Thesis on earth architecture

EARTH ARCHITECTURE
Innovations in earth construction and potential of earth architecture in
contemporary scenario

Approval

Undergraduate Research Thesis
Vyavasayi Vidya Pratisthan’s
Indubhai Parekh School of Architecture
Rajkot, India

The following study is hereby approved as creditable work on the approved subject,
carried out and presented in a manner sufficiently satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as
a prerequisite to the degree for which it has been submitted.

It is understood that by this approval, the undersigned does not necessarily endorse or
approve of any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn there in, and
approves the study only for the above purpose, and satisfies him as to the requirements
laid down by the thesis committee.

Thesis Title: EARTH ARCHITECTURE
Innovations in earth construction and potential of earth architecture in
contemporary scenario

Name: Bhavi Vador Guide: Vishwanath Kashikar
Roll No: 3805 Signature:
Date:

The dissertation is dedicated to my parents and to every individual who inspired me, guided me and
helped me in my endeavours.

Acknowledgement
Inspirations and critique makes individual to do better. Ultimately, an individual grows through such individuals.

I would to acknowledge a number of individuals who have played a pivotal role in the actualisation of this thesis.

Firstly, i would like to thank my parents and whole family for supporting me throughout my life till now, they have given me
this wonderful life by supporting me and making me an individual to stand out and face every difficulty that comes along the
way of progress.
I am very much thankful to my guide - Vishwanath Kashikar for guiding me, providing me sufficient and timely discussions
and valuable inputs and broadening my concepts and ideas about earth architecture.

All my people who helped me in one way or the other, who questioned, criticised and discussed factors related to the topic and
thereby create a formwork for the dissertation. I would like to acknowledge not only those who directly contributed to this
dissertation, but also those whose moral support and confidence in me, whose companionship and discussions I have always
valued.

Ar. Nirav Vador and Ar. Kartik Bijlani for being a guide throughout, Dr.Tejal Gajra, Dhaval Vador and Jill Vador for asking
me thousand times ‘when will you complete your thesis?’ .Nikitasha Vador for accompanying to auroville and making the trip
memorable and helping with the work there.

Jimmy katira,Sweta Amin, Krishma Shah, Rutvik Agnihotri,Chandni Parekh,Tejas Bhatt,Pranav Meghani,Mitul Shah,
Dhruvansh Hirani,Ronak patel,Ankit Mehta and Siddharth Chauhan for discussing the work, for being there in happy and low
times and for being the best persons in my life.

Anand Dave, Kanupriya Raniwala, Saumil Mewada, Bhaumik Modi, Pratik zaveri, Sridevi, Rosy for valuable inputs and
discussions.

Prabhulal Vora, Savita Vora, Pallavi aunty, Shailesh uncle, Parth Amin and the ‘shailvi’ home...for supporting and giving
every facility to get a working environment.

IPSA for being a wonderful platform for providing knowledge and all the faculties, students, administration people,
maintenance people for sharing knowledge.

IPSA library, CEPT library for providing with books and internet access.

Prof Bakul Jani, Ar. Devang Parekh, Ar. Hitesh Changela, Mr. Kiran Vaghela, Ar. Satprem Maini, Ar. Dharmesh Jadeja for
their valuable inputs and discussions related to the topic.

I was able to proceed in my topic because of the valuable time given by the Architects, engineers, labourers and contractors
with whom i had discussions related to my questionnaire.

Thanks to owners of earth buildings in auroville and Kutch who co-ordinated well and helped to study and measure draw their
respective buildings.

To batch 2005-this consists of all my friends who have experienced architecture academics with me, sharing all their fun and
knowledge and for being together in a new city away from the family.

I would also like to thank all those who in some way or the other helped me in every stage of my life till now and finally to the
person who is reading this and (hopefully going to read) further. I hope the study become useful and serve the purpose for
which it is been read.

Contents

PREFACE 1

1. INTRODUCTION 2-7

1.1 Aim/objectives

1.2 Methodology

1.3 Necessity of research on earth construction

1.4 Scope and limitations

2. EARTH CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES 8-22

2.1 Earth architecture of world

2.2 Earth as a building material

2.3 Traditional earth construction techniques

2.4 Contemporary earth construction techniques (illustrated with figures) 23-32

2.4(a) Cob

2.4(b) Adobe

2.4(c) compressed stabilised earth blocks

2.4(d) Wattle and daub

2.4(e) Rammed earth

3. INNOVATIONS IN EARTH CONSTRUCTION 33-62

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Analytical charts showing solutions through:

3.2(a) Primary case studies

3.2(b) Designing

3.3(c) Construction

3.4(d) Maintenance

3.5(e) Demolition/Reuse

4. CONCLUSIONS 63-64

APPENDIX 65-118

1. Interviews and discussions with subject experts 65-70

2. Analysis of soil type 71-72

3. Traditional construction drawings 73-75

4. CSEB and stabilized rammed earth 76-93

5. Built examples 94-118

Afterword-the future 119

Glossary 120

Image credits 121

Bibliography 122

Preface

Currently it is estimated that one half of the world's population, approximately three billion people on six
continents live or work in buildings constructed of earth. It is evaluated that about 1.7 billion people of the world‟s
population live in earthen houses: About 50 % of the population in developing countries, and at least 20% of urban
and suburban populations. And while the vast legacy of traditional and vernacular earthen construction has been
widely discussed, little attention has been paid to the contemporary tradition of earth architecture.

- Ronal Rael-Earth Architecture

This paper is focusing particularly on the innovations done in last few years in the field of earth construction that
can lead to its better use as a building material. This thesis deals with earth as a building material, and provides a
survey of all of its applications and construction techniques while explaining its specific qualities and the
possibilities of optimising them. It provides the new, creative uses of the oldest building material on the planet.
Many assume that it's only used for housing in poor rural areas—but there are examples of bungalows, offices,
apartments and institutions that are made of earth. It's also assumed that earth is a fragile, ephemeral material, while
in reality some of the oldest extant buildings on the planet are made of earth. Earth buildings are often thought of as
pre-modern or backward. With help of discussions with the subject experts, drawings and images, this paper
showcases the beauty and simplicity of one of humankind's most evolved and sophisticated building technologies.

Mud (wet, soft earth) is a natural material which after exploration can be used just the way other
contemporary materials are used. A person, who started using glass, would not have made a skyscraper at first go.
After years of experiments designers and engineers might have used it as skin for skyscrapers. If there are
advantages about a certain material then there are limitations and disadvantages too, that can be solved by studies,
experiments and application of that material in different ways. Just because mud was used traditionally doesn‘t
mean it cannot be used today in contemporary architecture, it has risen from those mud toys to mud huts and now
to institutions, bungalows and multi-storeys. Mud is no more a material known for construction of ‗kuccha‘ houses
.While shrinkage, erosion and mechanical damage can affect earth construction like any other building material,
preventative measures can be taken for innovating the material itself rather than constructing with high cost,
imported materials.

Appendix 1 is the basis of development of this paper. The introductory chapter provides with a short survey
on the history of earth architecture. In other following chapters it describes the contemporary and future roles of
earth as a building material, and lists all of the significant characteristics that distinguish earth from common
industrialised building materials. The thesis final appendices titled ‗built examples‘ are earth buildings from
various regions of the world. These constructions demonstrate the impressive versatility of earth architecture and
the many different uses of the building material earth.

1

EARTH ARCHITECTURE-Innovations in earth construction and potential of earth architecture in contemporary scenario

Introduction

“Here, for years, for centuries, the peasant had wisely and quietly exploited the obvious building material, while we, with our
modern school-learned ideas, never dreamed of using such a ludicrous substance as mud for so serious a creation as a house.
But why not? Certainly, the peasant‟s houses might be cramped, dark, dirty, and inconvenient, but this is no fault of the mud
brick. There was nothing that could not be put right by good design and a broom.”

-Hassan Fathy (1973: 4)

AIM

 The aim is to study the traditional earth construction techniques and earth construction techniques of contemporary
architecture, stating problems with the techniques as why they make earth architecture undesirable for present client
and stating solutions from the case studies of contemporary earth buildings that show innovations made in traditional
techniques and show potentials and possibilities of earth construction so that the present man desires it just like other
contemporary architectural styles and materials.

OBJECTIVES

 To understand ideology of earth materials.
 To study the various earth construction techniques.
 To analyse the contemporary earth architecture in respect to its construction.
 To review the possible innovative earth construction methods and study the minor details that can help improve its
use.
 To review the appropriateness of the earth as building material in present scenario.

METHODOLOGY

 Understanding traditional earth construction techniques(internet, books, people)
 Gathering secondary data(internet, books, previous thesis done by others)
 Preparing research questionnaire
 Conducting interviews with the experts(architects, contractors/engineers, skilled labourers) of the subject
 Identifying problems with the designing, methods, construction techniques and maintenance related to earth
architecture through those interviews and related case studies.
 Doing case studies to understand the contemporary explorations and innovations to overcome those problems and
show potentials of earth architecture.
 Compilation of data, chapter writing and deriving conclusions

2


NECESSITY OF RESEARCH ON EARTH CONSTRUCTION

 To get knowledge about the material and promote earth construction
 To create awareness about earth construction
 To learn the potentials of earth building process (designing, construction, maintenance, demolition/ re-use)

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Chart 1

There are various aspects of earth architecture, but the focus in this thesis is to study the earth construction and innovations in
it, to study the problems that earth as a building material has and find the solutions through the recent innovations in the
material and its applications.

3


Earth construction techniques

“Our modern, advanced scientific minds should know how to assess the merits and demerits of historic and factual evidence of
the way people who have lived in a particular setting and climate, have coped with the problems which are still inevitably ours
today. To brush aside all this demonstration and evidence as old-fashioned and therefore useless is extremely foolish. Having
made our assessment we would show ourselves capable of adopting the lessons we have learned (negative or positive, they are
of equal importance) to our current living habits and the currently available building materials at our disposal. Along with this
we should remind ourselves that it is not „advancement‟ or „development‟ or „progress‟ to indulge in modern building
materials and techniques at tremendous expenses and to no good effect when there is no justification or reason for their use,
instead of older, simpler, inexpensive methods. ”

- Laurie Baker (life, work and writings), page 23

EARTH ARCHITECTURE OF WORLD

A MILLENNIA OLD TRADITION
Down through the ages, people have been using raw earth for building their living spaces. Every single continent, and nearly
every country, possesses a rich heritage of earthen buildings. From the roof of the world in Tibet, or the Andes Mountains in
Peru, to the Nile‘s shore in Egypt or the fertile valleys of China, many are the examples of earth as a building material.
Earth construction techniques have been known for over 9000 years. Mud brick (adobe) houses dating from 8000 to
6000 BC have been discovered in Russian Turkestan (Pumpelly, 1908). Rammed earth foundations dating from ca. 5000 BC
have been discovered in Assyria. Earth was used as the building material in all ancient cultures, not only for homes, but for
religious buildings as well. Vaults in the Temple of Ramses II at Gourna, Egypt, built from mud bricks 3200 years ago. The
citadel of Bam in Iran, parts of which are ca. 2500 years old; a fortified city in the Draa valley in Morocco, which is around
250 years old. The 4000-year-old Great Wall of China was originally built solely of rammed earth; only a later covering of
stones and bricks gave it the appearance of a stone wall. The core of the Sun Pyramid in Teotihuacan, Mexico, built between
the 300 and 900 AD, consists of approximately 2 million tons of rammed earth.
The world‘s oldest earthen building still standing is about 3,300 years old. In India, the oldest earthen building is Tabo
Monastery, in Spiti valley –Himachal Pradesh. It was also built with adobe and has withstood Himalayan winters since 996
AD.

1.

1. Earth construction areas of the world

4


2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

2. Ziggurat of Ur-in-Khaldea
3. Dejenne Mosque of Mali, Mopti
4. Tabo monastery, India 996 AD
5. Archaeological site of Mari Syria – Funded in 2800BC
6. Taos pueblo, New Mexico
7. Great Wall of China

5


8.

9. 10.

11. 12.

8. A panoramic view for desert vernacular mud brick architecture in Dakhla oasis, Egypt.
9. Citadel of bam, Iran, before the earthquake
10. Ramasseum, Egypt ~ 1300 BC
11. Fortified city, Draa valley, Morocco
12. Bazaar, Sirdjan, Iran

6


EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

 Earth comes from the disintegration of the parent rock. This rock disintegrates into mineral particles with varying dimensions
ranging from pebbles to clayey dust.

This ―organic‖ soil is reserved
for agriculture.
The other layers are used for
In the upper layer these construction.
particles are mixed with
organic material from the
decomposition of the living
World.

Active
Organic
material

Inert

Stones Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Soil skeleton
Binder

Plasticity Cohesiveness Compatibility

Chart 2

There are several different types of earth according to the quantities of the following components:
GRAVELLY EARTH – SANDY EARTH – SILTY EARTH – CLAYEY EARTH 7


Note: These are some points for the overview of the material, more and detailed study of the material and its construction is
provided in chapter three and in the appendix containing discussions with the experts, and through the case studies.

