Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity

Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity
Introduction: Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is a term first coined in 1985 by Walter G. Rosen concerning the number of species in a particular
habitat and revolved around the idea that diversity cannot solely be understood through numbers (Maclaurin and Sterelny, 2012). However, before 1985
biodiversity was related to concepts of "genetic diversity and ecological diversity". This allowed to further define ecological diversity with species
richness as "the number of species in a community of organism". Biodiversity is more than just the amount of species in an area but rather better
measured by taxic measures, molecular measures, and phylogenetic measures (Harper and Hawksworth, 1994). Today, zoologists have estimated that...
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Our method of capture was the pitfall trap (digging a hole in the ground and placing a cup) that was filled with isopropyl alcohol. The independent
variables for this experiment included location (habitat 1 vs habitat 2) and sun vs shade. The way biodiversity was measured through the arthropod
collection project by primarily using statistics including the sum of individual specimens, the sum of taxa, and evenness. The sum of individual
specimens allows for the depiction of abundance. The sum of taxa is better known through richness or more specifically how common a certain
arthropod is. Lastly, using the Burger– Parker index, evenness is the "lack of dominance" which is known as "1/Pm" (UNO Department of Biological
Sciences,1999).
Methods:
This experiment was conducted in New Orleans and Kenner, Louisiana which are located in Orleans and Jefferson Parish, however, Kenner is more
suburban rather than city. Conducting this experiment required setting out eight pitfall traps (four in each habitat) which were labelled cups one
through eight. This experiment was conducted over the time frame of three weeks in order to collect approximately 100–200 arthropods. Every day for
three weeks, cups (pitfall traps) were placed in two different habitats (Kenner and New Orleans) and put out every morning and picked up every night.
The shade
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Taking a Look at Kingdom Animalia
Animals share certain characteristics such as being heterotrophs, multicellular, no presence of cell walls, and many more. Animals can further be
divided through the use of a phylogeny, which is an evolutionary tree. A phylogeny shows patterns of relationships between several different types of
species. When branching off to dissimilar species, characteristics are taken accounted for whether they are derived, ancestral, or shared traits. Traits
include symmetry, tissues, segmentation, body cavities, and patterns that deal with the development of embryos. The kingdom Animalia breaks down
to two subkingdoms, Parazoa and Eumetazoa. Parazoa include organisms, such as sponges, who most members lack symmetry, but are multicellular to
help circulate water and reproduce. Eumetazoa separates from Parazoa by symmetry and definite shape therefore, anything that branches off from
Eumetazoa consist of these characteristics. Eumetazoa, or "true animals", further divides among protostomes and deuterostomes (Telford, 2009).
Protostomes and deuterostomes differentiate by the embryonic development and how the zygote goes through mitotic divisions, known as cleavage,
and so on (Raven et al., 2014). Bilaterally symmetrical animals have two dissimilar types of development. Therefore because some protostomes are not
bilaterally symmetrical, protostomes broke down to two different classes, one class being Spiralian protostomes who undergo spiral cleavage in
embryonic development. Spiral

Nightcrawler Earthworm Research Paper
The Scientific name of the Nightcrawler Earthworm is Lumbricus terrestris. The Kingdom of the Nightcrawler is Animalia and the phylum is annelida.
The class, order, suborder, and family in that order is Oligochaeta, Haplotaxida, Lumbricina, and Lumbricidae. Lastly, the phylum and genus is
Lumbricus terrestris, like the scientific name states. The origins of the Nightcrawler worm was originally thought to be Manitoba or North America but
is actually said to be Europe. However, though it originates in Europe it is most prevalent in Manitoba. The habitat of the worm is most preferably
moist soil that are rich in organic matter. As for the ecological habitat, I would say underground insects, dirt, organic matter, and other underground
species.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They promote the activities of those organisms "shedding and increasing the surface area of organic matter and making it more available to small
organisms". The Nightcrawler is consumed by snakes, birds, moles, toads and even sometimes foxes. Other notorious beings known to eat the
worm are beetles, slugs, leeches, flatworms, other types of parasitized earthworms. The Nightcrawler worm is, like other species of worms, a
hermaphrodite. Although the worm contains the sexual organs of both the genders, they still need to mate to reproduce. The two worms lie
alongside each other and transfer sperm to the both of them. Each worm will lay capsules to be used as a cocoon for the egg. When the capsules
break fully formed tiny worms will emerge. It is said that they prefer to mate during the spring and fall time. It takes a year for the tiny worms to fully
grow, and it is also said worms live for 3–8 years, although that isn't

Platypuses Research Paper
Platypodes The platypus is the weirdo of the animal kingdom, that makes its home in the rivers and lakes of Australia. In addition platypuses are one
of the two living mammals in the world that can lay eggs, this is what makes them so interesting and unique. Male platypi weigh between two point
two pounds to five point three pounds and are around twenty inches long, while females weigh between one point five pounds to three point five
pounds and are around seventeen inches long and can live for seventeen years in captivity. These creatures mostly live in freshwater lakes, rivers,
lagoons, farm dams, and streams of Tasmania and eastern and southeastern coasts of Australia. Additionally platypi are found in bodies of water that
have earth

Rhetorical Analysis Of Earthworms
Introduction The Common Earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris, is a terrestrial invertebrate found abundantly across the United States. Physically, it has a
red–brown color, can measure in length up to fourteen inches, and can weigh up to .39oz. The body of the earthworm is made up of ring–like
segments, annuli, and covered in small bristles, setae, that help the worm to move and burrow (National Geographic, 2017). The earthworm uses
peristaltic waves as its form of locomotion (Kuroda et al, 2014). Within the segments, the earthworm has two types of muscles, circular and
longitudinal. The contraction of the circular muscles causes the segment to become shorter, while the contraction of the longitudinal muscles causes
the segment to lengthen. The resulting pattern in all segments of the earthworm's body causes it to move forward in a wave–like pattern, with one
segment moving after another (Piearce, 1983). There are kinetics involved in the locomotion of earthworms that are directly related to its morphology.
Research conducted by scientists from the zoological department at Cambridge University on the locomotory reflexes in the earthworm found that the
tactile sense organs on the ventral surface of the earthworm affect the longitudinal contractions. Therefore, when an earthworm moves over an irregular
surface, its tension reflexes are altered depending on the certain environment (Gray & Lissmann, 1938). Our research question is: How does the
locomotion of an earthworm vary

