the right thing.
E. W. Elkington, 1907, on New Guinea Cannibals
Or are you a clear thinker examining what is good and useful
for society and spending your life in building what is useful and
destroying
what is harmful?
Kahlil Gibran, Mirrors of the Soul
Good laws lead to the making of better ones; bad laws bring
about worse. As soon as any man says of the affairs of the State,
“What does it
matter to me?” the State may be given up for lost.
Rousseau
The present moral crisis is due among other things to the
demand for a moral code which is intellectually respectable.
R. Niebuhr

What You will Learn from this Chapter
To understand the foundation of ethics, you should learn about
the virtue of knowledge and reasoning,
the sources of intellect, the nature of truth, the nature of reality,
the nature of morality, the nature of
goodness, the relationship between actions and consequences,
determinism and intentionalism, and the
image of the ethical person.
You will also learn about the reasoning process, Plato’s divided
line, the definition of morality and
ethics, the grammar of goodness, the principle of summum
bonum, and the utilitarianism measure.
Key Terms and Definitions
Reasoning is a pure method of thinking by which proper
conclusions are reached through
abstract thought processes.
The Divided Line is Plato’s theory of knowledge. It
characterizes four levels of knowledge. The
lowest of these are conjecture and imagination because they are
based on impressions or
suppositions; the next is belief because it is constructed on the
basis of faith, images, or
superstition; the third is scientific knowledge because it is
supported by empirical evidence,
experimentation, or mathematical equations; and the highest
level is reasoning.
Theory of Realism is Aristotle’s explanation of reality. It
includes three concepts: rationality, the
ability to use abstract reasoning; potentiality and actuality, the
“capacity to become” and the
“state of being”; and the golden mean, the middle point between

two extreme qualities.
Ethics is a philosophy that examines the principles of right and
wrong, good and bad.
Morality is the practice of applying ethical principles on a
regular basis.
Intrinsic Goods are objects, actions, or qualities that are
valuable in themselves.
Nonintrinsic Goods are objects, actions, or qualities that are
good only for developing or
serving an intrinsic good.
Summum Bonum is the principle of the highest good that cannot
be subordinated to any other.
17
E = PJ2 is the guiding formula for making moral judgment. E
(the ethical decision) equals P (the
principle) times J (the justification of the situation).
Utilitarianism is the theory that identifies ethical actions as
those that maximize happiness and
minimize pain.
Determinism is the theory that all thoughts, attitudes, and
actions result from external forces
that are beyond human control. They are fixed causal laws that
control all events as well as the
consequences that follow.
Intentionalism is the theory that all rational beings possess an
innate freedom of will and must
be held responsible for their actions. It is the opposite of
determinism.
18

Overview
Compared to other disciplines, criminal justice is an infant
discipline. This is probably one reason why it is
far more concerned with crime rather than with justice, and with
process rather than with philosophy. As a
result, most criminal justice students and practitioners today
have not been adequately exposed to the
philosophy of justice or, for that matter, to any serious
philosophical studies. Courses in ethics and justice are
not usually required for a criminal justice degree, nor are they
included in programs of professional training. A
study in the ethics of criminal justice may, therefore, be an
alien topic and can understandably cause a degree
of apprehension. In order to reduce your anxiety and to better
acquaint you with the topic, this chapter is
designed to take you on a tour of the world of ethics. I will take
you, if you will, on a journey into the “Ethics
Hall of Fame,” introduce you to key concepts, and familiarize
you with the works of leading philosophers.
Knowledge gained from this chapter will serve as the
foundation for the remainder of this book. Figure 1.1
illustrates the layout of the Ethics Hall of Fame.
Figure 1.1 The Ethics Hall of Fame.
19
Exhibit 1—Knowledge and Reasoning
Our first stop on this tour is at a pedestal supporting the bust of
Socrates. The sculpture symbolizes the
virtue of knowledge because Socrates was considered the wisest