The parts highlighted in the above chart are the main construction techniques used in contemporary earth construction and are
studied in detail and explained in the next part of ‗contemporary earth construction techniques‘

TRADITIONAL EARTH TECHNIQUES

12 earth construction techniques

Chart 3

8


EARTH DUG OUT
 The earth is dug out to create shelters. In most of cases dwellings are dug out in soft soils, tuffs, porous lava in areas
with hot and dry climate.
 The horizontal dug out create caves on the side of the hills, which are accessed by staircases and galleries.
 The vertical dug out are created in areas such as plateaus or plains. A kind of open courtyard is dug out a few meters
deep and then room are dug out like caves on the side of this courtyard. Access to the dwelling is done by a staircase,
often very steep.
 Beautiful examples are found in China, in the provinces of Hunnan, Shanxi, and Gansu, where more than 10 million
people live in homes dug out of the loess layer. In Tunisia too, one can find interesting achievements.
 In Turkey, Cappadocia show exceptional creations where people combined vertical and horizontal dug out.

13. 14.

15. 16.

13. Tunisia, Matmata (Photo CRATerre EAG
14. China, Nxiang region – Han Jia Bao (Photo V. Dubourg
15. China, Nxiang region (Photo Chinese Society of Architecture)
16. China – Plan of dug out dwelling (Source unknown)

9


CUT EARTH

 In areas where the soil was cohesive and contained concretions of carbonates (a natural chemical which give
cohesion) the soil was cut in the shape of blocks and used like bricks or stones. Such examples are found typically in
tropical areas where lateritic soils give a wonderful building material.
 Lateritic soils can be found in two natural states:
- Soft soils, which will harden when exposed to air due to chemical reaction of the soil constituent with the air.
Such soils can be found on the west coast of India, from Kerala to Goa.
- Hard crust which was long ago in soil form and has already hardened through the ages. Burkina Faso in
Africa and Orissa in India show wonderful examples of such soils and blocks.
 In areas where the soil is not cohesive enough, people have used topsoil and grass to create blocks which were stacked
fresh upon each other. This method has been used a lot in England, where it has been named sod.

.
17. 18. 19.

20. 21. 22.

17. Uruguay, Montevideo – Sod house (Photo H. Guillaud)
18. India, Panaji – Ex Palace, 16th C.
19. Burkina Faso, Quarry of Kari (Photo CRATerre/EAG)
20. India, Kerala, Near Soranad – Shaping a plinthite block
21. India, Orissa, Near Narangarh – Cutting petroplinthite by hand
22. India, Goa – Basilica Bom Jesus, end 16th century

10


FILLED IN (EARTH BAG CONSTRUCTION)

 This method was developed from the bunkers made by the military.
 The basic construction method began by digging a trench.
 Rows of woven bags (or tubes) are filled with available inorganic material.
 After the foundation is laid, each successive layer will have one or more strands of barbed wire placed on top.
 The weight of this earth-filled bag pushes down on the barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place on the row below.
 The most popular type of bag is made of woven polypropylene.
 Organic natural materials such as hemp, other natural-fibre bags (like ―gunny sacks‖) can be used.
 Humid soil was traditionally poured into wooden lattice works. Thus, it gave some thermal mass to light structures as well
as some acoustic insulation.

23. 24.

25. 26.

23. USA, California, Cal-Earth – Eco-domes
24. Inside view from the dome
25. Exterior view without plaster
26. USA, California, Cal-Earth – Plastering the Eco-dome

11


COVERED EARTH

 Soil has been traditionally used to cover roofs in different parts of the world. In arid climates, either very hot or very
cold, it regulates the inside temperature, due to heavy thermal mass.
 In Scandinavia, the earth to cover roofs was taken with grass, so as to hold the soil and give cohesion to it through their
roots. This method also gave more thermal mass and allowed the inside temperature to be more even.
 In Nordic countries but also in the Himalayas regions, waterproofing was done long ago with the bark of birch trees.
The bark peeled from the tree was very thin and it was applied in several layers to get a waterproof effect.
 Nowadays, waterproofing is done with PVC or bitumen sheets. Green roofs are today a modern development of the
technique of covered earth. Green roofs, also known as vegetated roof covers or eco-roofs are multi-beneficial
structural components that help to mitigate the effects of urbanization on water quality by filtering, absorbing or
detaining rainfall.

27. 28.

29. 30.

27. Canada, Factory
28. German, House
29. Germany, School
30. Germany, House

12


TRADITIONAL RAMMED EARTH
 Rammed earth, also known in French as pisé de Terre or simply pisé has been used since ages worldwide like many other
earth techniques.
 Rammed earth is an ancient earth building technique. It is really quite similar to adobe and cob techniques, in that the soil is
mostly clay and sandy. The difference is that the material is compressed or tamped into place, usually with forms that create
very flat vertical surfaces.
 The earth is mixed thoroughly with water to get a homogeneous humid mix. This humid earth is poured in a form in thin
layers and then rammed to increase its density. The increase of density increases the compressive strength and the water
resistance.
 Ramming was traditionally done by hand.
 The worldwide tradition of rammed earth construction has shown that it is possible to achieve long lasting and majestic
buildings from single to multi storey. Wonderful heritage can be found in countries such as France, Spain, Morocco, China,
and all over the Himalayan area. One can see numerous and wonderful examples with all kinds of buildings:
 Farms, or rural houses, chateaux and apartments in Europe
 Entire villages in North Africa
 Parts of the great wall of China
 Buildings in most of the Himalayan regions of Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, Ladakh
 Widespread examples in South America

31. 32.

33. 34.

31. Morocco – Horizontal rammed earth construction
32. Morocco – House
33. China, Fujian Province – Village / house of Hakka‟s clan
34. France, Dauphine – Château, 19th century

13


Soil identification
 Knowing that the best soil for rammed earth is preferably sandy or gravely rather than clayey, one should take a lot of
care about the clay content.
 Worldwide, the skill and knowledge of people has led them to choose rammed earth when the soil was more sandy or
gravely. When the local soil was more silty or clayey they chose other techniques like Adobe, Cob or Wattle and Daub.

35. 36.

37. 38.

35. India, Ladakh – Spituk Gompa
36. Morocco village
37. Traditional rammed earth
38. Rammed earth Building in Yaman

14


SHAPED EARTH
 Direct shaping makes use of plastic earth and does not require a mould or formwork.
 Plastic earth is shaped, as a potter would do it.
 The quality of the soil, its preparation and the water consistency are important to be known.
 This technique presents the advantage to use minimal and very simple tools, and to use a minimum of labour which is
necessarily skilled. This technique allows very fluid architecture with a great variety.
 The limitation of this technique is mostly the know-how for the soil quality and controlling the shrinkage when the
wall dries.
 This technique has been and is still used a lot in Africa, in the Sahel as well as in equatorial regions. Beautiful
examples can be seen in Cameroon where shaped earth has been used for houses and granaries.
 Natural stabilisers have been use traditionally in countries like Nigeria and Ghana.
 They either used the juice of plants and vegetables or boiled seeds to prepare natural glues which were added to the
soil.

39. 40.

41. 42. 43.

39. Nigeria, Near Kankeya – Granary
40. Togo – Granary
41. Niger – Granaries
42. Cameron – Mousgoum hut (Photo Gert Chesi)
43. Cameron – Granaries

15


STACKED EARTH (COB)
 Cob construction uses sand, clay and straw. Elongated eggs are made of this mix and stacked layer wise. Mixed well this
special mud is applied to the foundation in continuing layers. Each layer must dry so that it can support the next, and the
wall is tapered in as you build up. When it is dry, the walls are very hard and load bearing. The roof is built directly on to
the walls, as the walls themselves are the support structure.
 This technique has been used a lot long ago in Europe, where it was named cob in England and bauge in France.
 This technique is still used a lot in Africa, India and in Saudi Arabia, where beautiful examples can be seen.
 The most beautiful examples are encountered in Yemen with Shibam. This old historic capital of Southern Yemen has been
named ―The Manhattan of the Desert‖.

44. 45.

46. 47.

44. Saudi Arabia – Najran Palace(Photo M. Abdul-Aziz)
45. Southern Yemen, Shibam (Photo Patrick Meyer)
46. Mali, North of Mopti – Mosque(Photo Gert Chesi)
47. Saudi Arabia – Najran Palace (Photo H. Houben)

16


ADOBE

 Sun dried clay brick, named Adobe, is undoubtedly one of the oldest building materials used by mankind: The oldest
identified adobes were produced around 9,000 BC at Dja‟ De El Mughara in Syria.
 Adobes are made of thick malleable mud, often added with straw. After being cast they are left to dry under sun. They are
traditionally either hand shaped or shaped in parallel piped wooden moulds.
 This technique has been used all over the world since memorial times, as can been seen on various hieroglyphs and Egyptian
scriptures.
 The oldest samples known were found on the site of Jericho, in the Jordan Valley, in Mesopotamia. They date from around
8000 BC and they were hand shaped. They looked like an elongated loaf. Fingerprints of the craftsmen who did them are
still visible on some of them.
 In Peru the hand shaped adobes were long ago conical. In the Middle East they were at a time hemispherical and
humpbacked. In India the archaeological site of Chitradurga in Karnataka state shows also hand shaped adobe of the 15th
century. They were like quadrangular loafs.
 Today one can still find hand shaped bricks in Africa, in countries like Nigeria or Niger where they are called Tubali.
 Adobe production has been industrialised in Western USA. Several states in USA have codified adobe making and its
construction.

48. 49.

50. 51.

48. India, Ladakh - Shey Palace 17th Century
49. Iran, Meiboud – Office of ICHO
50. Egypt, Baris - Market by Hassan Fathy
51. Bazaar, Sirdjan, Iran

17


EXTRUDED EARTH

 The earth extrusion technique has been used since a long while in the fired brick industry. Stabilised earth, at a plastic
state, is as well extruded through a machine which gives the desired shape.
 The blocks are often hollow and are cut to the desired length. This technique of stabilised extruded earth was developed
in the 20th century.
 Compared to the brick extrusion in the fired brick industry, stabilised extruded earth bricks show a major inconvenient:
the soil required for stabilised earth is much sandier than the one for fired earth. Thus the soil is more abrasive and the
machines get damaged at a much faster rate.

52. 53.

54.

52. Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou (Photo J. Joffroy)
53. Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou (Photo J. Joffroy)
54. France (Photo Unknown)

18


WATTLE AND DAUB

 Wattle and daub method is an old and common method of building mud structures.
 There bamboo and cane frame structure support the roof.
 Mud is plastered over this mesh of bamboo cane and straws.
 Due to excessive rainfall the wattle and daub structures gets washed off.
 However, the mesh of cane or split bamboo remains intact and after the heavy rain is over the mud is plastered on
again.

55. 56.

57. 58.

55. Traditional wattle and daub
56. Somalia, Genale - Village huts
57. France, Alsace – House
58. France, Bresse, Saint Triviers de Court - Farm house

19


FORMED EARTH (Straw Clay)
 Very clayey soil, in a liquid state, is poured on straw, which has been chopped to the desired length.
 The mix is generally tampered afterwards into forms. These walls are not load-bearing: they are light, have a very high
thermal insulation value and must be built in a wooden structure.
 It was traditionally used in Germany and was re-used for reconstruction after the 2nd world war. It is mostly known with
the name Straw clay.
 Straw clay can be used as a filler wall, formed between a wooden structure or as prefabricated blocks.

59. 60.

61. 62.

59. Germany, Hessen, Gross Gerau (Photo F. Volhard)
60. Belgium, Leuven (Photo H. Houben)
61. Germany, Darmstadt (Photo F. Volhard)
62. Germany, Darmstadt (Photo F. Volhard)

20


POURED EARTH

 The soil, in a liquid state, is poured like concrete into formworks. The soil characteristics must be very sandy or gravely
and should be stabilised.
 This technique is a new development and is very seldom used. The reason is that the high water content of the soil will
induce a lot of shrinkage when it will dry. Thus the wall will crack.
 The following chart shows how blocks are cut after the earth is poured in a blocked formworks.
 Also, directly the formwork is arranged on the wall through vertical bamboo supports and then liquid earth is poured
into the formworks.

Courtesy CRATerre -EAG

Chart 4

21


TERMITE WONDERS
 Termites can be considered as the best earth builders. Building with earth is inherent to their nature. Termites stabilise
the soil with their saliva. The latter is sticky, as it is issued for the digestion of cellulose, and it binds the grains of soil.
 This allows them to build such wonders. Termites can also be considered as the best air conditioners. Their hills are
meant to regulate temperature and moisture, in order to allow them to live.
 Constructed out of local dirt, sticks, and sometimes even faces, their saliva is used to form the bonding agent. The
interior of the mound includes a series of tunnels and chambers with the nest located at the bottom. Various openings
and passageways are cleverly placed throughout to assist in capturing and drawing in cool air while pushing warm air
up and out of the mound. By using this careful layout, the termites can regulate the temperature through blocking or
opening passageways within the mound to control the temperature to their needs.

- Laura Schultz

63. 64.

65. 66.

63. India, Auroville - Termite hill
64. India, Auroville - Termite nest
65. India, Auroville - Termite nest
66. Burkina Faso, Toussiana - Termite hill

22


CONTEMPORARY EARTH CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

 The techniques mentioned till now included overall all the techniques of earth construction and were explained briefly.
 Nowadays out of all those techniques only few of them are used with their innovative applications and manufacturing.

chart 5

 Cob

 Adobe

 Wattle and daub

 Compressed stabilised earth blocks(refer appendix, part 3)

 Rammed earth

23


COB
 With only a little water to form a very stiff mud, a large Lump is roughly moulded into the shape of a huge elongated
egg.
 The usual size is anything between 12 to 18-inches, (30 to 40 cm) long and about 6 inches (15 cm) in diameter.
 A row of these cobs of mud are laid neatly side by side, preferably somewhat pressed together. Then another row of cobs
is laid on top.
 When three or four courses have been laid, one above the other, the sides are smoothened over so that the holes and
cracks disappear.
 Openings for doors and windows are a problem, which can be solved by using temporary vertical planks or shuttering.
 Another very simple shuttering for openings is to use empty kerosene tins.