Earth Worms Research Paper
Earth worms should be good for the soil right? Well not for the places where there have been no earthworms for thousands of years. Usually they
wouldn't make it that far north but different situations caused this to happen. People have inadvertently intervened. Sometimes they've dumped their
leftover bait in worm–free zones, or they've accidentally brought worms or eggs in the soil stuck to cars and brought them up causing the worms to
take up residence as far north as Alberta's boreal forests. Earthworms "are not really supposed to be in some of these areas," says Tara Bal, a forest
health scientist at Michigan Technological University in Houghton. In the northern forest soil is naturally stratified and nutrients and can only be
found in

Physics Project
PHYSICS PROJECT
TO STUDY THE OPTICAL LENS OF A HUMAN EYE
Eyes are organs that detect light, and convert it to electro–chemical impulses in neurons. The simplest photoreceptors in conscious vision connect light
to movement. In higher organisms the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment; regulates its intensity
through a diaphragm; focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image; converts this image into a set of electrical signals; and
transmits these signals to the brain, through complex neural pathways that connect the eye, via the optic nerve, to the visual cortex and other areas of
the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Possessing detailed hyperspectral color vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the world's most complex color vision system.[8]
Trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes. In this, they differ
from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied, however: some trilobites had only one, and some had
thousands of lenses in one eye.
In contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a large pair of simple eyes with a
narrow field of view, supported by an array of other, smaller eyes for peripheral vision. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of
simple eye (stemmata) which gives a rough image. Some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which
cannot actually "see" in the normal sense. They do have photosensitive cells, but no lens and no other means of projecting an image onto these cells.
They can distinguish between light and dark, but no more. This enables snails to keep out of direct sunlight. In organisms dwelling near deep–sea
vents, compound eyes have been secondarily simplified and adapted to spot the infra–red light produced by the hot vents–in this way the

New Zealand Flatworms Play a Huge Role in Agriculture
The New Zealand Flatworm (Arthurdendus Triangulates) is an Invasive Species here in Ireland. It originates from New Zealand as the name implies
and has spread extensively throughout Europe. It was first recorded in Northern Ireland in 1963. In 1963 it was looked upon as a novelty in gardens
around belfast and was not seen as a pest that could in the future potentially do detrimental damage to agricultural land. In 1983 scientists discovered
that these flatworms were preying on our native types of earthworms, and drastic falls in their numbers were seen in areas where the NewZealand
Flatworms were abundant. Earth Worms play a huge beneficial role in Irish Agriculture land and gardens by improving drainage, aerating soil, mixing
the soil structure and decomposing material, when they are preyed apon by the New Zealand Flatworm they can completely disappear in severe cases
and in those areas the land can become water logged and as a result growth of plants suffer and the whole ecosystem is effected .
The worm is believed to have reached Ireland by the importation of exotic potted plants which contained the flatworms eggs mixed in throuh the
potted soil. The worm has established itself mainly in the North of the Country but sightings have also been recorded in the West in County Mayo and
County Sligo. The worm does not thrive in soil temperatures above 23 degrees which is why they are usually found in the North of which ever country
they inhabit as soil temperatures are colder

Explain The Three Hypotheses Concerning The Evolution Of...
Arthropods, annelids, and chordates exhibit examples of true segmentation. Segmentation, being the repetition of structural units including pieces of
the body, evolved numerous times. This article ultimately delves into it's origins and seeks to determine whether segments within animals evolved
independently or whether they were derived from a common ancestor. Three hypothesis were developed to examine both similarities, differences, and
variance between the processes between 3 phyla. Different animals within each of the categories were studied to collect data and support these
hypotheses. Ultimately, it was concluded that there is still not enough data needed to develop a strong answer on how exactly segments evolved in the
various phyla.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What are the three hypotheses concerning the evolution of segmentation?
The first hypothesis essentially states that segmentation was acquired independently in all of the three phyla. The second goes on to say these
segments are in fact homologous within the protostomes, but that chordates evolved segments independently. Lastly, the third hypothesis also believes
that segmentation is homologous but only throughout the Bilateria.
2.What evidence does the author provide that supports or contradicts each of the three hypotheses?
The evidence is based on the assumption that homologous structures tend to possess similar developmental properties as compared to structures that
have evolved independently on both the genetic and molecular stages.
1.The first hypothesis, segmentation was acquired in dependently in all three phyla, is supported by the prediction that segmentation developmental
similarities in different groups are in fact

Crayfish And Earthworms
When society thinks about crayfish and earthworms they become extremely curious about how their bodies operate because of how they are made up.
I will give a brief synopsis of both animals before going into major detail about them. According to the online website named dictionary.com, it says
that an earthworm is a burrowing annelid worm that lives in the soil. Earthworms play an important role in aerating and draining the soil and in burying
organic matter (Dictionary). Crayfish are nocturnal freshwater crustacean that resembles a small lobster and inhabits in streams and rivers (Dictionary).
Crayfish and earthworms are some very interesting animals that possess some exclusive qualities both similar and different.
As researched, earthworms are known as hermaphrodites, which are defined as an animal having both male and female sex organs or other sexual
characteristics, either abnormally or (in the case of some organisms) as the natural condition (Dictionary). During the earthworm lab, I discovered that
earthworms have both seminal vesicles and seminal receptacles. Holding sperm after cross–fertilization has occurred is the seminal receptacles for
females only. Seminal vesicles produce and release sperm and are well known as the male reproductive organs. Gizzards are responsible for mechanical
digestion and grinding up the food for earthworms (Earthworm dissection video). On the other hand, for male crayfish to make sperm they must
contain testes, unlike the females they

The Similarities Between Earthworm And Crayfish
In my comparative anatomy class I was able to distinguish the difference and the similarities between a earthworm, crayfish, and a chordate. The
earthworm and the crayfish are both divided into parts. The earthworm is divided internally and externally into defined segments. These segments
may also be divided as well. The crayfish is divided into two main parts. One of the parts that they are divided into is called the cephalothorax which
consists of the head region and the thoracic region. The second part is called the abdomen. The abdomen consists of six clearly divided segments. The
chordate is not divided into parts. They all belong to the animal kingdom. The crayfish differs from the earthworm and the chordate because it has a
hard exoskeleton that covers its body. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They all have different ways of how they taste their food. The crayfish taste its food by two ways which is antennules and the long antennae. The
only difference between the two is that the antennules helps with balance, touch, and taste, and the long antennae are organs for touch, taste, and
smell. The chrodate taste its food by the pharynx. They are able to do this because the pharynx is consisted of 100 pharyngeal slits that are called
"gill slits". These gill slits are what is used to strain food particles out of the water. The earthworm obtains its food by extending its body from
surfaces and opening a small tunnel which it makes by "eating" its way through the soil. So basically this is saying that earthworms eat