man in ancient Greece.
Born in Athens—at the time, the greatest democracy of all—
Socrates spent his entire life in search of the
truth. Not surprisingly, he was later hailed as the patron saint of
Western philosophy. We are more certain of
the facts of his death than of the circumstances of his life
because Socrates left no record of his own. The
information about his accomplishments was gathered from the
accounts of his disciples, particularly Plato,
who was his most prominent student. According to these
accounts, Socrates was an outstanding philosopher
who served Athens well during times of war and peace.
A Life Unexamined Is Not Worth Living
Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) was central to the enlightenment of
the world. He taught in the marketplaces of
Athens, free of charge. Appearing uninterested in physical
speculation, he went about engaging people in
conversations and asking them familiar but important-to-
everyday-life questions. He raised difficult questions
about the meaning of life and, in particular, the natures of
knowledge and virtue. He challenged his audiences
to rethink and reason their lives rationally. In arguing his views,
he demonstrated the power of
“counterargument” and stung his opponents by exposing their
unexamined beliefs. His famous credo was the
memorable exhortation “a life unexamined is not worth living.”
By the same token, we should think today that
“a belief unexamined is not worth following,” “a policy
unexamined is not worth executing,” and “a practice
unexamined is not worth adhering to.” Every subject, topic, or
issue in life must be open to intellectual scrutiny
regardless of its nature or origin. The “beginning of wisdom” is
allowing the human intellect to think freely

and to emancipate the mind from the clutches of ignorance and
the fetters of cultural, social, or religious bias.
Consistent with this Socratic dictum, students and instructors of
criminal justice should be encouraged—
rather than discouraged— to examine every policy, practice, or
controversy in criminal justice without shyness,
discomfort, or guilt. For instance, questions about crime and
justice, the limits of punishment, the authority of
the state, the role of prisons, fairness in the workplace, and
other controversial practices in criminal justice
should all be openly discussed. The reasoning behind such a
commitment is dualistic: (1) as citizens of a nation
dedicated to “liberty and justice for all,” it is our obligation to
enable everyone to experience the full measures
of “liberty” and “justice” in our daily lives, thus making us
better citizens and (2) as criminal justice
professionals, it is our obligation to call attention to system
failures and shortcomings in order to correct them.
Failure to do so would make us responsible to the future
generations of Americans who may point to their
ancestors and ask, “If they kept doing it the same way, how did
they expect it to come out differently?” (Friel,
1998).
Exploring Virtue
Socrates’ typical method of exploring virtue was by arguing
against popular but erroneous beliefs in what
was known as the dialectic method. Such arguments were
conducted in a dialog form in which the parties
involved would engage in an exchange of questions and
answers. The direction of questions and the validity of
answers would point out the presence of contradiction or
fallacy. By continuing this process, the truth of the
disputed question would either be established or denied. The

dialectic method, which was the trademark of
ancient Greek philosophy, was later labeled the Socratic method
in honor of its most skillful master.
In his philosophical teachings, Socrates addressed general
topics such as knowledge, wisdom, and character,
and also discussed specific ideas of a moral nature, such as
goodness, courage, and temperance. Regardless of
the topic of inquiry that Socrates pursued, there is no doubt that
his overall aim was to reeducate the people of
Athens in the nature of arete, or virtue.
20
Knowledge and Virtue
Socrates argued that virtue is knowledge and knowledge is
virtue. Both are one and the same. He taught that
a person who knows what is right will, by virtue of such
knowledge, do what is right. Conversely, committing
a wrong act results from ignorance because evildoing can only
be involuntary. At this point, it has been said
that the students of Socrates interrupted him, suggesting that
many Athenian leaders and politicians had
frequently been in prison, thus proving Socrates to be wrong in
his central assertion. To that, Socrates
reportedly answered that those Athenians were certainly not
knowledgeable enough; if they had been, they
would have been able to anticipate the consequences of their
intentions and abstain from doing wrong.
Socrates taught that genuine knowledge amounted to moral
insight, which he considered prerequisite to
success and happiness in life. Hence, Socrates’ classical