67. 68. 69.

70. 71. 72.

73. 74. 75.

67. Forming stiff mud and moulds
68. Stacking the moulds
69. Levelling and trimming after every stage to prevent Unlevelled walls from building up and drying out
70. Smoothening the sides
71. Arrangement of shuttering for openings
72. Layering the cob strips
73. Plastering the cob wall
74. Thatch roof cob house
75. Flat roof cob house

24


 While in the case of earth block work, dry elements are built up with mortar joints, no mortar is used with wet loam work.
Plastic loam is bound simply by ramming, beating, pressing or throwing.
 Some detailing of cob construction is explained below.
 Stone set on wet concrete to bond the cobs better from the base.
 Top of the stem wall is irregular to provide „tooth‟ for cob.
 To prevent lifting in strong winds, anchoring roof to the cob walls by wooden rafters with galvanized wire to the wall.

76. 77.

78. 79.

Adobes are made of thick malleable mud, often added with straw.
76. Stem wall on top of foundation
77. Anchoring the window frames and door frames to ground by wooden logs.
78. Roof logs attached to cob walls through wooden rafters
79. Thatched roof detail

25


TYPICAL COB WALL SECTION DETAIL

80.

80. Typical profile of the elements making up a cob and thatch
building.(illustration from building with cob: a step by step guide, by Adam
ADOBEWeismann and Katy Bryce, green books

26


ADOBE

 Adobes are made either by filling moulds with a pasty loam mixture or by throwing moist lumps of earth into them.
 After being cast they are left to dry under sun. They are traditionally either hand shaped or shaped in parallel piped
wooden moulds.
 Different types of moulds can be used; some of these are shown below.
 They are usually made from timber. The throwing technique is commonly used in all developing countries.
 Here, a sandy loam is mixed with water, and cut straw is usually added and the whole formed into a paste that is thrown
into wooden moulds.
 The greater the force with which the loam is thrown, the better its compaction and dry strength. The surface is smoothed
by hand or by a timber piece, trowel or wire.
 One person can produce about 300 blocks per day (including preparation of mix, transportation and stacking.
 The disadvantage is that the blocks are usually stabilised with 4% to 8% cement content in order to endow them with
sufficient strength.
 This is necessary because of the absence of either sufficient water or adequate dynamic impact capable of significantly
activating the binding forces of the clay minerals. Without cement, pressed blocks usually have dry a compressive
strength lower than that of handmade adobes.
 Another disadvantage of such presses is that the soil mix must be kept at a constant level of moisture and composition.
 If compositions vary, then both the volume of the material to be filled and the pressure changes.
 This leads to variations in the heights and strengths of the blocks.
 Fully automatic block-making presses can produce 1500 to 4000 blocks daily. However, they require large investments
and may be difficult to maintain, especially in developing countries.
 To assure even loam consistencies, such machines often require separate crushers and mixers.
 Fully automatic presses are only economical if they have long lives, are utilised extensively on a daily basis, and if raw
material of even consistency is available locally and in sufficient quantities.

81. Timber moulds for adobes
82. Pouring earth mix into the manually
operated press
83. Compacting the mix
84. Taking out block from the press
85. CINVA press
86-88 Making adobes in Ecuador
89. Removal of surplus Loam with a wire
81.

27


82. 83.

84. 85.

86. 87.

88. 89.

28


WATTLE AND DAUB

 This type of wattle and daub is a more modern version of traditional wattle and daub and is the most widely used.
 It has sections of cane or bamboo poles fixed with wires and nails to a sawed wooden structure which enables a better
finished assembly. Earth mix is applied on this assembly and then finishes are applied to the wall surfaces.
 The prefabricated panel is a sawed wooden frame, filled with interwoven cane or bamboo battens, inserted in such a way
that they are self-anchoring. After being assembled these panels are walls which will be plastered with earth and straw
mortar with an initial layer and then a thin finishing layer. The advantage of prefabricated panels is that they enable the
panels and the structure that will carry them in the wall to be made at the same time, thus reducing assembly time.

90. 91.

92. 93.

81. Corner junctions
82. Detail structure of the wall
83. Detail of cane fastening
84. Elevation of the wall

29


Step by step construction

94. 95. 96.

97. 98. 99.

100. 101. 102.

94. T o set the columns use a plumb to make sure they are vertical, hold them temporarily with braces.
95. Always cut cane after knots.
96. The poles are fastened with a flexible material, such as galvanised wire or treated plant fibre
97. After defining the position of the vertical poles fix them. If you use hollow concrete blocks these can be taken advantage of.
98. Detail of connection between the corner column and the horizontal canes.
99. After justalling all the vertical poles, and before fixing the horizontal ones, the fasteners should be fixed.
100. Detail of join between vertical and horizontal poles
AOBE
101. After fitting the horizontal poles at a height of up to 50 cm it is advisable to first fill the columns with wattle and daub
mortar followed by the walls. The separation between the horizontal bars should be between 6cm and 8cm.
102. Detail of covering of iron ring (diameter 1/4"), with concrete mortar to make the column rigid.

30


RAMMED EARTH

 After being excavated, the soil is thoroughly sieved, to break the lumps and make it lighter. Big rocks should be removed
but some stones could be kept. If the natural soil is too dry, it should moistened and mixed so as to get a uniform humid
mix.
 This method has developed from the cob wall so as to standardize or regularize the thickness of the wall.
 It is also an attempt to increase the strength of the wall by ramming it.
 Two parallel planks are held firmly apart by metal rods and clips or bolts, or by small crosspieces of wood.
 Stiff mud is thrown in between these two planks and rammed down with either a wooden or metal ramrod.
 When one section is completed and hard, the two boards are moved along and the process is repeated.
 The two planks are then raised up and a second course of rammed earth is repeated over the first.
 Two techniques have traditionally been developed. They used either horizontal or vertical formworks.
 The horizontal technique was used in many parts of the world. Strips of walls were built horizontally and their height
varied from 30 to 90 cm.
 The formwork consisted of 2 wooden panels held together with wooden clamps and keys, which were tightened with
ropes. Once one portion of a wall was completed, the formwork is immediately dismantled and moved further along.
 Humid soil was evenly poured into the formwork to get a regular course of about 12-15 cm thickness. Ramming was
traditionally done by hand.
 The soil is first rammed along the sides of the panels and the central portion of the wall is rammed immediately after
that.
 Every course is rammed till the rammer hitting the soil gives a clear sharp sound and the rammer is not doing anymore
marks on the course.
 Unstabilised soil is concentrated horizontally, and alignment is from layer to layer of wall.
 Stabilized soil is concentrated vertically, and alignment is between forms.
 Openings for doors and windows within the wall are created with block outs.
 Corners are made stronger if created as one piece as opposed to solely having a joint between two.
 The specific construction of rammed earth consists of “lifts” or layers of earth poured into formwork at a depth of eight
inches and then compacted to five inches. This creates a striated earthen wall.
 After the wall completely goes up and is cured (twenty eight to fifty-six day period) any fixtures may be added. The roof
is tied into the wall, and window and doorframes are added. Fixings are buried deep within the wall to retain structural
integrity. In addition, utilities and systems, determined before construction, may pass within the wall to a certain degree.
The final part of the construction process is to apply a wall finish, if desired or required.

103. 104. 105.

106. 107. 108.
103. Boards and anchors for formwork
104. Spacers for connection of boards
105. Connected formwork
106. Manual compaction of mix between the boards
107. Anchoring the frames of doors with the ground and cross bracing them
108. Ramming first floor wall on top of a door 31


 The approximate proportion of subsoil is thirty percent clay/silt to seventy percent sand/gravel. Water has a direct impact on
the strength of finished walls, and depending on the soil mix, is eight to sixteen percent of the mix.
 An optional stabilizer may be added – four to twelve percent depending on conditions such as bonding strength of the clay,
seismic activity, desired construction process, or desired wall proportions.
 Stabilizers include cement, lime, or pozzolan added to the mix.
 There are numerous field and laboratory tests to be run at all stages of the material gathering process, each to determine the
specific mix peculiar to the site. These include density, compressive strength, bond strength, and erosion and wear resistance
tests.
 Soil stabilization gave a great input to rammed earth as well as mechanization.
 The traditional wooden rammer has been replaced by pneumatic rammers.
 Heavy wooden formworks evolved into light composite ones, made of plywood, wood and steel or sometimes aluminium.
 Pneumatic rammers, dumpy loaders, mixers, ban conveyors, etc. allowed to build faster and get a better quality finish.
 Structures are most of the time built with pier walls, meaning that walls are built up to their full height at once. This way of
building changed totally the design pattern of structures.

109. 110.
Moist Earth-Mixture of sand,
Reinforced Visible layers of
cement, gravel and clay
plywood frame Rammer compacted earth

111.
109. USA, California, David Easton – Vertical form
110. Ramming with electrical rammer
111. Compaction process
32


Innovations in earth construction

“CONTEXT- The necessity for speed was one of the big factors that contribute to that break with tradition. It probably took a
thousand years for us to find out by trial and error how to make a mud wall impervious to rain and wind, another thousand
years to learn how to keep termites out of it, and another two or three thousand to learn how to build multi-storied mud
buildings.”

-Laurie Baker (life, work and writings), Page 19

“On the one hand, raw earth is still used … as basic shelter on a massive scale by hundreds of millions of people throughout
the world. On the other hand, a new generation of architects and engineers, fascinated by the qualities of this highly ecological
resource, is finally rediscovering and reasserting its value, modernising its technology and adapting raw earth construction to
a broad range of modern applications:...” (2002:9).

-The series of articles by Detheir and Eaton appeared in the September 2003 issue of ByggKunst

 This chapter mainly tells about the problems associated with earth architecture and is divided into four parts according
to the various stages of a building process:

1. Designing
2. Construction
3. Maintenance
4. Demolition/reuse

 Now, there are innovations, detailing and some necessary precautions that can overcome those problems, limitations
and make earth construction as a viable system for building.

 Primary case studies include buildings seen and measure drawn (the required details) in Kutch and Auroville.
 According to the problems identified through the questionnaire and secondary case studies, there are solutions that are
mentioned in the charts through primary case studies.

33


PRIMARY CASE STUDIES

Problem Solution

Management of • When building with earth, one should pay a lot of attention of the management of resources
earth raw and raw materials. Topsoil should be scraped away, so as to be re-used for agriculture or
materials and gardens. Sieve the soil preferably in the quarry: the waste soil can be re-used on the spot to
mixing is a finalize the landscaping.
complex • One should always plan how the excavation would be used afterward. Design the quarry (area
process. and depth) according to the future use of the hole. Dig according to the design requirements:
steps or slope, deep holes or shallow excavation, etc.
• A proper management of the earth resources can create a new and harmonious balance
between nature and the buildings.
• Auroville shows various possibilities for the use of quarries: as water harvesting ponds, waste
water treatment ponds, pools, basement floors or shallow Biological wastewater treatment
depressions which are used for landscape design, work or play areas, gardens, etc.
• Various stages of making blocks from raw materials

o Sieving
o Measuring
o Dry mixing
o Humid mixing
o Moulding
o Initial curing
o First stacking
o Final curing
o Final stacking

Related drawings

1.

2 3
. .

4 5.
.

6. 7.
1. Process of formation of blocks/earth mix from raw materials for construction
2. Covered clay mixing area
3. Segregation of various raw materials through partitions
4. Quarry transformed into a wastewater treatment
5. Shallow excavation for making adobes
6. Quarry planned for a wastewater treatment and rainwater harvesting
7. Waste water treatment area

34


Problem Solution

The traditional • The contemporary stick-frame construction cut costs and reduces raw material usage
wattle and daub through the efficient use of wood cut into standardized sizes and designed geometrical
approach does not patterns with infill of earth mix.
have safeguards to • The timber framework is braced for lateral-stability.This also leads to a wall which is
ensure that the wall structurally sound and plumb is maintained.
is plumb and this can
result in structural
weaknesses Refer Appendix 5 (case study 9)
especially when the
technique is
translated to larger
buildings.

Penetration of water Thatched-earth tile roof
from the roofs that • The roof frame must be built strong enough to support the weight. The best earth tiles are
caused water made with stabilized soil
problems from the • Also, wooden strips or metal rods (called stringers) must be placed in the roof at close
roof on inside enough intervals so that each tile rests on two stringers, either directly or indirectly.
spaces. • Tiles are often made with a lip or groove near the upper edge so that they will be
positioned securely on the stringers.
• Earth tile have also been used for roofs. They can be pressed in a block making machine
by using fillers.
• They can also be of sun-dried adobe but in either case it is best to stabilize the earth. The
tiles are placed on a wooden frame.
• The tiles should be 1 1½" to 2" thick and about 1' long.
• Good sun-dried tiles are made with a thatch (or grass) "tail."
• The thatch tail helps prevent rain from eroding the block, and provides insulation for the
inside of the house.

Refer Appendix 5 (case study 7)

Related drawings

9.

10.

11.