Flatworm Lab Report
Universal Statement: There are three phylum of worms. There are the flatworms (Platyhelminthes), roundworms (Nematoda), and the segmented
worms (Annelida). Flatworms have long, flat bodies and are usually parasites. An example of one is the Planarian, which are free–living and feed like
a vacuum cleaner. Roundworms have long, round bodies and unlike cnidarians or flatworms, have a digestive system that is like a tube, open at both
ends. Segmented worms have long, round bodies made up of linked segments. Segmented worms also have a closed circulatory system. Earthworms,
that we were learning in our lab are from phylum Annelida. In the lab we were examining the internal anatomy of the earthworms and comparing it to a
human's. 1 Re–do Statement:

A Brief Lok at the Earthworm
General Appearance:
Earthworms have a body that is shaped cylindrical and usually varies from 90 to 900 millimeters when they are full grown. The outside of the worm
is divided into segements that is called primay segmentation. This means that the worm is divided by the longitudinal axis which is seperated by the
septa and furrows. The Lumbricus species have an advantage when they are trying to tunnel and during locomotion by having retractile structures.
Having these structures the species is able to retract parts of their body. Setae is usually one of the main characteristics that are noticed while looking
at these worms. Having six layers in the body wall is something not usually normal when looking at the Lumbricus species. These six layers are opened
by three apertures which are the excretory, genital and reproductive apertures. The six layers contain the cuticle, epidermis, nerve plexus, circular
muscles, longtitudinal muscle, and the peristoneal layer. (Reynolds 1977)
Range:
The Lumbricus species of the earthworm is found in many different places over the world. The terrestris worms are native to the regions of Europe.
This species was not known to be in the parts of North America, until farmers started to move into the area. Today earthworms are native to all parts of
America. (Nuttinen et al 2014).
Habitat:
Earthworms are known to mostly live in soil unless the conditions are not right for them at the time. Some conditions that they will live in are the

Saving Game
Purpose: To save Fred's life ! Background information: We have to save Fred from drowning. If we drop him in the water Fred will die. Fred has only 2
lives. We can't stab Fred with the paperclips because if we do he will also die. We have to try to get the lifesaver which is under the cup in order to
save Fred's life & keep him from drowning. Once we put the lifesaver on Fred he will be safe but we have to be careful when we're picking up the
lifesaver and Fred with paperclips. Hypothesis: If we grab Fred with a paper clip and we move the cup with another clip we can get the lifesaver which
is under the cup with another paper clip and we sort of push Fred in the lifesaver until we got him inside of it completely !... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Digestion – The digestive system of annelids consists of an unsegmented gut that runs through the middle of the body from the mouth. Circulation –
Circulation in the earthworm is through a series of closed vessels. Excretion – Nephridia are organs of excretion in the annelids. Summary of the
activity: Well basically what we did in this lab was save a gummy worm from drowning using only paper clips. It may sound difficult but it was
actually really simple. We just had to get our lifesaver which is the thing that will save Fred from drowning and put it over him like if you were
putting fred a shirt on. But we can't use our hands at all just the paper clips. In this lap we also learned that worm are part of the animal phylum
called Annelida. We learned what annelids were and how their reproduction, circulation, excretion, gas exchange nervous control work out. 1. What
was investigated? How to save Fred from drowning. 2. Was the hypothesis supported by the data? Yes, yes it was. 3. What were major findings? We
found out the way to save Fred from drowning. 4. How did your findings compare with other researchers? Mostly everybody's findings were the
same. 5. What possible explanations can you offer your findings? We had to put all the tools we had in use in order to complete the lab. 6. What
recommendations do you have for further study and for

Earthworms
How Does Temperature Effect Earthworms?
Introduction
When one thinks of earthworms usually one thinks about slimy and nasty creatures that are only used for fishing. Wrong! If there were no worms on
earth, farms and many plants could not be properly maintained. This paper will explain how important earthworms are to the earth and to our
environment. In addition, this paper will cover the origin of an earthworm, the anatomy and other important characteristics. Origin The origin of
earthworms were said to be on earth around 200 millions ago. Their ancestors were marine worms, existing before there was even soil on this planet and
vegetation. These worms underwent a slow process of adapting themselves to a new ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Earthworms slowly bring soil to the surface and cover objects on the ground. This is one reason why archaeologists have to dig down underneath the
ground to find fossils. Night crawlers burrows can go as far as 15 feet underground. Night crawlers have something that no other animal has. They have
five pairs of hearts. The hearts pump blood with the earthworm's muscular contractions. Only two main blood vessels make up the earthworms body.
The ventral blood vessel sends blood to the rear end of the worm. The dorsal vessels pumps blood to the front end of the body and blood travels
through the ventral vessels into the capillaries on the body wall and the many other organs. Anatomy The body of the earthworms is considered slimy
and weird. Earthworm's body contains 80% water and 70% protein. Fat makes up anywhere from 1 to 17 percent. The body divided into 100 segments.
These segments contain a pair of metanephridia, which drain the adjacent anterior segments. The bristles help the earthworm hold its ground when
trying to be pulled from its burrow. For instance, a bird pulls off 6 to 7 segments; therefore new segments will grow back. Earthworms are invertebrates,
which mean they have no backbone. The mucus on the body helps the worm travel through their burrow smoothly. As the earthworm travels
underground the mucus holds the dirt from collapsing on the worm.
Temperature Temperature is an important aspect