exhortation to his students: “Know thyself.” By that
dictum, Socrates referred to the obligation of all individuals to
be knowledgeable of themselves, their talents
and goals, as well as their limitations. Socrates emphasized that
success can be assured only through living an
intelligent life in accordance with knowledge. It is interesting to
note, at this point, that while Socrates was
obviously the most knowledgeable among his peers, he always
pretended to be limited in his intellect; hence
the term Socratic irony.
To be a “philosopher” and to “study virtue” meant the same
thing to Socrates. This is basically because the
study of virtue requires a high level of diverse knowledge that
can be possessed only by students of philosophy.
In arguing philosophical matters in general, and ethical issues
in particular, one quickly discovers the
imperative of being well versed in other fields of knowledge. A
worthy judgment of good and evil, Socrates
pointed out, must depend on “whether it is made under the
guidance of knowledge.” The Socratic quest for
virtue was thus a fierce search for the truth that “every man can
only find for himself.” Perhaps the central
theme in the Socratic theory of knowledge can be restated in the
rule that philosophers (as you should now
start considering yourselves) are not free to make judgments
about issues of which they have limited
knowledge. Furthermore, proper ethical judgment cannot be
based on whether one likes or dislikes an act or
approves or disapproves of a policy, but on whether the act or
the policy is consistent with reasoning, the
highest level of intellectual capacity.
The Reasoning Process
Reasoning is a capacity that differentiates the human race from

animals, birds, trees, and rocks. It is
especially critical to the study of ethics because it is the only
legitimate method of reaching the truths of life
and living. Any other means is suspect. Reasoning is a pure
method of thinking by which proper conclusions
are reached through abstract thought processes. Based on the
universal assumption that understanding is an
exercise in duality—life and death, good and evil, light and
darkness, happiness and misery—reasoning has
developed as an exchange between a point and a counterpoint.
Such an exchange can take place between two
or more persons or within one’s own mind. The initial point in
any such exchange is known as thesis and its
response as antithesis. As a result, an intellectual compromise
can be reached. This is known as synthesis.
Every synthesis in turn becomes a new thesis that warrants a
new antithesis, which in turn produces a new
synthesis, and so on. The reasoning process can thus continue
indefinitely until the debaters reach a point at
which no further point can be made. At that point, the
knowledge produced would be accepted as truth, as far
as human beings are capable of discerning it. When truths are
recognized over a long period, or are universally
accepted, they become self-evident truths.
Pure reason emanates from the human intellect and functions
independently of other faculties of
consciousness such as will or desire. As such, pure reasoning
can be defined as an intellectual talent that
proceeds rationally and logically without reliance on sense
perception or individual experience.
The goal of reasoning is to determine the true nature of life and
to investigate the intricacies of human
choice—questions that are always present, right under our
noses, but elude our knowledge. The independence

of reasoning is what makes it superior to all other thought
patterns. It keeps the thinking process immune to
the noises of history and the distractions of cultural and social
surroundings. As such, thoughts of pure reason
are capable of transcending the walls of opinion, the myths of
tradition, the fallacies of dogma, and the
darkness of ignorance. Through this transcending power,
reasoning can capture the truth and refute hostile
and stray ideas. Without the reasoning process, the unaided
truth will have very little chance to triumph in the
21
marketplace of conflicting ideas.
Most people today live in a thoughtless world that is dominated
by political ideology, public opinion, and
changing social and economic interests. The absence of
reasoning has turned the world into a disheartening
environment of ignorance, impenetrable by the forces of
intellect. Reasoning, therefore, may be the only
rational tool left for recapturing the truth. Only through the
reasoning process can philosophical issues be
rationally debated. Philosophers systematically proceed from
examining the premises, to inferring facts and
values, to reaching conclusions, without having to rely on
social, cultural, or personal prejudices.
Consequently, a debate that does not allow for reasoning is
doomed to missing the truth.
Socratic Reasoning
The Socratic method of reasoning incorporates two interrelated
functions: first, establishing the purpose of

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