8. Wattle and daub on top of wall made of CSEB units.
9. Connection of truss with the wattle and daub timber frame.
10. Roof wall assembly
11. Hunnarshala, Bhuj(wattle and daub) 8.

12. 13.

12. Hunnarshala, Bhuj(thatch roof)
13. Thatch roof supported on a steel
truss and CSEB walls
14. Connection of roof tiles with the
wooden strips(stringers)

14.

35


Problem Solution

Flat slabs are not • CEB blocks were used to make vaults on top of CSEB walls and supported on concrete
possible and so multi beams and a flat layer of kadappa stone was laid on top of the vaults leaving the side
storey's cannot be space on top of the dome hollow.
made. • Earth was used, from the first developments of Vikas, in all parts of the buildings, from
foundations to roof.
• Including the basement, it is a four storey building.
Formation of lintels
by earth blocks
• Project Details – Vikas Apartments, Auroville
• Architect: Satprem Maini
• Period of construction: 1992-1999
• Project Description: 23 residential apartments housing and common facilities.
• Building Type: Residential
• Climate: Warm and Humid
• Built in area: 1420 m2
• Owners/clients: Collective of clients
• Building Technologies: Earth and ferrocement
• Vikas apartment are built with stabilized rammed earth foundation (with five percent
cement)
• CEB (compressed earth blocks) with five percent cement for walls vaults and domes.
• Some walls have been made using rammed earth with five percent cement
• The soil for building has been extracted from the waste water treatment pond and the
garden tank.
• while in the third apartment building with a basement floor, the excavated soil is used
for building.
• Ferrocement roof channels have been used for some floors while doors and shelves are
of ferrocement.
• Concrete, glass, steel, etc. have been sparingly used.

Related drawings

15.

16.

19..

15. Vault and flat slab of kadappa stone with CEB
tiles as flooring
16. Vikas apartment, Auroville(vault supporting flat
slabs)
17. Vikas apartment, Auroville(3 storey's with
basement)
18. SEB as lintel on top of the door

18.

36


Problem Solution

Flat slabs are not Hourdi roofing used in auroville earth institute to create flat earth slabs.
possible and so multi
storey's cannot be • The hourdi block produced by the Auram press 3000 is used to create floors and roofs.
made. • These blocks rest either on reinforced concrete T beams or on ferrocement channels.
• As these blocks are hollow they create roofs which are more comfortable under a hot
climate.
• The resistance of these blocks is extremely high.
• The series of these blocks is rested on the edges of ferrocement channels and then earth
filling is done to make even surface on top surface which combines the channels with the
blocks.

Refer appendix 4(Cseb – hourdi roofing)

Related drawings

20. 21.

22.

23.

20. Adjusting hourdi blocks in between ferrocement channels
21. Casting an earth concrete: 1 cement: 2 soil: 3 sand: 4 gravel
22. Auroville earth institute, hourdi roofing
23. Vault structure on top of hourdi roofing

37


Problem Solution

Aesthetics and pottery for insulation and aesthetics
insulation
• Pottery is a developed craft of kutch. To use clay items for construction was to find new
ways of building methods.
• The clay plates and bowls are used for wall and roof insulation and pots as visual objects
for design.
• The local convex circular clay plates are claded on the external wall for insulation.
• Small holes are made in plates for ventilation and arranged in different designs and
patterns.
• The triangular spaces between them are filled with small mirrors for the reflection of heat.
Thus, the entire surface of wall is taken care of heat insulation.
• This wall cladding and insulation work proceeds fast as the surface coverage of each plate
is about 25cm diameter.
• Since it is a local material the cost of plate is low and the total item costs much less than
conventional cladding methods.
• At the same time, it provides work for the potter who has to make about 5000 plates for
one house.

• Clay tiles are also used in auroville and Bangalore inside the houses for improving the
inner climate through use of clay pots and clay tiles in ceilings.

• Inverted bowls used for ceiling pattern. They also act as lamp fixtures lighting up the
entire ceiling

Related drawings

25.

24.

26.

28.

27.

24. Clay plates fixed on walls for insulation and the in- between spaces 29.
filled with mirrors for reflecting heat
25. Clay bowls can also be used for wall insulation
26. Clay bowls as cladding for insulation, Kutch
27. Filler slabs( Mangalore tiles, Stabilized mud blocks) details
28. Mangalore tiled ceiling, Bangalore
29. Tiled ceiling for vault, Auroville

38

Related drawings

31.

32.

33.
30.

35.

34.

30. Inverted bowls used for ceiling pattern. They also act as lamp fixtures
lighting up the entire ceiling(wall section and view)
31. Use of inverted bowls, Auroville (creativity apartment)
32. Use of clay bowls with all fixtures for the ceiling , Auroville(creativity)
33. Use of clay bowls(whole inside), Bangalore
34. Inverted clay pots used in curvilinear ceiling
35. Inner view of the house
36. Inner view of the house 36.

39


Problem Solution

Wood doesn‟t There is an alternative where pivoted windows are used where there is no need of wooden
adhere with the frames and so the windows are directly attached by pivots to the two sides of the walls.
earth walls and
mostly create gaps
between the wall
and the frame of
the window.

Flat Earth flooring Rammed earth houses can be built in one of three basic ways. Individual, rammed earth bricks
can be formed and used with standard building techniques; in fact, such bricks may be used to
form the floors in a rammed earth house built with other techniques.

Oxide flooring is used now adays by which various colored flooring can be produced from
earth techniques.

Rammed earth flooring with covering of wooden blocks and strips are also a good solution to
achieve flat floors from earth.

Possibilities of CSEB walls and the introduction of stabilized walls for rammed earth has given more easy
large and various ways of making large openings of various shapes and sizes.
types of openings.
Some of the examples as seen in kutch region are given in the drawing part.


37.

38.

40.
39.

42.
41.

37. Sketches by Laurie baker
showing window type
38. Pivoted window(Hunnarshala,
Bhuj)
39. Oxide flooring (Hunnarshala,
Bhuj)
40. Some supporting sketches from
book building with earth
showing rammed floorings
41. Window type(Hiralaxmi craft
park, Bhujodi)
42. Window type(Hunnarshala,
Bhuj)
43. Various window types shown
through sketches and
pictures(Hunnarshala, Bhuj)
43.
40


Problem Solution

Formation of organic shapes Cob is the technique that gives opportunity to form organic shapes.
and single roofed buildings. Now adays there are formwork for curved walls too and so the possibilities of shapes
is more.

The plasticity of loam allows not only for the building of exterior walls, ceilings and
floors but also of built-in furniture.
For this, loam elements when still wet are particularly suitable as they can be given a
great variety of shapes; they also open up new aesthetic possibilities.

Related drawings

44 45. 46.

47.
44-46. Auromodele houses showing
some designs that can be done in
earth.
47. Some sketches from book
„architecture of Kutch‟ showing
curvilinear designs developed
from traditional bhungas
48.
48. Shaam-e-sarhad resort(hodka,
banni) showing curvilinear
shaped sitiing area
49. Shaa-e-sarhad (hodko, banni)
showing single roofed spaces
50. Chintan organic farm(bhujodi)
showing single roof made of
thatch with spaces segregated by
walls.
49.

50.

41


Problem Solution

Vaults and domes of earth Nubian vaults
masonry requires skill With the Nubian vault technique, used for centuries in Upper Egypt, vaults can be
labour . built without any formwork by using reclining arches made of adobe.

Refer appendix 5 (case study of Delhi office)

After studying examples from Hassan Fathy and Nadir Khali, Ray Meeker moved
to Pondicherry India. Using local materials of mud bricks, Meeker constructed a
house by forming a central dome surrounded by four Nubian vaults. To harden the
mud, Meeker turned the house into a kiln and fired the interior for four and a half
days. To offset labour costs, clay pots, tiles and extra bricks were also fired in the
structure to be sold. The term Agni Jata is used for this process; it means „fire
burned‟.

In order to avoid the disadvantages of Nubian dome technology, a new technique
for making domes using a rotational guide was developed at the BRL. With this
technique, the structurally optimal geometry of the dome can be achieved without
formwork.

The rotational guide has a right-angled head into which the blocks are placed. This
angle can be moved on a curved metal T-section bent to shape. This T-section is
fixed to a rotating arm, which is in turn fixed to a vertical post.

The figures are shown in the next page.

Related drawings

52.

54.

55.

56.

52. Firing the raw mud bricks and creating the
building itself as kiln
53. Plastered and completed house
54. Vault created by Nubian vault process
55. Foundation and plinth layer completed
56. The four stages showing process of creating a
vault without formwork derived from Nubian
53. technique.

42

BUILDING PROCESS - designing

Problem Solution

To choose earth Factors to be seen before choosing earth as a construction material
construction for the project.
• Availability of raw materials- in the proximity of 20 kms is considered viable
• Climate-mostly everywhere on each an every continent except Antarctica
because of unavailability of raw materials.
• Local labour- training minimum of 12 to 15 people is must for good earth
construction.
• Getting knowledge about the material thoroughly through books and resource
people.

To design appropriate earth Factors to be kept in mind while designing earth building that can overcome the
building. surface and structural defects:
Some of the problems are
listed below: • Wall thickness
Surface defects include • Spanning members
(cracks; flakes; blistering; • Which technique to be used for construction
peeling; loss of adhesion; • Number of storey's
and boniness.) • Corner junctions
• Joineries and detailing to avoid water and termite penetration
Maintenance & Repairs • Water is a major agent of decay for earth walls. Therefore, codes and other
publications generally recommend not placing plumbing within earthen features
Structural defects include
water borne erosion of wall;
freeze-thaw heave of wall;
low level erosion at base of
wall;
structural cracking
(settlement, overload);
bulging;
abrasion damage; and
rat runs and animal holes.

- Pearson, 1992

To convince the client for • By showing the possible options and benefits of earth construction and some
earth good examples of already made earth buildings.
Construction. • By showing the detailing that are done to overcome the issues related to water
Finalization of design with and insects, shrinkage cracks and stating the technique that is to be used.
the client • Showing the benefits related to climate and indoor temperature by using earth
walls for building.
• Material aesthetic benefits and also showing examples of buildings already
constructed out of earth.

Related drawings

1. Ring beam is lacking.
2. Lintels do not reach deeply
enough into masonry.
3. The distance between door and
window is too small.
4. The distance between openings
and wall corner is too small.
5. Plinth is lacking.
6. The window is too wide in
proportion to its height.
7. The wall is too thin in relation to
its height.
8. The quality of the mortar is too
poor, the vertical joints are not
totally filled, the horizontal joints
are too thick (more than 15 mm).
9. The roof is too heavy.
10. The roof is not sufficiently fixed
to the wall.

43

BUILDING PROCESS - designing

Problem Solution

Less durable as a • It is mostly because of the less thought given to the construction details at the
construction material initial stages of the design process.
compared to conventional • The joint of the wall with the plinth has to be carefully designed so that the
materials. rainwater can flow down unhindered without entering the joint between wall and
plinth.
Water problems
Termite and rodents
penetrating the walls
Roof connections with the
wall base

Protection from rain
• One method of preventing rain from coming into contact with a loam wall is to
provide it with a roof overhang.
• A sufficiently high plinth (30 to 50 cm) can protect from splashing rain.
• Solutions B and C may be acceptable in areas with little rain.
• Solution D is common, whereas E and F show perfect designs for combating this
problem.

solution A is unacceptable
because the extruded part
of the plinth wont allow
water to flow and will be
collected there causing
swelling and peeling of
the plaster and wall.

• In B, an elastic sealant has been introduced between the beam and wall in order
to provide sufficient tolerance for this shrinkage.

• In C, the structural system is separated from the wall, thereby allowing a greater
vertical movement of the timber structure.

Roof rafters should not rest
directly on the earth wall,
but instead on timber wall
plates or beams as seen in
A

Related drawings

44

BUILDING PROCESS – designing

Problem Solution

Loam is not a standardised • Depending on the site where the loam is dug out, it will be composed of differing
building material amounts and types of clay, silt, sand and aggregates.
• Its characteristics, therefore, may differ from site to site, and the preparation
• of the correct mix for a specific application may also differ.
• In order to judge its characteristics and alter these, when necessary, by applying
additives, one needs to know the specific composition of the loam involved.

Professionals make less • If the earth construction techniques and construction become widespread , all the
money from earth building prejudices and hesitations for its use as a construction material get removed
projects. gradually by proper training sessions and classes then it will lead to improvement
in the construction industry in developing countries and indirectly to the
professionals in money matters.

• The traditional hut is • Now adays various techniques have developed which can produce good spanning
limited to a single round members and structural members and so it becomes easy to cater various facilities
or square room of about in a single roof with inner divisions of spaces by walls.
3m diameter with conical • Various shapes are possible other than those round huts with thatch roofs with the
roof. innovation of loam walls and prefabricated panels of loam.
• This limited size and
shape means a single hut
usually cannot
accommodate several
functions under one roof.
Traditionally therefore,
several huts are required
to cater for the diverse
requirements in a Single
home.
• With the traditional
approach to building, all
rooms (such as kitchen,
sitting, bathrooms,
bedrooms etc) cannot be
contained under the same
roof.
• This results in functional
inconveniences which is
one cause of the social
undesirability of
traditional buildings.
• Refer appendix, part 3 for
drawings

45

BUILDING PROCESS – Construction(adobe)

Problem Solution
Load bearing floor slabs are • Loam elements which act as infill between floor joints also provide sound and
not possible. thermal insulation.
• In Hungary in 1987, Gernot Minke developed load-bearing infill elements with
cement-stabilised lightweight loam. various designs for load-bearing floor panels
were developed at that time.
• various designs for vaulted loam floors. Designs E, F, G, H are load bearing and
use heavy elements made of earth.
• A, B and C use earthen blocks, which transfer slab loads to the beams by vault-
action under compression.
• Design D shows a non-load bearing loam vault made by pouring lightweight loam
over a curved reed mat.
• When making loam-covered flat roofs, it should be kept in mind that roof edges
are susceptible to mechanical damage, especially by wind and water erosion. This
can be prevented by solutions of the type shown in
• I,, j, k, l. If the surface of the roof is to be walked upon, then tiles are
recommended as shown in l.