Onychophoran Research Paper
Onychophoran, commonly known as the velvet worm, is a worm like creature with stocky legs and velveteen body. The size of Onychophorans
usually ranges from 14mm to 150mm with 13 to 43 pairs of legs. There are nearly 100 species of Onychophorans (including fossils). All of them
live in moist terrestrial habitat like the rain forest in Africa, and they are nocturnal animals. Onychophoran has many features. They are bilaterally
symmetrical with a through gut. They don't have jointed legs, in other word they have lobopods with claws. The 2nd pair of their legs modified into
jaws, and the 3rd pair of legs is the oral papilla, which connected to the slime gland. From it's appearance, Onychophorans look like slugs or snails for
its soft body, and... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Because of the fossil evidence, the first Onychophoran lives in the water, and in oder to adapt the environment of the land. They develop the tracheae
system. Another thing that makes Onychophorans cool is their unique preying method. Most Onychophorans prey. "They(the Onychophorans) shoot
the spray out of two slime glands located near their head, and let fluid forces and elasticity go to work" and the spray of the lime can be as long as 20
centimeters, which is almost four times of their body length. The slime contains collagen–type protein which allows the slime adhesive. The adhesive
slime can immobilize their prey, and the Onychophorans can eventually consume the target prey. Some researchers suggest that the unique preying
method of the Onychophorans are also a result of the sea–land transformation, for the Onychophorans don't have a effective way to prevent them from
desiccation, they need to find food in a really short time and a very limited places, which is the moist land. The slime spraying method allows them to
get fed in a effective way. Also, in order to prevent itself from desiccation, the Onychophorans prefer the dark environment which leads to their lack of

New Guinea Flatworm Research Paper
Just last month, a deadly worm was found in not one, but four locations in the U.S. state of Florida. This worm, until recently, was documented in only
twenty–one countries, most of which were island nations. Although the New Guinea Flatworm may seem as a highly dangerous predator, it is only
about two inches in length and mainly targets snails for its nutrition. These worms are not harmful to humans, but they will feast on any soft creature
in the soil. In order to eat snails or any critters with a hard shell, the New Guinea Flatworm latches itself onto the shell's opening and then spits out its
own stomach through the opening in its belly. This allows an acidic goo to dissolve the snail's flesh and the worm can continue on with its meal by
swallowing both its stomach and the snail. In addition to causing a problem with the snail population, the New Guinea Flatworm is also bringing a
massive problem into the U.S. that deeply affects humans. This problem is a parasite called the rat lungworm, which New Guinea Flatworms carry.
These parasites burrow into the brain and can be spread to humans. The symptoms of those infected with rat lungworm are muscle aches and light
sensitivity, but most people recover without ever knowing what... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the past, snails have destroyed crops in many places, such as Montana, Detroit, and Washington State. David Robinson, the nation's chief
malacologist, has been battling outbreaks "around quarantine barriers for over a decade. In order to emphasize how big the snail invasion is,
Robinson said "they come in on everything: cut flowers, imported fruits and vegetables." The malacologist is also working with Florida officials to
help the spread of giant African snails, which grow to become about eight inches in length. While it is known that the New Guinea Flatworm will
destroy the snail population in the United States, many believe that it is

Tapeworm Infection
od
Tapeworm Infection
The tapeworm, also known as cestode, is a parasitic worm. The cestode is an almost see–through creature whose life–cycle consists of three stages: the
egg, larva, and adult. An adult cestode grows to reach a total length of almost 100 ft. There are 6 different types of tapeworm––taenia saginata, taenia
solium, diphyllobothrium latum, hymenolepis nana, hymenolepis diminuta, and dipylidium caninum––each of which are named by the food in which
they can be found. For example, taenia saginata is found in beef while Taenia Solium is found in pork.
A person may contract tapeworm infection by ingesting food or drink contaminated by larvae or eggs. After the larvae has been ingested, it will
continue to grow inside of the host's ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The CDC reports that less than 1,000 cases are reported a year; however, this number is not exact (Taeniasis FAQs, 2013). Certain precautions may
prevent tapeworms from entering the body including:
Properly disposing of animal and human feces.
Washing one's hands and food prior to cooking or eating.
Freezing all meat for twelve hours and fish for twenty–four hours will kill any larvae that may be in the

Evolution Of Animal Research Paper
Animal Phylum Evolution
In this research paper, I'm going to be discussing the evolution of animals and how things have changed to make them more complex throughout
history. I'm going to discuss what types of phyla there are and how their body systems work. First, I'm going to discuss is the phyla Protists. Some
protists are autotrophs, a photosynthetic group of phyla referred to as the algae. Some protists are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs get their energy by
consuming other organisms. Protists reproduce asexually by binary fission, and a few species are capable of sexual reproduction. Protists are so small
they don't have any special organs to exchange gases or get rid of waste. They rely on diffusion which is movement from a high concentration ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It's the first phyla most people are familiar with. The phylum is made up of mostly vertebrates. All chordates have pharyngeal slits (filter feeding
organs), dorsal nerve cord (hollow cord to the notochord), notochord (a skeletal rod supporting the body) and a post–anal tail (a body part that runs
past the anal opening.) They have a brain and a central nervous system. As for their digestive system, they have a 1–way stomach. Now we have the
seventh phyla, Osteichthyes and Chondrichthyes. Osteichthyes have a bony exoskeleton. They have gills that are covered by operculum. They have a
swim bladder and fertilization is external for them. Examples of osteichthyes are salmon, sea horse and trout. Chondrichthyes have some differences.
Their endoskeleton is made of cartilage. Their gills are exposed to the outside, they do not have a swim bladder. Lastly their fertilization is internal.
Examples of chondrichthyes are sharks and rays. They both have a two chambered heart. They both have a 1–way stomach track. Next, we have the
phylum Aves as our eighth phyla. Aves are birds. All aves are endothermic and warm
–blooded animals. They lay eggs that hard and waterproof. Instead
of teeth they have a beak or a bill. Aves are bipedal which means they only walk on two legs. Their forelimbs are developed into wings and most
members of the phyla are highly adapted for

Sensory System Analysis
The sensory system plays a crucial role for organisms to survive by detecting environmental cues. In animals, the sensory signaling is largely mediated
by chemoreceptors belonging to the GPCR superfamily [21], as well as by ion channels that mediate mechanosensation, thermosensation and others
[89]. Chemosensory GPCRs in vertebrates are encoded by several gene families, which includes the olfactory receptors (ORs), vomeronasal receptor
type 1 and 2 (VRs 1 and 2), taste receptor type 1 and 2 (TRs 1 and 2), and trace amine–associated receptor (TAARs) [21]. Apart from these, GPCRs
also mediate vertebrate vision by means of the Opsin family genes that belong to the large Rhodopsin family (Class A) of GPCRs [90]. Previous
evolutionary mining of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This mainly includes the nematode chemoreceptors (or nematode chemosensory GPCRs) as well as the insect odorant and gustatory receptors. The
insect odorant receptors (IORs) were initially thought to be GPCRs due to the presence of seven–transmembrane regions, but subsequent studies
showed that they lack homology to GPCRs. Also, compared to the GPCRs, the IORs possess a distinct structural topology in their N–terminus, which
is located intracellularly [92]. Moreover, recent data has shown that IORs function as both heteromeric ligand–gated ion channels and cyclic
nucleotide–gated ion channels, but not known to be functioning as receptors coupling with G proteins [93,94]. Similarly, the insect gustatory receptors,
responsible for taste perception in insects (sweet and bitter taste) are unrelated to mammalian taste receptors or other GPCR families, but shares
homology with the insect odorant receptors [95,96]. These findings raise the possibility that insect gustatory receptors are not GPCRs and they also
function as ligand–gated ion

Evolution of Animals and Their Organ Systems
Organ Systems Project
(Digestive, Excretory, Circulatory, Reproductive, Nervous) There is an enormous variety of life on our planet Earth ranging from simple cell bacteria
to complex multicellular animals. Animals are creatures in the kingdom Animilia, one of the kingdoms in Whitakers 5 kingdom system. Their bodies
consist of 555tanimal eukaryotic cells. Meaning their cell or cells contain a nucleus, are surrounded by a cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer) and can
self–reproduce in a free medium. However, not all animals are anatomically the same. They have evolutionized, inside and out, from the ancestral
protozoa all the way to the most complex animals chordates. As the animals evolved, cells became tissue, tissues became organs, ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Micronuclei are very carefully copied and moved so that each daughter cell gets one, but once division is complete usually new macronuclei will be
produced from each cell's micronucleus, so careful shepherding of the macronucleus is not necessary. Sexual reproduction in ciliates is called
conjugation. During conjugation, there is a transfer of genetic material via cell–to–cell contact by a bridge–like connection. The last system, which can
be replaced by an organelle in the protozoa, is the nervous system. The function of the nervous system is to regulate and correlate body activities
through conduction within and between individual cells or neurons, which eventually cause a response in some other system. In the paramecium, the
macro and micronuclei are responsible for the functions of the nervous system. The nucleus is the control center of the cell and it contains the genetic
info needed to copy to make new cells. Just as the brain, nerves and spinal cord would work; the micronucleus and macronucleus control the activities
of the cell. The next phylum of animals, more complex than protozoa, is phylum Porifera (also known as sponges). Sponges are multicellular filter
feeding marine animals that have cell/tissue level of organization. They are sessile, meaning they cannot move from the substratum and they have a
water filled central cavity.

An Example Of Complete Metamorphosis In Prostomes
An example of complete metamorphosis in Protostomes is the Annelida having trochophore larva (Figure 3), "a free–swimming top–shaped larva with
two bands of cilia around its middle". (Solomon et al., 2015) For aquatic annelids like tubeworms, the movement of cilia on its larva creates water
current which helps in locomotion and feeding by bringing the food closer. Annelids then develop a tubular body that is segmented (Figure 4). In
addition to trochophore larva, Mollusca have a veliger larva in its second larval stage. The veliger larva consists of a shell, foot and mantle, and is
exclusively aquatic. (Solomon et al., 2015) Echinoderms having larvae with bilateral symmetry and adults with pentaradial symmetry is an example of
metamorphosis

Cell Systems And Their Function
Introduction
Systems and their function:
All living things must obtain and use nutrients, get rid of waste, interact with their environment, and perform other processes in order to live. The
complexity of an organisms will determine the way the organisms will carry out these processes. Unicellular organisms are organisms containing only
one cell such as bacteria and some algae. These types of organisms performs all of the process necessary for life using only a single cell. Multicellular
organisms, on the other hand, are organisms that consists of more than one cell. These type of organisms requireorgan systems to carry out the life
process.
Organ systems are group of anatomical structures that work together to perform a specific ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Muscular System
3.Skeletal System
4.Nervous System
5.Circulatory System
6.Lymphatic System
7.Respiratory System
8.Endocrine System
9.Urinary/Excretory System
10.Reproductive System
11.Digestive System
12.Immune System
All these organ system rely on each other in order to function properly. If even one organ system fails to works properly, the organism could lead to
severe disability or even death. (Study, 2015)
The circulatory, digestive, and respiratory are three main organ systems discussed in this lab report.
The digestive system are the collection of organs that work together to break down food into nutrients so that it can be absorbed into the blood. This

systems consists of four main steps which include ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion. The mouth is responsible for carrying out the first
step which is taking in the food. The salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, and the teeth are responsible for the second step as they are responsible to
break down the complex food molecules into smaller molecules. The absorption of the food is done by the stomach, the liver, the gall bladder, and
small intestines. These organs are responsible for absorbing the digested nutrients and transporting them to the bloodstreams. Finally, the last step, the
egestion, is done by the large intestine, rectum, and anus. These organisms are responsible to remove the waste food materials from the body.
The circulatory system, also called the

Larvae Of Ochrogaster Lunifer Herrich Schaeffer
Larvae of Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich–Schaeffer (Lepidopetera: Thaumetopoeidae), or as it has previously been known, Ochrogaster contraria Walker
or Teara contraria Walker, are widely distributed throughout coastal and inland regions of Australia (Turner 1921; Froggatt 1923; Mills 1951;
McFarland 1979). Inhabiting mainly acacia and eucalypt vegetation (Van Schagen et al. 1992), larval populations of O. lunifer display a distinctive
processionary behaviour by crawling head to tail in single–file to the canopy of its host tree to feed before returning to their nests in much the same
way (Floater 1996a; Maier et al. 2003). Previous studies conducted on O. lunifer have focused on the species life history (Floater 1996a), biology (Van
Schagen,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1992; Floater 1996a). Second through to eighth instar emerge from the egg mass between December and May; ascending the host plant in a single–file
procession to feed (Floater 1996a). First instar larvae have been observed to remain within the egg mass not feeding (Floater 1996a; Floater &
Zalucki 1999). Final instars leave the host plant during May in larval processions before splitting into subgroups and then later individuals to pupate
(Floater 1996a). Individual larvae form an underground cocoon of silk, soil and setae where they will diapause over winter; pupation and emergence
does not take place until September or October (Van Schagen et al. 1992; Floater 1996a).
The larval integument of O. lunifer is covered with a multitude of hair types (Floater 1996a; Floater & Zalucki 1999). A typical arthropod hair is
embedded in epidermal cells; developed by a trichogen and a tormogen or auxiliary cell, and is connected to neurons for the transmission of sensorial
information (Battisti et al. 2011). Urticating hairs, and in particular those classified as true setae, are derived from arthropod hairs (Battisti et al. 2011).
True setae are a distinguishing characteristic of the larval stage of many processionary Lepidoptera (Battisti et al. 2011; Cawdell–Smith et al. 2013;
Petrucco Toffolo et al. 2014). They are small, approximately 100–500Вµm long and 3–7Вµm in diameter, and barbed (Fenk et al. 2007; Battisti et al.
2011). The cellular