Related drawings

A E

F
B

C
G

D
H

56. Mould for infill block and the created
block

I
K

L
J

46


Problem Solution

Fixing fasteners to walls • Nails can be driven into an earth block walls more easily than into those
leads to cracking of the constructed of baked bricks.
blocks. • The more porous and humid the material, the easier one can drive a nail through it.
Green bricks tend to split more easily than soil blocks and adobes.
• If very thick nails are used, it is advisable to drill a hole into the block.
• Heavy shelves or wall hung cabinets can be fixed to the wall easily using screws
and dowels. Dowel holes, however, should be drilled large enough to
• prevent blocks from cracking.

With monolithic rammed • Different sections for larger wall panels made of lightweight mineral loam, are
earth walls, or even with developed now adays.
small-sized adobe masonry,
manpower is high and • These can be used either in internal walls, or to increase the thermal insulation of
drying time can delay exterior walls from the outside. Cavities reduce weight and increase thermal
construction work due to the insulation, while simultaneously providing grip holds for easy handling.
inherent water.
• Similar elements that can be used for making vaults.

Related drawings

57. Interior wall of pre fabricated loam
blocks

47


Problem Solution

Due to mechanical impacts, As loam plaster is susceptible to mechanical impact, corners should preferably be
corners often covered by wooden profiles, baked bricks or similar lippings.
break during the handling of
mud bricks.The corners of
the walls get spoiled and
deteriorated.

Surface treatment for adobe • If sufficiently moistened with a tool like a felt trowel, exposed earth block masonry
walls with uneven surfaces or joints can be easily smoothened. Plastering is not
Protection against rising advisable, since it interferes with the capacity of loam walls to balance internal air
damp humidity .
• Exterior loam walls have • However, exposed earth block masonry can, if not aesthetically acceptable, be
to be protected from rising given a wash of loam slurry stabilised with, for example, lime, lime casein etc. This
damp in the same way as wash also impacts the wall‟s surface stability .
baked brick or stone
masonry walls.
• A damp-proof course, a 3
to 4-cm-thick rich cement
concrete layer is often
used as an alternative.
• This should be
impregnated with bitumen
or waste Mobil oil.

Related drawings

Bricks

Mud bricks

Timber sections

Earth wall

58. Wall plastered with lime, casein and
loam

48


Problem Solution

Shrinkage is a problem • Prefabricated tiles made with stabilised earth can be used for flooring. One
associated with earth advantage is that since they are already dry, shrinkage only occurs in joints.
materials when they dry.
• Extruded green loam slabs consisting of a loam with high clay Content. They are
extruded 3 to 10 cm thick, 50 cm wide and cut into lengths of up to 100 cm or
more.

Mud seems to be the natural • A one-inch thick layer of mortar (one part of cement to 3-parts of sand) can be
home of termites so in areas laid all over the top of the basement wall before building the mud walls above it.
where they are common the This is helpful in keeping out both termites and damp.
same precautions have to be • Even better is to construct an apron of burnt brick or stone (or it can be rammed
taken as in all buildings to earth) all round the building (to prevent damage to the walls by splashing, of rain
prevent their moving up into water) and this too can be plastered over with a rich cement mortar.
the walls and eating wooden • Any thin sheet metal may be laid over the basement wall with a 3-inch downward
frames etc. projection before starting to build the superstructure mud wall above. This is
expensive but very effective.
• There are various chemicals on the market, which can be used.

Related drawings

59. Extruded loam slabs, Germany

Rich cement mortar

49

BUILDING PROCESS – Construction(wattle and daub)

Problem Solution

From a technical viewpoint, • The minimum width of the foundations will be 40cm.It is advisable to use a ratio
it is clear the traditional 1.5 times the width of the wall. The minimum height of the base between ground
wattle-and-daub has and the wall base will be 20cm.
problems that reduce its
durability to about 30 years.

One of the main problems is
lack of a waterproof base
such that the wooden poles
and earth are in direct
contact with the ground
thereby getting exposed to
moisture and termite attack.

the wall absorbs humidity
when it rains and the daub is
washed off from the wattle.

Flooding occurs if the level • In kitchens and bathrooms, the plinth should have a waterproof skirting of tiles,
of the inside floor is lower slates, rich cement plaster etc.
than outside. If the above • The skirting design should prevent water from leaking or broken pipes, which
occurs the wall will be could flood floors, from reaching the loam wall.
weakened and will easily
collapse in the event of any
natural disaster.

Related Drawings
Problem Solution

Wood
column

Outside inside
rain 2%
Foundations: column embedded in
the concrete.
inside outside
3" nails for
adherence

inside Outside
Absorption of humidity
2%
Foundation continued till the base of
the wall extending from the ground
level

Outside inside
2%

outside inside Wall base with concrete blocks
(39x19x14cm) or similar material
and concrete filling.

wooden support

inside Outside
Flooding
2%

Foundation with wooden column
3/8" fixed to the concrete wall base.
iron
anchor

50


Problem Solution

Another technical problem PLASTERING
is in regard to finishes. The
walls and floors are finished Treatment applied to the surface of the wall with the aim of protecting it against the
with earth and painted with weather and use.
dung-stabilised soil.
Also used to make the house more aesthetic.

To get a more hardwearing A wall protected by facing will be in better conditions in the event of an earthquake
and aesthetically pleasing
plaster, some people try to
1. Preparation:
use sand-cement plaster on
Clean the wall in order to eliminate any loose soil or
the earth walls. But this
sand, to guarantee the adherence of the plastering to
creates an extra problem
the wall section. If the wall is wet, you should wait a
because sand-cement plaster
while so that any water inside the wall can evaporate
does not stick to earth walls
and be absorbed
(hence the plaster peels off
2. The underlay:
after a short time).
Used to level out the wall's imperfections and so it can
receive this finishing layer. The thickness of this layer
will be between 8mm and 20mm. The mortar must
have the following proportions:
1 part of earth at 5mm diameter.
2 parts of sand (which go through the 5 mm mesh)
1/3 of straw cut into 3cms strips.
3. “Incisions”
Before the first layer, dries, "incisions" are made
using a metal brush or nails. This improves the
adhesion of the second layer onto the first.
Special skills needed for 4. The second layer: "the finish". An aesthetic thin
plastering. seal or protective layer, added once the first layer is
completely dry.
The thickness is between 1 and 2mm.
The mortar will approximately be:
1 part of earth (which goes through the 2mm mesh)
3 or 4 of fine sand.
When making the plaster it is important to test
different mixes, changing the proportions until the
right mix which does not crack and which is resistant
is achieved.
5. Sealing
Use a sponge making circular movements then wait
for
between 15 and 20 minutes before using a dry paint
brush in straight movements, the aim is to seal the
surface.
Alternatives: there are other alternatives and
combinations.
Lime and sand,
Lime, sand, earth,
Chalk and sand,
Chalk, lime and sand

For anchoring plaster to smooth compressed blocks at
ground splash level, use chicken wire mesh.

Related drawings

51


Problem Solution

From a technical viewpoint, • The timber framework is braced for lateral-stability. The pre fabricated wooden
it is clear the traditional panels can create walls that are structurally sound and can maintain the plumb.
wattle-and-daub has
problems that reduce its • Also the problem of in situ construction is solved by such panels.
durability to about 30 years.
• The prefabricated panel is a sawed wooden frame, filled with interwoven cane or
The traditional approach bamboo battens, inserted in such a way that they are self-anchoring.
does not have safeguards to • After being assembled these panels are walls which will be plastered with earth
ensure that the wall is plumb and straw mortar with an initial layer and then a thin finishing layer.
and this can result in • The advantage of prefabricated panels is that they enable the panels and the
structural weaknesses structure that will carry them in the wall to be made at the same time, thus
especially when the reducing assembly time.
technique is translated to
larger buildings

lack of diagonal bracing
means that the walls do not
always have lateral stability
– especially after the
building base has been
weakened by moisture and
termite attack.

Related drawings

52

BUILDING PROCESS – Construction(rammed earth)

Problem Solution
Seismic activity, or • Problem areas can be targeted.
any overbearing force, • Steel rebar can be placed into the
causes cracking within the form and bound to the earth during
wall that leads in low tensile the ramming process. This can occur
strength at corners and over wall openings to
provide stability and tensile
strength.
• Instead of rebar, lintels of various
materials or even arches can also be
used over openings.

Extra compaction leads to • The specific construction of rammed
failure of the wall during earth consists of “lifts” or layers of earth
construction. poured into formwork at a depth of eight
inches and then compacted to five
inches. This creates a striated earthen
wall.
• Similar to concrete, it is stronger than
other forms of earth construction
because it is compacted in place and
contains no mortar joints.
• Generally more compaction will give
higher strengths and smoother finishes
but too much compaction can lead to
fracturing and less strength.
• Care is taken so that larger stones are
moved away from the form. The edges
are rammed first, and then the center
until no further impressions result from
blows from the tamper.

Needs skilled manual • There are machines developed for ramming
compaction of the wall. the walls.
• Refined formwork systems and electrical or
pneumatic ramming reduces labour input
significantly and makes rammed earth
techniques relevant in some industrialised
countries as well.


Problem Solution

61. Pneumatic rammers

60. Hand rammers

53


Problem Solution

Some claim that it is A contractor skilled in rammed earth would have to be available for acquisition of
possible to achieve with materials, testing, and designing formwork. However, after that, the process of
unskilled labour. mixing, hydrating, lifting, and tamping is possible by unskilled labour.

Much of the general concern • Common design techniques, such as deep over hangs (usually one-third the height
with rammed earth, though, of the wall), can begin to protect the wall.
is its susceptibility to water. • The addition of a stabilizer will help with the water absorption. But as far as water
Absorption of and erosion damage goes, surface treatment can provide the best protection for a rammed earth
by water. If the wall absorbs wall. Breathable finishes should be used to allow for water evaporation. DPC
water, the bonds between should be added always to solve water problems.
particles lessen and crushing • Traditionally, stucco or plaster has been used and then painted over the rammed
strength is reduced. Driving earth walls. Also, a lime wash (whitewash), bitumen emulsion with paint, emulsion
rain loosens smaller paint, or oil-based paint can protect the surface. Still, with the desire to express the
particles, which create earthen quality of rammed earth, polymer emulsion (PVA) has more recently been
larger holes and cracks used to seal the wall and protect it from wind and rain, left transparent for
within the wall. aesthetics

Needs manual labour for • The labour input in traditional rammed earth walls constructed manually, including
adjusting, erecting and preparation, transportation and construction, is from 20 to 30 h/m3. By refining the
dismantling the formwork. formwork system and using the electrical vibrator.
• Transportation and filling is done by a dumper and compacted by heavy pneumatic
rams, labour input can be reduced to as little as 2 h/m3, which is only 10% of the
labour used with traditional techniques, and significantly less than that needed for
masonry work.Proper designing and choosing of formwork can lead to decrease in
manual labour almost by 60%.
• Boards must be stiff so that they do not bend outwards while ramming is
underway.
• All parts must be light enough to be carried by two workers.
• The formwork should be easy to adjust in both vertical and horizontal directions.
• Variations in the thickness of the wall must be controllable within a specified
tolerance.
• It is preferable that the edges require no special formwork. Therefore, the
formwork should allow varying lengths of wall to be cast.

“During the late 1700s, a French builder named Francois Cointeraux founded a
school in Paris to study and publicize rammed earth construction, which he
called pisé' de Terre (puddle clay of earth). Today, David Easton has developed a
new version of rammed earth construction he calls PISE (Pneumatically Impacted
Stabilized Earth). It involves spraying the prepared soil under high pressure
against a one-sided form. This technique can produce 1,200 sq ft (365.76 sq m) of
18 inch (45.72 cm) thick wall per day, which is four times faster than a typical,
four-person crew can fill box-like forms and compact earth with power tampers.”


62. Earth projected on one side wooden planks to create
a wall

54


Problem Solution

• In nearly all traditional rammed earth techniques, • This problem was solved by using a layer of lime mortar
the formwork is removed and re-erected above each course before laying a new one.
horizontally step by step.
• This means that earth is rammed in layers from
50 to 80 cm high, forming courses of that height
before the formwork is moved.
• When one course is complete, the next course
that is rammed is moister than the one already in
place, which is partially dried out.
• Therefore, there is a higher shrinkage in the
upper course than in the lower, leading to
horizontal shrinkage cracks at the joint.
• This can be dangerous, since water can enter this
joint and remain, causing swelling and
disintegration. Vertical cracks can also occur in
such walls.

• A lime mortar cures over several weeks and remains plastic
until the loam has stopped shrinking; sometimes even the
side joint between sections of the course is made with mortar
at an incline.