Animal Welfare Act 1986: A Case Study
Methodology Under the Animal Welfare Act 1986, it should be noted that all animals were not harmed unethically during the assessment. Collection
methods The equipment for the collection comprises of entomology nets, plastic jars, entomology pins, microscopic slides, glass vials, a slab of
polystyrene, a 'shadow box' for display, forceps, demineralised water, and methylated spirits (70%). The equipment used was purchased or borrowed
from the laboratory in Basil–Hetzel Building at University of South Australia City East campus. The locations visited mainly comprised of northern
and western suburbs, except for an eastern suburb. Most arthropods were terrestrial (with a few marine), and the other phylum were marine. Specimens
were collected from habitats such as domestic (household), wetlands, ocean, and grasslands.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All specimens were frozen immediately after collection to prevent rigor mortis. The Echinoderms were cleaned to remove living or dead matter
attached to the body by using water. They were then placed in methylated spirits (70%) for 48 hours, completely submerged. Each arm was
weighed down to prevent them from curling up (particularly on Southern sand star). After the 48 hours, it was dried in direct sunlight for dry
preservation. The Molluscs were first placed in a jar of water from their natural habitat (if applicable), as I had concerns they would dissolve
immediately, if I had skipped this step. After a few days, they were transferred into separate plastic jars of methylated spirits (70%), where most lost
their colouring. The Nematode was placed on a microscopic slide under a dissection microscope. The Annelids were washed in water first, then placed
in methylated spirits (70%), however, the aquatic worm had shrunk anyway. They were displayed in glass vials filled with methylated

Taxonomy Lab to Show Organism Relationships
Name:
Date: March 16, 2014
Instructor's Name: Professor Tyra Hall – Pogar
Assignment: SCIE207 Phase 5 Lab Report
Title: Taxonomy Lab to Show Organism Relationships
Instructions: You will need to fill out the data table and answer a set of questions.
When your lab report is complete, post it in Submitted Assignment files.
Part 1: Using the lab animation, fill in the following data tables to help you answer the questions that follow:
Table 1: Samples 1–5
Phylum/Division| Sample 1: Chrysophyta| Sample 2: Annelida| Sample 3: Arthropoda| Sample 4: Amphibia| Sample 5: Aves| Common Feature|
Unicellular, primary producers| Segmented body| External skeleton and segmented body| Can obtain oxygen from ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
| Diffusion| Nephridia in each segment; solid waste exits through the anus| Malpighian tubules| Kidneys, intestines, anus| Kidneys, intestines, anus|
Growth and DevelopmentDoes the organism go through metamorphosis, develop in an egg or uterus, or grow from seeds?| Start as small cells; grow
bigger until division| Start out as fertilized eggs, hatch into little worms that continue to grow, and then mature sexually into adults| Complete (egg,
larvae, pupae, adult) or incomplete (egg, nymph, adult) metamorphosis| Metamorphosis: Egg, tadpole, adult| Develop in egg| RegulationHow does the
organism control body processes (hormones, nervous system)?| The nucleus directs protein synthesis. Euglena have eye spots that can detect light| Tiny
anterior brain, ganglia, and the nerve cord runs the length of the body| Tiny anterior brain, nerve cord, ganglia, and extremely well–developed sensory

The Infection: The Role Of Leeches In Ancient Cultures
As loathsome as some people find them, leeches played a relevant and predominate role in the field of medicine in Ancient cultures, starting in 2000
B.C. These blood–sucking annelids were used in the c therapeutic treatment of blood–letting to cure a variety of problematic health issues: diseases,
blood circulation disorders, and infections. In fact, So great was the demand for the aquatic worms, that an entire profession was built around the
supply of leeches. Thus, the job of leech collector was created, and those who worked in the occupation kept the medical practitioners well supplied
with the curative parasites. During the middle ages across Europe, health providers used leeches for blood–letting to such an excess, that it is estimated

Arthropods Vs Annelids
What safety procedures must you follow during this lab period? During this lab period, the safety procedures that should be followed are wearing
your lab coat, safety glasses, gloves and use proper tools for dissection. What characteristics contribute to the diversity and abundance of arthropods?
The characteristics that contribute to the diversity and abundance of arthropods is the ability to adapt because of their rough, exterior skeleton and
joint appendages. Is the circulatory system of arthropods more similar to that of annelids or of mollusks? Why? The circulatory system of arthropods
is like mollusks because both have open circulatory system. How does growth in arthropods differ from growth in humans? Arthropods have an
exoskeleton.

Differences And Characteristics: The Evolution Of...
The Evolution of Hermaphroditism
The diversity of animals is astounding, with different characteristics exhibited across extant species. Despite the vast differences, all animals share a
fundamental similarity, and that is the need to reproduce to ensure perpetuation of their own kind, albeit with different methods of reproduction.
Animals that diverged early from other groups, namely sponges from Phylum Porifera, are mostly hermaphroditic with individuals having both male
and female reproductive organs. As animals increase in complexity and evolutionary trends lean towards cephalisation, most bilaterians develop a head
where sensory organs are concentrated (Solomon et al., 2010). This allows active searching for suitable mating partners by facilitating locomotion and
a greater awareness of their surrounding ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hence, gonochoric bilaterians with separate sexes in different individuals eventually became more ubiquitous than hermaphroditic bilaterians. Yet,
hermaphroditism still occurs in certain bilaterians as this condition provides them with a higher chance of reproduction and passing on genes to their
offspring before death, especially if finding suitable mates could pose a challenge due to population density, size and mobility constraints, and
environmental conditions of their habitats. Thus, this essay aims to discuss three reasons for the occurrence of the hermaphroditic condition amongst
certain bilaterians (using examples of animals from phyla Mollusca, Annelida and Platyhelminthes), and explain with evaluation the possible roles that
hermaphroditism provides. Table 1 gives a brief description on the hermaphroditic reproduction process amongst the bilateria, and would be referred to
in