Related drawings

55


Problem Solution

As with rammed earth • In some cases, it is preferable to use a thin masonry wall or stiff thermal insulation
techniques, the cost elements made of wooden materials as lost formwork, so that either no formwork or
of the formwork is quite only one-sided formwork is required.
high. • It is also advantageous if this formwork can contribute to a substantial increase in
thermal insulation. The stiffness of this lost formwork has to be sufficient to take care
of the lateral impacts created by ramming.

• The inner leaf can be made from adobes or soil blocks, larger pre-fabricated loam
elements, or stiff plywood boards, fibre-reinforced gypsum boards, or wood
particleboard. Protection of the wall surface against the elements can be achieved by
plaster, masonry or timber panelling with air cavity.

• The first two cases show an inner leaf built of adobes or soil blocks and an outer
rammed earth layer made with lightweight mineral loam which is directly plastered. In
this case the formwork is only required for the outer face.
• In the second case, a somewhat better stiffness of the inner adobe or soil block leaf is
attained due to the bonding pattern in the components.
• In the section shown on the right, the lost formwork is on the outside and is made from
stabilised lightweight soil blocks.

Related drawings

56


Problem Solution

With traditional formworks, the • A system with very thin tensile spacers (4 x 6 mm) penetrating the wall has
boards on both sides are held been developed.
apart and kept together • Formwork for curved walls is also possible .
by spacers. These spacers • With a special formwork, rounded corners and curved walls can also be
pierce the wall, causing formed.
openings that must be filled
in after removal of formwork.

Formworks without • In order to completely eliminate this disadvantage, spacer-free systems have
intermediary spacers which are been developed.
braced on both sides require a • one-storey-height panels, with widths of up to 2.4 m, in a continuous ramming
lot of space and hinder site process. This technique avoids horizontal joints, and the vertical joints that occur
movement. are closed only after the shrinkage is complete.
• For lateral stability, the vertical joints are made in a tongue-in-groove pattern.

Related drawings

63. 64. 65.
63. Unit created by vertical formwork
64-65. Process showing vertical formwork for rammed earth

57


Problem Solution

Curved walls are not Some potential methods for making loam walls with improved thermal insulations
possible. are being developed.

Corner junctions are
difficult to be made.

Insulation for climatic
variations.

Patterns on walls

with a stabilizer, the process • Reasons for adding a stabilizer far outweigh not, as it speeds the construction
is a bit more complicated process, improves durability, allows thinner walls, and requires less of a surface
and expensive treatment.
• If a stabilizer has been added (especially cement), lifting the wall must begin
immediately thereafter.

Plastering a rammed earth • A rammed earth wall requires less labour and material inputs for surface treatment
wall compared to walls made using other earth construction techniques.
• As a rule, it is neither necessary nor advisable to plaster a rammed earth wall. If
the surface is sponged with a moist felt trowel immediately after dismantling the
formwork, then a smooth surface is easily produced, one that may be painted or
wallpapered (in cases involving interior wall surfaces).
• If exterior surfaces thus treated are sheltered from rain by roof overhangs and
against splashing by a plinth, a coating of paint is sufficient to protect them against
the elements. Care should be taken that coatings neither peel nor crack.

Related drawings

68.

69.

70.

66.

71.

66. insulated rammed earth wall section and view
67. Imprints on rammed earth wall made while
creating formwork
67. 68. Formwork for curved walls
69. Formwork for circular unit
70. Insulated rammed earth wall detail
71. Corner junctions and columns of rammed earth
58

BUILDING PROCESS – Construction(Straw bale and cob)

Problem Solution

With monolithic rammed • Ideas involving larger prefabricated elements have been developed. Provided
earth walls, or they are light enough to be carried in one hand, or at most in both, larger blocks
even with small-sized adobe can be laid faster. Lightweight aggregates and cavities can be used to reduce
masonry, manpower is high weight.
and drying time can delay • For easy handling, grip holds should be incorporated in block shapes.
construction work due to the • Lightweight straw blocks, 50 x 60 x 30 cm, used in several projects by the
inherent water. German architect Sylvester Dufter, are more efficient for making walls. Though
each block weighs 26 kg, they are produced under cover and close to the wall,
and can then be almost flipped over into their final positions.
• Lightweight mineral loam blocks measuring 15 x 15 x 30 cm, which are made of
loam and expanded clay, have been produced.

Thinner walls which act as •1-m-wide and up to 3-m-high timber frame wall elements filled with lightweight
Partition walls or internal loam.
walls are difficult to be •There are methods developed in which loam elements when kept a bit wet are
made. particularly suitable as they can be given a great variety of shapes; they also open
Organic shaped buildings up new aesthetic possibilities.
and interior elements are not • Use of lightweight loam-filled hoses is done to get insulation for walls . These can
possible. be laid without formwork in a plastic state against the wall in one or two layers. In
Insulation for walls. this case it is preferable to flatten them and fix them to the existing wall with steel
wire hooks (4 hooks per m2).

Because of increased • Addition of sand or larger aggregates to a loam reduces the relative clay content
erosion, shrinkage cracks in and hence the shrinkage ratio.
cob surfaces exposed to rain • The shrinkage ratio of loam can be reduced by the addition of fibres such as animal
is difficult to prevent. or human hair, fibres from coconuts, sisal, agave or bamboo, needles from needle
trees and cut straw. This is attributable to the fact that relative clay content is
reduced and a certain amount of water is absorbed into the pores of the fibres.
• Because the fibre increases the binding force of the mixture, moreover, the
appearance of cracks is reduced.
• The simplest method for reducing shrinkage cracks in earth building elements is to
reduce their length and enhance drying time.
• Mixing straw clay along with cob as binder can help reduce crack and give a
monolithic cob wall.
• The clay acts as the glue, while the sand gives strength to the mixture and the straw
gives the walls tensile strength once hardened into place.

Contemporary plasters
Plaster peels of from the • All settling to be complete before plastering starts
cob walls. • Plaster in moderate temperature conditions
• Earth plaster- complements cob and straw bale
• Mix of soil-straw; natural stabilizers, lime
• Applied by hand and the trowelled in
• Scratch coat- thick to cover irregularities
• Brown coat –final shape
• Finish coat- colored clay, pigments added for colour
• Lime plaster/ white wash- alternate
• Natural wall paints
• Cement plaster is rigid; will peel off from the surface easily.

Related drawings

72. Straw clay for walls

73. 75.

76.

73. Bathroom, private residence in Kassel, Germany
74. Bedroom, private residence in Kassel, Germany
74. 75. Loam walls as partitions
76. Additional insulation using hoses filled with lightweight loam

77. Plastering loam walls

59

BUILDING PROCESS – Construction(cob)

Problem Solution

Wood doesn‟t adhere to Possible joint designs of loam filled hoses, adobes and lightweight loam with posts
loam surfaces because of of timber or brickwork, or with door and window frames of timber. (horizontal
shrinkage issues when the sections)
loam is wet and even after
drying, so one has to detail
out the fenestrations with
care.

Earth flooring produces an • Compact sub-soil to flat level; slope to out to drain
uneven surface and cannot • Minimum 4” layer of gravel; screen out fine particles
form flat floorings. • Base layer of coarse gravel, sand, clay, full length straw
• Second layer- smoother/finer mix- chopped straw
• Wait until complete plastering before the final layer
• Smooth mix- shredded straw
• Boiled linseed oil finish –durability; waterproofing

Related drawings

78-79. Creating flat floors
from earth mix

60

BUILDING PROCESS – Maintenance

Problem Solution

Maintenance of earth • With the right quality control measures in place, 75 years service life for an adobe
buildings is high and or wattle-and-daub buildings is a very safe estimation.
therefore it is less chosen as • Sympathetic appropriate design has significant role in minimising maintenance. A
material for construction well designed building with good detailing will require far less maintenance than
one designed with other materials in mind. Flat roofs, small overhangs and a
general failure to provide protection from rainfall needs to be carefully considered.

loam surfaces are • Can be dealt with by painting them with casein, lime-casein, linseed oil or other
difficult to clean (especially coatings, which makes them non abrasive.
in kitchens and bathrooms)

problems arise from the roof • One of the main quality control requirements is therefore in protecting the walls
whereby the poor detailing from water.
and construction reduce • Particular care must be taken to protect the base of the building – a consideration
durability and increase which usually requires that a more water-resistant material than earth be used for
maintenance requirements. the foundation and for the plinth.
For the walls and inside • At the same time, the entire earth wall needs to be protected using a watertight
spaces. roof with generous overhangs.
• An appropriate coat of plaster will also give extra-protection to the earth wall.
• These and other quality control procedures are discussed in detail by Houben and
Guillaud (1989), for example.
• There should also be a damp proof membrane included in each plinth for moisture
protection.

BUILDING PROCESS – Maintenance

There are no generally adopted guidelines on the routine maintenance of earth structures. Obviously these depend
very much on the nature and complexity of the structure, but for simple one- to two-storey buildings, some guidance
is provided in the Australian earth building handbook (Standards Australia, 2002) and summarised in Table 9.1 below.

Item Check
Control joints Conduction of sealants, cleanliness of joints, vegetation
Damp Integrity of damp proofing and flashing along base course door/window frames
proof/flashing
Door/window Loosening of door and window frame anchorage; evidence of moisture penetration; conduction
frames of sealant; difficulty opening(evidence of building settlement)
Drainage Leaking drains, downpipes, guttering, blockage of drains and evidence of overflow, ponding of
rainwater, integrity of splash-back courses
Earth floors Wearing of surfaces, damage to protective coating, damp
Footings Damp, settlement(cracking of footing/ground slab),foundation material, undermining foundation
Metallic Integrity of fixing connection, evidence of corrosion of metallic fittings, cracking or spalling of
fixtures wall
Roof/verandas Structural integrity, tighten holding down bolts, leaks
Surface Abrasive damage, cracking, erosion, peeling, spalling, separation
coatings
Termites Evidence of termite and other harmful insect activity, integrity of barrier
Vegetation Cut-back over growth near building, avoid planting large tress close to the buildings
Walls Cracking(shrinkage, settlement, thermal, overload, lintel bearings, services); structural integrity,
erosion, damp, weep-holes/ventilation ducts clean
Chart 6

61

BUILDING PROCESS – Demolition/Re-use

Problem Solution

If the earth building Loam is always reusable :
demolishes then what are its Unbaked loam can be recycled an indefinite number of times over an extremely long
reusability criteria's? period. Old dry loam can be reused after soaking in water, so loam never becomes a
waste material that harms the environment.
According to Lal (1995, p122), the major advantage of the stabilised soil block
versus the burnt brick is the significant saving in energy (about70%) and such blocks
are cheaper by 20 to 40% compared to burnt bricks and after the building is
demolished can be reused and the broken blocks merge with the existing ground soil.

62

Conclusion
“Defects of earth buildings can assume two main forms: deficiencies of surface coatings; and, structural defects. In the context
of this review structural defects are taken as defects to the wall as separate from defects to surface coatings and finishes.
Problems to other elements of the building not formed from earth, such as roof or windows, are not considered in this review.
If not suitably treated, deficiencies to surface coatings can result in more significant structural deficiencies. It is clearly
important to understand the causes of any defects before attempting its repair. If the causes of the defect are not correctly
addressed it is most likely that the same problem will reoccur.”

- Pearson, 1992

“People in traditional vernacular desert cultures knew how to make the buildings they need. Inhabitants integrate materials,
climate, other physical constraints and cultural practice into architectural forms that meet the needs of individuals and groups.
“

- Crouch, 2001

 Earth is one of the most ancient construction materials and is still proved appropriate and viable in the contemporary
construction. The continued and widespread use earth across the world is testimony to its success as a building material.
 There is a wide range of structures made out of earth. There are single storey, multi storey, temporary structures,
permanent structures, monumental and heritage structures, being made from earth since ages. The range lies from toys to
dwellings, resorts to institutions, palaces, and forts.
 Nowadays there is a wide scope of working with earth materials because there are various techniques developed and
innovated. There are many alterations and additions done in the traditional methods that improve the earth construction
and widen its use.
 The contemporary use is very neat and different as compared to traditional use of earth for construction. The need of
maintaining earth buildings has reduced almost to nil because precautions are taken in every process of building i.e.
designing, maintenance of raw materials on site, construction and even after the building is demolished earth can degrade
easily into the existing ground and the other dead materials like wood can be used for new construction.
 The basic composition of raw materials for earth (clay, soil, sand, silt, gravel) remains same in every earth technique, the
proportion changes. This gives advantage of experimenting with the material, techniques and methods of construction.
 It is used with glass, steel, fabric, concrete and mostly can combine with any material for construction.
 The combination of technical, functional and aesthetic problems of the earth buildings make it socially undesirable. This
social undesirable situation is a key motivation for this study.
 It is not always easy to produce building material out of a clayey soil, and experience is required. The right preparation
depends on the type of earth, its consistency and its expected applications.
 The principles of mud housing can be replicated in any environment where mud can be obtained. Special architectural
skills are not necessary for construction of single dwelling homes. Multi-storeyed projects may require the assistance of
architects or engineers.
 The principles of construction are simple to explain and the techniques equally easy to work with.
 Developments and innovations prove that earth construction is still a viable economic and environmentally conscious
technique.

Techniques:

 Cob is good for curved or round walls, interior furniture, partition walls and curvilinear designs
 Pise or rammed earth is strong and ideal for solid, squat, single to double storey building and for buildings needing
insulation and protection from outer harsh climate.
 Adobe or sundried bricks can easily cope with two storey houses.
 Pressed bricks are smooth and very strong and can build three storeys.
 Wattle and daub is elegant and fine for seismic zones.
 Earthbag technique is used mainly for temporary structures.

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Construction:

 Many new stabilizers have been introduced in techniques like CSEB (compressed stabilized earth blocks), rammed earth,
adobe that help change the weak properties and characteristics of raw earth and make its use more flexible. Even thinner
walls are possible now adays because of new techniques tools and machines. Even if stabilizers are added then its energy
consumption is less compared to other conventional construction materials.
 Mud has very different characteristics while it is wet and dry because while it is wet it is very heavy and has clayey
property which helps to bind the wattles. And while it is wet it shrinks and loses its plasticity and also reduces the weight.
 If we take care of the minor details like roof joints, corner junctions and all what are discussed in this thesis, we can come
up with a very affordable, practical earth building that can serve without any maintenance.
 Design and detailing of these buildings has evolved and developed in recognition of the material’s low strength, relatively
high drying shrinkage, poor water resistance and low thermal resistance. Thick walls required to provide sufficient
mechanical resistance also offer high thermal mass and improved insulation.
 Good detailing inhibits deterioration and minimises maintenance costs.
 Extended eaves and raised footings protect walls from rainfall. Though services are readily incorporated into walls during
construction they are often fixed externally for ease of construction and maintenance.
 Door and window openings of varying spans are provided using a variety of techniques, including lintels and arches as
well as leaving gaps between panels. Non-structural fixings, such as shelving, may also be readily accommodated.
 Soil homogeneity is important in earth construction in order to ensure minimum localised failure. The procedures that are
required in order to reduce the variations in soil quality depend on the type of soil used.
 Several types of formwork exist. The selection of the right type of formwork for the right application is important in order
to increase the efficiency during the construction phase of an earth project.
 The right type of formwork for a given application depends on the level of mechanisation available, the relative labour
cost and the type of structure. For simple structures more traditional formwork might be appropriate.
 Architectural forms with non-linear surfaces are more time consuming and expensive to build.

GENERAL POINTS DERIVED FROM THE THESIS

 Earth construction is regarded as a local job creation opportunity with very less embodied energy required compared to
other materials.
 Earth construction is economically beneficial.
 It requires simple tools and local labour.
 Suitable for very strong and secured structures.
 It saves energy and is an environmental friendly material.
 It balances and improves indoor air humidity and temperature which ensures thermal comfort.
 Earth is very good in fire resistance.
 Loam preserves timber and other organic materials.
 Earth wall (loam) absorbs pollutants.
 Earth building provides noise control.
 Earth is readily available in large quantities in most regions.
 As much durable as other conventional construction materials.
 Special skills not needed for construction, can be easily taught to local public.
 Loam is not a standardised building material.

 Can produce various shaped buildings that are aesthetically appealing.

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Appendix 1

INTERVIEWS AND DISCUSSIONS WITH SUBJECT EXPERTS

QUESTIONNAIRE

ARCHITECTS:

1. How does earth construction contribute to the contemporary architecture?
2. Which are the critical issues in various earth construction techniques?
3. How do you convince a client for this kind of architecture? Are they positive about your this attempt at first go?
4. How can we establish the study and implementation of earthen traditional construction techniques as viable methods
for contemporary design?
5. What points you keep in mind while designing an earth structure?
6. Is designing with earth materials different than designing with any other materials like brick, concrete? What are the
positive and negative points about it?
7. What are the limitations of earth materials?
8. What are the advantages of earthen buildings?
9. Is it like that mud is not as strong as cement and steel? Are multi storey building possible out of mud?
10. What are the key contributions that earthen architecture can make to the field of sustainable development?
11. How different construction techniques performed and evolved through time?
12. What about the operating energy and energy used during construction of earthen buildings to be able to compare it
with other building materials?
13. Why mud isn’t considered modern?
14. Is earth architecture cheap, strong and ecologically sound compared to other materials?
15. How do earthen constructions perform in disasters?
16. Is earth architecture possible anywhere in the world or the region matters for such type of architecture?
17. What are the innovations and experiments that you have done in your projects when compared to traditional earth
construction?

CONTRACTORS/ENGINEERS:

1. Have you trained labourers and made your own construction team?
2. For how many weeks you trained your team?
3. Which are the details you watch out and are important to be taken care of while earth construction is going on?
4. According to you, what are the critical areas that have to be detailed out while working with earthy materials like
mud, thatch, lime?
5. As per your knowledge, how working with earth is different than other materials like steel, concrete, etc..?
6. Is it that earth buildings take more time compared to other building materials for construction?
7. Is it any special technique that you and your team work with or you train them for every technique related to mud?
8. What are the measures you take in the buildings you make out of earth materials to protect them from water and
termites?
9. Do you use cement for stabilisation and strengthening? If yes than how much percentage of cement is used maximum
in an earth building?
10. How more strength and life can be achieved for an earth structure? What are the methods or alterations you have
worked out till now in your projects to achieve them?
11. Is there any special detailing or joinery that you have come up with to solve the problems related to these earth
construction or to improve it?
12. Do you experiment with materials before you use them for construction for their stability or strength?

65


LABOURERS:

1. Are you trained by anyone for this kind of construction? For how much time were you trained?
2. Have you worked with other materials like bricks, stone, and concrete earlier?
3. Is working with mud a tough job compared to other materials or it is easier than them? Have you worked with mud
before you were trained?
4. Is learning this type of construction harder compared to other construction?
5. Does this take more labour and time compared to other construction techniques?

CLIENTS:

1. Where you convinced at first attempt by your architect about making a mud building for you?
2. What were the points or factors you thought of when you were given choice between mud and other modern
materials?
3. Why did you opt for this kind of material and construction finally?
4. What was the house or structure made up of in which you lived/worked earlier? Do you find it different than this earth
building you living/working in? How?
5. Do you find this type of structure climatically sounder than others or you find it the same?
6. Do you require more maintenance of this structure compared to your earlier one?
7. Do you take mud as a modern material? Would you recommend other people to use this material for their architecture
or not?
8. What are the negative and positive points about earth construction as you have experienced being a user of it?
9. What are the things that according to you are still not possible in earth architecture/interior when you compare it to
other architecture/interior?

PEOPLE INTERVIEWED IN KUTCH:

 Architects:
o Pratik zaveri
o Siddharth
 Contractors:
o Hemant dudhiya
o Keshavji bhai
 Skilled labourers:
o Raja
 Clients:
o Prashant (khamir)
o Manager (chintan farm house)
o
PEOPLE INTERVIEWED IN AUROVILLE:
 Architects:
o Satprem Maini
o Rosy
o Sri devi
 Technician, trainer, draftsmen, researcher :
o T. Ayyappan
 Skilled labourers and landscape designer:
o karthik

66


Architect Satprem maini
Problems:-

 Water logging
 Fungus on the wall surfaces because of the rain
 Connection with the ground is direct and so termite problem.
 If not taken care of the overhangs and the proportions while designing it can lead to major problems of the walls
cracking up and water percolation and penetration inside the living areas.
 Tensile strength is very less and so roofs are difficult from mud.
 Wood does not adhere to mud walls and so often gaps are seen between walls and openings.
 On site management of raw materials.
 Maintenance

Solution:-

 Design and organization, structural order, openings, spanning needs to be worked out properly before construction
starts.
 New methods for block making for adobe construction
 Introduction of CSEB
 Two types of stabilisation process according to type of soil are available for the production of CSEB blocks so
choosing them wisely by conducting soil tests can give blocks with great compressive strength and multi storey can
be possible out of those blocks.
 High plinths
 Large overhangs
 Various types of new machines for making blocks-aurum press of various types.
 Variations in the shape, size and joinery of the CSEB blocks according to the need. For eg. Corner junction blocks,
column blocks, beam blocks, wall blocks, flooring blocks are designed differently and manufactured.
 New ways of rammed earth giving more strength when compared to the brick walls.
 New resolved detailing and techniques for making mud roofs and giving a possibility to construct multi storey
apartments from the same material.
 Well and proportionate mixture of the ingredients can give strong and finished blocks and walls.
 Trained and knowledgeable labour and teamwork with community participation.

Advantages:-

 Cheap compared to other modern materials
 Locally available and local labour
 No transportation because all the processes are on site
 Lowest embodied energy compared to other materials
 Passive and active cooling possible
 Materials from adobe construction can be reused and from other techniques the materials directly can merge with the
ground soil after the structure is collapsed and hence no wastage of the materials.
 Any shape is possible and choice of various techniques is available for construction and designing.

Points for decision:-

 Raw earth or stabilised?
 Which technique?
 Clay amount and content?
 Region?
 Labour trained or local?

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Region:-

 World

Almost everywhere eg. Auroville, Saudi Arabia, Shibam, Mali, Oman, Iran, Kutch, not possible everywhere because
of the following reasons:

o Temperature
o Seasonal changes
o Lack of materials and knowledge of earth construction
o Range of climate
o Winter to summer cycles
o Very difficult in forest regions because of the clay content and so wattle and daub is the most favourable technique
for earth construction in forest areas.
o Also in snow covered areas where earth its not possible because of unavailability of material and if done then
transportation costs increases.

Kutch:-

 Very hot
 Not much rain
 For economy of construction
 Cheap labour
 Availability of materials and knowledge of earth construction
 Climatically favourable
 Can give up to 10 degrees temperature difference in the inside outside temperature.

Auroville-Vikas apartment:-

 Auroville climate range is 20-40 oC and is almost same the year.
 First apartment in auroville done by the architect with community participation and co-ordination
 Tallest earth construction in auroville
 Parapets for prevention of water and structural supports
 Fungus due to water logging on wall surfaces because of low overhangs

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Rosy (architect in earth institute), auroville

 Designing is almost same with all materials but what matters with mud is we have to check the availability of the
materials on site and the labour has to be trained.

 Detailing needs to be proper because cracks, abrasion by water, termite attack are the common problems in such
buildings.

 If we are talking about innovations then there are a lot more new techniques and methods which are being developed
to overcome the limitations of earth as a building material.

 Methods like hourdi roofing; flat slabs through arches, composite staircase, cseb beams, and columns all are the new
innovations that help make flat slabs possible, clear spanning inside the structures.

 Also this material is such that it lasts forever, it has lasted for ages if you study the history of earth buildings all over
the world. Also, such buildings are aesthetically and climatically pleasant and much effort is not to be made to
beautify them.

 It is available from the site itself, and is more of an in-situ construction but now adays cast earth is also possible, the
same way like ready mix concrete.

Sketches done by the architect to explain
various new methods developed in auroville

69


Ar. Pratik and Ar. Siddharth (hunnarshala, bhuj)
Concepts based on technology are being developed now adays. Traditional and scientific way both go hand in hand. Because
of that more strength and life can be achieved for the structures made of earth materials.

Factors of design decisions

Sun

 Form
 Fenestrations
 Space planning
 Building materials
 Construction techniques

Wind

 Space planning
 Form
 Fenestrations

Water

 Plinths
 Form
 Building materials

Design

 Wall thickness
 Overhangs
 Spanning
 Openings
 Corner junctions

Construction

 Water proofing
 Stabilizers
 CSEB (more finished, less energy consumed for manufacturing, on site production as per required, different blocks
type possible as per detailing and junctions, thickness of wall) -bricks (comparison)

70


Appendix 2

ANALYSIS OF SOIL

 To check its components or granulometry: handling – smell,
 its plasticity: the “cigar”
 Its cohesion: the “patch”.

The results of these tests show us the quality of the earth.

1. HANDLING – SMELL

o With our senses water enables us to identify the main components of earth.

 ORGANIC earth – Gives off a smell.
 SANDY earth - Rough, crumbly, not very sticky
 SILTY earth - Fine, easy to reduce to dust, sticky.
 CLAYEY earth – Difficult to break; slow to dissolve in water, very sticky and fine.

- THE BEST IS TO FIND BOTH SANDY AND CLAYEY EARTH FROM THE MIX.
- TAKE CARE WITH SILTY EARTH BECAUSE ONCE DRY IT DOES NOT RESIST WATER.

2. THE CIGAR

o Remove the gravel from the sample.
o Moisten, mix and allow the earth to settle for half an hour until the clay can react with the water.
o The earth should not dirty your hands.
o On a board, mould a cigar with a 3 cm diameter and
o 20 cm long.
o Slowly push the cigar onto one edge.
o Measure the length of the piece which comes away.
o Carry out this operation 3 times then calculate the average length.

- BETWEEN 7 AND 15 CM OF GOOD EARTH.
- LESS THAN 5 CM. TOO SANDY
- MORE THAN 20 CM. TOO CLAYEY

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3. THE PATCH

o Re-use the earth from the previous test in its plastic state.
o Mould 2 patches using a plastic tube or similar object.
o After drying: Observe any retraction that occurred.
o Assess the resistance of the earth by breaking and crushing between the thumb and the index finger

 SANDY earth- No retraction, easy to convert to dust:

 SILTY earth- Retraction, easy to convert into dust:

 CLAYEY earth- Significant retraction, very difficult to reduce to dust:

- LESS THAN 1 MM RETRACTION, DIFFICULT TO REDUCE TO DUST IS
GOOD EARTH.

72


Appendix 3

TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

1.

1. 3.