Leeches Research Paper
Leeches are found all over the world and are found in freshwater. The closest worm to a leech is an earthworm. Certain types can grow up to 16
inches in length. Leeches have suckers on both parts of their body and when you are bitten by a leech, their saliva causes blood to increase and it
prevents blood clots. They have very sharp teeth, but small jaws. A leech has 32 brains and most of them sucks blood. Not just humans get bit by
leeches, but also animals. A leech can take in the amount of blood 5 times more than they weigh. Since leeches eat so much, they can go without
food for a whole year. Digestion in a leech is very slow because it gives room for the leech to live and can last up to several months. Leeches have
saved several lives

Meriton Ruhani. Bio. April 3, 2017. Evolutionary Success.
Meriton Ruhani
Bio
April 3, 2017
Evolutionary Success
There are many definitions of success when it comes to the evolution of living organisms: number, diversity, size, distribution, longevity, evolutionary
history, generalization, specialization, even usefulness to humans. Throughout history, groups or individual species, have faced many challenges on
Earth. All animals have adapted differently to the constantly altering living conditions. Some have been immensely superior to others in their ability to
survive and rule all forms of life. Their complexity varies, but because of their ability to adapt, it's what has made these species successful. Adaptation
is an evolutionary process that allows animals to become superior in a particular ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Generally, people underestimate its importance to Earth and our lives. It is a biological blueprint for countless other species.
Earthworms are found in the phylum Annelida. () They can vary in size. Their bodies are segmented which allows them to compartmentalize. The
number of segments the species is born with will stay the same throughout their life. Normally, the number of segments found is similar within
specimens. Remarkably, earthworms have the ability to regenerate lost segments. ()
They play a key role in regenerating and displacing soil. Earthworm activities changes both physical and chemical characteristic of soil. They help
convert organic matter to humus. Additionally, they ingest other particles (sand grains) and when it is digested and excreted, it is accessible for plants
to take advantage of its minerals and nutrients. Physically, the earthworm creates tunnels for air and water to navigate the soil. () They play an
essential role in fighting erosion and are vital to plant growth. Healthy soil is depended on a thriving worm population. The ability to break down
organic matter and excrete nutrients makes the earthworm valuable to restoration projects. Some people have employed earthworms to prepare soil for
the return of native flora. Individuals that utilized this idea have seen better results in the return of their soil ecosystem than previously used methods.
The number of

The Diversity Of Soil Invertebrates
Introduction: The diversity of soil invertebrates is very important to our ecosystem, because most soil invertebrates are responsible for key soil
processes such as nutrient recycling, nutrient retention, formation of soil structure, and decomposition rates. Invertebrates are one of the most
dominant groups of animals in the world. Recent studies show that animals may constitute as much as 23% of the total diversity of living organisms
(Lavelle et al., 2006).
Common soil invertebrates include arthropods and nematodes. These soil invertebrates provide major ecosystem services. For example, ants, dung
beetles, ground beetles, earthworms, and slugs aid in seed dispersal, which is important because seed dispersal is known to affect food production and
nutrient recycling as well as decomposition rates. Bees, butterflies, moths, and ants aid in pollination. These invertebrates are very important because
about three–fourths of all plants are pollinator dependent and insects tend to provide most of the animal pollination globally. Without pollinators plant
species would be more susceptible to extinction. In agricultural systems, invertebrate pollinators are responsible for the successful production of
vegetables and fruits that maintain livestock production. Nematodes, annelids, and arthropods aid in decomposition (Prather et al., 2012)
Materials and Methods: The experiment began with the construction of a Berlese funnel, which is an apparatus used to extract

Burgess Shale Essay
Burgess Shale
The Burgess Shale was first discovered in 1909 by a Paleontologist named Charles Walcott and is believed to be over 500 million years ago in
Middle Cambrian. This geological formation was first found near a mountain by the name of Mount Burgess, for which it was named after, in Canada.
Similar formations have been uncovered in China, Europe, USA and many other places around the world. TheBurgess Shale is one of the most
important of fossil type formations due to the fact that they are one of the most preserved including not only the hard parts of an animal such as the
tissue, muscles and organs, but also gives evidence that soft bodied creatures lived at the time.
Trilobite – Olenoides The scientific name of a Trilobite in

The Comparison of Nervous Systems in Humans, Cnidarians,...
Biology II
30 March 2012
The Comparison of Nervous Systems in Humans, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and Annelids The nervous system is one of the most important organ
systems in the body. It is in charge of all of the things that happen within the body. Being responsible for receiving sensory input from internal and
external stimuli, integrating and processing information, and generating output, it would be hard to survive without a nervous system; however, there
are different types of nervous systems in various organisms. Humans, cnidarians, flatworms, and annelids all have very diverse nervous systems. There
are similarities and differences in each of these beings. Of the fours organisms listed, the nervous systems in humans in the most ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The brain then will send motor neurons to the correct affecter in muscles and glands (Understanding the Basic Anatomy and Physiology of the Human
Body). The nervous system of cnidarians is called a nerve net. This is the simplest nervous system found in any organism (The Nervous System:
Organization). It is called a nerve net because there is no center point of the system, and the nerve cells are spread throughout the body in a net like
system (The Nervous System: Organization).
Within the nerve net of cnidarians you will find sensory neurons, motor neurons, and intermediate neurons. The intermediate neurons carry messages
from the sensory neurons to the motor neurons, and some of these could possibly be organized into ganglia. In the body there are two layers of cells:
nerve cells and body cells. The nerve cells help to coordinate the actions of some body cells that are within the net. For instance, if the body is touched,
the whole body will react (Cnidarians).
Flatworms, which have bilateral symmetry, have a nervous system that is arranged like a ladder that includes two nerve cords and a brain at the head
end. The nerve cords, which are a simple peripheral nervous system, have commissural nerve fibers that make the rungs of the ladder. The brain, which
is the central nervous system, is not truly a brain, but is more a collection of two ganglia that acts like one. The ganglia integrate signals from the

The U-High Creek Experiment
The U–high freshman biology class designed an experiment to test the question; based on the number of micro invertebrates, what is the water quality
of the U–high creek? On 9/22/14, the day of the experiment, the conditions were recorded at 10:05 AM. The temperature was 55 degrees with a 6 mph
wind, and 62% humidity. One of the observations of the creek is that there was some garbage and trash on the banks, although there was minimal
amount. Another observation was that there was run–off leading into the creek from roads, nearby parking lots, and neighboring yards. There were
about 40 small fish, only about 2–3 inches long swimming north against the current. The water was also very clear, and the bottom was clearly visible.
Based on the observations... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first piece of evidence supporting this statement is a water quality index of 48. The 7 pollution sensitive organisms in the creek are worth three
points each on the water quality index, plus the 10 moderately tolerant organisms each 2 points and the 7 tolerant organisms each 1 point add up to
get the 48 water quality index. The water quality level is considered excellent if it is 23 or above. The water quality in the U–High creek is more than
twice that. There were many different types of organisms found in the creek including 7 pollution intolerant micro invertebrates. The total number of
organisms including the 88 pollution intolerant Caddis fly larvae point to a low pollution level in the creek. The 10 moderately tolerant micro
invertebrates also point to low polluted creek. There were also a high number of midges and aquatic worms. The water in the creek was also very
clear and did not have a smell. There were many small fish and plants growing in and around it concluding a low pollution level in the

Phylums: Similarities And Differences And Characteristics...
ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY
Comparison among the following phylums:
1.Phylum Kinorhyncha
2.Phylum Priapulida
3.Phylum Nematomorpha
4.Phylum Loricifera
Phylum is a taxonomic division on the base of different characters of all species present in biosphere. Species with similar characters are placed in a
single phylum.These phyla have a large number of species but these species are very small in size. And moreover, all species of these phyla have
not been fully studied. Here, the comparison of these phyla are present, all of these phyla have bilateral symmetry. These have hydrostatic skeleton
which may have segments in some species. There body is covered cuticle which is made up of chitin or collagen. A few characters are described in
table below to show ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
No food tube is non–function and may not present.
Excretory system is absent.
Fertilization is internal but sexes are separate.
Circulatory system is absent.
Endocrine system is absent.
Non–ganglion nerve cord is present with anterior nerve rings.
In fertilizer nematomorpha infestations were used as pest control. These are parasitic in nature so can be used for research.
These have no dangerous effect on human and livestock.

The process of development occurs by mean of zygote development by a specific spiral cleavage.Phylum Loricifera
. Loricifera (from Latin, lorica, corselet (armour) + ferre, to bear) is a phylum of very small to microscopic marine sediment–dwelling animals with
twenty–two described species, in eight genera
These are worldwide, live in all types of habitats and in all depths and in all types of sand.
They have spines for movement and move by extending their internal muscles.
No cavity is present.
Mouth cone with a head having mouth at its end, and anus is on terminus.
No excretory system is present.
Sexes are separate and fertilization is

Mumbai University Zoology Syllabus
Academic Council 25/05/2011 Item No. 4.59
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Syllabus for the F.Y.B.Sc. Program: B.Sc. Course : Zoology
(Credit Based Semester and Grading System with effect from the academic year 2011–2012)
1
F.Y.B.Sc. Zoology Syllabus Restructured for Credit Based and Grading System To be implemented from the Academic year 2010
–2011
SEMESTER I Course Code UNIT I USZO101 II III I USZO102 II III USZO P1 TOPICS Diversity of Animal Kingdom I Life processes I Ecology
Molecular basis of life I Biotechnology I Genetics 2 2 2 Credits L / Week 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
Practicals based on both courses in theory
SEMESTER II Course Code UNIT I USZO201 II III I USZOT202 II III USZO P2 TOPICS Diversity of Animal Kingdom II Life processes IIEthology
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1.2.2: Peptide bond 1.2.3: Structure of proteins: Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. 1.2.4: Biological role of proteins. 1.3:
Carbohydrates 1.3.1: Nomenclature, isomerism and classification. 1.3.2: Glycosidic bond 1.3.3: Types of carbohydrates: Monosaccharides: Glucose,
fructose, galactose Disaccharides: Maltose, sucrose, lactose Polysaccharides: Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, heparin 1.3.4: Biological role of
carbohydrates Unit II: Biotechnology – I 2.1: Concept of Biotechnology 2.1.1: Definition 2.1.2: An overview of achievements and scope. 2.2:
Fundamentals of laboratory techniques in biotechnology 2.2.1: Safe handling of equipments 2.2.2: Sterilization techniques 2.2.3: Molecular separation
techniques Principle and applications: Paper chromatography, TLC and Electrophoresis– Agarose and PAGE 2.3: Food biotechnology Applications of
biotechnology in making bread, beer, wine, yogurt and cheese 2.4: Enzyme Technology 2.4.1: Enzymes as the meat tenderizer 2.4.2: Bio–detergents
2.4.3: Concept of enzyme immobilization (15 Lectures)
5

Unit III: Genetics (15 Lectures) 3.1: Gene and gene concepts, definition of gene and gene expression 3.2: Mendelian inheritance: i) Monohybrid and
dihybrid cross, ii) Concept of dominance, iii) Exception to Mendelian inheritance: Incomplete dominance, co– dominance, interaction of genes:
(Epistasis:

Marine Biology : Annotated Bibliography Of Marine Biology
Annotated Bibliography
Francis, W. R., Powers, M. L., & Haddock, S. H. (2016). Bioluminescence spectra fromthree deep–sea polychaete worms. Marine Biology, 163(12),
255.
Annotation:
The purpose of this experiment was to observe the light that the Tomopteris emits. They collected Tomopteris from Monterey Bay off the coast of
California. They then stimulated the Tomopteris to produce light so that they could observe the light that it produced. The researchers took photos and
measured the amount of light that was emitted per Tomopteris. One interesting discovery was a Tomopteris that emits a blue light which is rare since
most Tomopteris emit a yellow–orange light. The researchers tried to create explanations as to why this Tomopteris emits blue light. They think that
"different protein complements may be responsible for the light in different species". However, this isn't their only explanation for this rare blue
emitting Tomopteris. The other explanation is that "this could potentially reflect different ecological roles of the two light colors". Researchers
concluded that with further testing the blue–light emitting Tomopteris may be considered a species of their own.
Evaluation:
This article relates to the project because it observes the light that the Tomopteris emits. It provides us with exact measurements of light that the
Tomopteris produces which is useful to our project that is exploring the bioluminescence that the Tomopteris produces. The article also

Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity

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