1. House in ludia(banni desert)
2. The semi open space with thatch roof
3. The raised plinth of the unit
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CONSTRUCTION

 A bhunga enclosed by a mud wall is the most typical construction for dwelling purposes.
 Its diameter may vary from 3 to 5 meters.
 The wall is constructed in two ways depending upon its location-ADOBE and WATTLE AND DAUB

5.

6.

4.

7.

4. Typical wall section of a bhunga
5. The main vertical support connection with the roof center
6. Lipan done in semi open spaces that matches with the existing ground
7. Connection of wooden members
8. Finished and more structurally stable support structure
8.
74


9. 10.

11. 12. 13.

9. Wattle and daub section
10. Adobe section
11. Wooden members beneath the thatch
12. Use of clay tiles for roof
13. Horizontal main support connection with other members

75


Appendix 4

CSEB and stabilized rammed earth

COMPOSITE BEAMS

• This technique is extensively used in Auroville since 1993. U-shaped CSEB are reinforced with reinforced
cement concrete.
• Reinforcements vary with the span, but the rod diameter cannot exceed ∅ 12 mm for the Auram blocks 290 &
295 and ∅ 16 mm for the Auram blocks 240 & 245.
• The U blocks are used as lost shuttering, but they also help the compressive strength of the beam. Hence it
becomes a composite technique as the reinforced concrete work in tension and the U block works in
compression.
• The concrete cast in the U shape is normally 1 cement: 2 sand: 4 gravel ½‘. The vertical mortar in between the
U blocks is cement sand mortar CSM 1: 3 of 1 cm thickness.
• Three types of beams have been developed:
1. Single height
2. Double height
3. Triple height

Single height beams (only 1 U block)

• The U block is laid on a bed of sand of 1 cm and the concrete in cast in the U shape.
• After 1 month curing the beam is returned and laid on the wall.
• The maximum span for a single height beam will be limited to 1.5 m with 2 steel bars Ø 12 mm. ∅ 6 mm
stirrups are laid at 25 cm c/c.

1. 2.

3.

1. Casting a single height beam on the ground
2. Single height beam reversed on the wall
3. Single height beam section

77

Double height beams (2 u blocks in opposite directions)

• The bottom part of the beam is cast first in a reversed position and after 1 month it is returned:
• Either on the ground and the top part is precast in other U blocks or the incomplete beam is lifted with care
and the concrete is cast in situ into other U blocks.
• The maximum span for a double height beam will be limited to 2.25 m with 2 steel bars Ø 12 mm on the
top and 2 steel bars Ø 12 mm on the bottom.
• ∅ 6 mm stirrups are laid in the thickness of the vertical mortar to link the tensile and compressive bars of
the beam.
• The horizontal mortar joint is with cement sand mortar CSM 1: 3

4. 5.

6.
7.

4. Casting a double height beam on the ground
5. Lifting a double height beam
6. Double height beam reversed and cast on the wall
7. Double height beam section

78

Triple height beams (1 U blocks downwards, 1 plain block in the middle, 1 U block
upwards)

• The bottom part of the beam is cast first in a reversed position.
• After 1 month it is returned and the incomplete beam is lifted with a lot of care and the rest of the beam
(plain block in the middle and U block on top) is done in situ in.
• The maximum span for a triple height beam will be limited to 3 m with 2 steel bars Ø 12 mm on the top
and 2 steel bars Ø 12 mm on the bottom.
• ∅ 6 mm stirrups are laid in the thickness of the vertical mortar to link the tensile and compressive bars of
the beam. Note that this triple height beam is rarely precast fully on site as it is too heavy to lift.
• The horizontal mortar joint is with cement sand mortar CSM 1: 3

8. 9.

10. 11.

8. Casting a triple height beam on the ground
9. Lifting a triple height beam
10. Triple height beam reversed and cast on the wall
11. Triple height beam section

79

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

1. Adjusting the U blocks on a bed of sand
2. Casting cement sand mortar CSM 1: 3 in the vertical joints
3. Casting concrete 1: 2: 4 in the U blocks
4. Laying the U blocks on a bed of sand, above the plain blocks
5. Adjusting U blocks
6. Inserting steel bars in the vertical joints of the double height beam
7. Casting concrete 1: 2: 4 in the U blocks
8. Smoothening the top of the beam with mortar CSM 1: 3
9. Testing a 2 m span double height beam 298: 1750 kg/m
10. Section of the double height beam 298, tested on 2m span

80

11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16.

17. 18.

19. 20.

11. Inserting steel bars in the vertical joints of the
triple height beam
12. Casting a triple height composite beam
13. Finishing the triple height composite beam
14. Laying the top U blocks
15. Bending the bars of the column
16. Laying triple height composite beams: 2 m beam and 1.6 m cantilevered beams
17. Casting concrete 1: 2: 4
18. Cantilevered beam near completion
19. Testing a 2.50 m span triple height beam 240: 1280 kg/m Testing a 2.50 m
span triple height beam 240: 1280 kg/m: 4 mm deflection without cracks
20. Section of the triple height beam 240, tested on 2.5 m span

81

COMPOSITE COLUMNS

• This technique is extensively used in Auroville since 1995.
• Two types of round hollow CSEB have been designed: the round block 240 and the round block 290. These
blocks are reinforced with reinforced with cement concrete. Both types of blocks are laid with a cement sand
mortar CSM 1: 3 of 1 cm thickness.
• stabilised earth mortar cannot be used for this composite technique for the reason that the stabilised earth mortar
will shrink and will not adhere on the steel rods.
• The steel rods do not exceed 1.5 m high, as it is difficult to slide down the blocks if the steel bars are the entire
height of the column. Therefore some extension rods are regularly placed with an overlap of 50 time the bar
diameter.

Block 240 (240 mm diameter) Block 290 (290 mm diameter)

Block 240
• Vertical reinforcements should be ∅12 mm for the blocks 240.
• Stirrups must be ∅ 6 mm and placed every 20 cm c/c.
• The holes where the reinforcement are inserted are cast with concrete 1
cement: 2 sand: 4 (1/2‖ gravel)
• The columns 240 must be linked on 2 sides of the building (through a beam or
• ring beam). It cannot be left free standing (without any link through a beam to
the building).
• Note that this block should not be used for seismic zones.

Block 290
• Vertical reinforcements should be ∅10 mm for the blocks 290, as the holes
are not large enough to accept a bigger diameter.
• Stirrups must be ∅ 6 mm and placed every 20 cm c/c. Note that for seismic
zones, stirrups should be ∅8 TS and placed at 10 cm c/c
• The holes, where are inserted the reinforcement, are cast with concrete 1
cement: 2 sand: 4 (chips gravel)
• The columns 290 can be linked only on 1 sides of the building (through a
beam or ring beam). It cannot be left free standing (without any link through a
beam to the building).
• Note that this block can be used for seismic zones.

Block 290
Block 240

82

Section of a composite column 290

EARTH ARCHITECTURE-Innovations in earth construction and potential of earth architecture in contemporary scenario 83

Composite staircase 290


HOURDI ROOFING

• The hourdi block produced by the Auram press 3000 is used to create floors and roofs.
• These blocks rest either on reinforced concrete T beams or on ferrocement channels.
• As these blocks are hollow they create roofs which are more comfortable under a hot climate.
• The resistance of these blocks is extremely high.

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

1. Floor with hourdi blocks and ferrocement channels
2. Roof with hourdi blocks and T beams
3. Placing T beams for a roof with hourdi blocks
4. Adjusting hourdi blocks
5. Adjusting hourdi blocks in between ferrocement channels
6. Casting an earth concrete: 1 cement: 2 soil: 3 sand: 4 gravel

85

STABILISED RAMMED EARTH FOUNDATIONS

STABILISED RAMMED EARTH FOUNDATION AND COMPOSITE PLINTH BEAM
dimensions in cm

• This type of foundations is used in Auroville since 1990 for all kinds of buildings, up to 4 floors high.
• The soil is excavated from the trench foundation. It is sieved and then measured at the same time on the side of the
trench. Sand always needs to be added. In Auroville, use always 5 % by weight of cement and the mix is as follow:
500 litres soil + 200 litres sand = 1 bag cement (50 Kg). This mix is only for Auroville soil and it has to be adapted
to every situation regarding the soil quality and the local requirements. The principle is that the mix should be
calculated for 1 bag of cement per mix.
• A team is composed of 4 workers who dig, sieve and measure the soil, add the various components, mix and ram.
• This team of 4 people can do about 2 m3 per day of stabilized rammed earth foundation rammed in situ (including
measuring the components, mixing and ramming).
• Usually the top level of the foundation is at the level of the original ground. The section of the foundation should
normally be square. It is essential that it is not wider than deeper, as the load of the wall will create a pointed load
and the foundation could not bear it. On the opposite side, it is not a problem to go deeper and to obtain a foundation
deeper than wider. This is the case when the ground does not have the proper load bearing capacity at the required
depth and one has to dig deeper.
• As a thumb rule, these sections can be used according to the building type:
o One-floor building: 50 x 50 cm
o Two-floor building: 60 x 60 cm
o Three-floor building: 75 x 75 cm
o Four-floor building: 90 x 90 cm

86

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

1. Digging the trench and sieving the soil in the frame
2. Levelling the soil in the frame to get 500 litres
3. Lifting the frame
4. 500 litres of soil sieved from the trench
5. Marking the top level of the foundation with a water level
6. Mark for the top level of the foundation
7. Adding 200 litres of sand on the pile of soil
8. Adding 1 bag of cement (50 Kg)
9. Mixing first dry (minimum 2 times)
10. Adding water and mixing 2 or 3 times wet
11. Sprinkling water on the previous course
12. Pouring the stabilised earth mix in the trench

87

13. 14. 15. 16.

17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24.

13. Pouring the stabilised earth mix in the trench
14. Checking the thickness of the course (12 cm)
15. Adjusting the thickness of the course (12 cm)
16. Ramming first with a large rammer (200 cm2)
17. Ramming with a smaller rammer (100 cm2)
18. Ramming the foundation
19. Checking the quality with the pocket penetrometer
20. Penetrometer should not go in more than 6 mm
21. Sprinkling water on the previous course
22. Ramming to get a step (to finish a course)
24. Steps as wide as long for overlapping the courses

88

25. 26. 27.

28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33.

34. 35. 36.

25. Checking the thickness of the course (12 cm)
26. Adjusting the thickness of the course (12 cm)
28. Laying some blocks as formwork when the top level of the
foundation is higher than the ground (site with a slight slope)
29. Ramming the last course
30. Filling the last course
31. Levelling the last course
32. Checking the level of the last course
33. Ramming the last course
34. Scraping the top of the last course after checking with the string line
35. Checking the top level of the foundation from the reference level
36. Slight ramming of the top layer after having it scraped

89

STABILISED RAMMED EARTH WALLS

• This technique has been introduced in Auroville only in 1995, for the construction of Mirramukhi School,
which has been renamed as Deepanam School later on.
• A slipping type formwork has been designed and developed. The panels are lifted up and the walls are built like
piers walls. Our process is similar to the modern rammed earth system practiced in USA or Australia, but
adapted to the local context of a developing country. We ram by hand and we have developed also some
peripheral equipment.
• Some sand is always added: 25 to 30 % according to the soil quality, so as to reduce shrinkage. Cement
percentage will vary with the soil quality, but in Auroville, we always use 5 % by weight of cement.

1. 2.

3.

1. First panels and adjusting the end shutters
2. Ramming the second form
3. Lifting panels of the first form to the third one

90

4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10. 11.

4. Ramming the third form
5. Lifting panels of the second form to the fourth one
6. Ramming the fourth form
7. Ramming a corner wall in the first form
8. Adjusting panels of the second form of a corner wall
9. Adjust panels of the third form of a corner wall
10. Ramming the fourth form of a corner wall
11. Ramming a long wall in the second form

91

STABILISED EARTH WATERPROOFING

• The aim of this research is to find alternative plasters to cement plasters for waterproofing roofs.
• The earth is mixed with sand and stabilised with cement and a paste made of lime, tannin, alum (Ammonium
sulphate) and water. Tannin is extracted by soaking into water broken seeds of an Indian tree, named
―kaddukai‖ in Tamil Nadu. Its botanical name is Terminelia Chebula.
• The lime paste is prepared by mixing powdered alum with lime and tannin juice and extra water.
• Three coats of plaster are done with different proportions of these components.
• The last coat, which is the most waterproof, is done with a 5 mm thick plaster composed of soil, sand and lime
paste.
• No cement is added to the latter.
• Cement is giving strength to the plaster and also helping the waterproofing, but the effectiveness of this
waterproofing is given by the combination of clay in the soil, lime, alum and tannin.

1. 2.

3. 4.

1. Preparing the lime-alum-tannin paste
2. Preparing a stabilised earth plaster for waterproofing:
Mix of soil, sand, cement and the lime-alum-tannin plaster
3. Waterproofing a vault with stabilised earth plaster
4. Training centre of the Earth Institute:
Entirely waterproof with stabilised earth

92

ALTERNATIVE TO COMMON BRICK
• The winner of the 2010 Metropolis Next Generation Design Competition proposes a radical alternative to the
common brick: don‘t bake the brick; grow it.
• In a lab at the American University of Sharjah, in the United Arab Emirates, Ginger Krieg Dosier, an assistant
architecture professor, sprouts building blocks from sand, common bacteria, calcium chloride, and urea.
• The process, known as microbial-induced calcite precipitation, or MICP, uses the microbes on sand to bind the
grains together like glue with a chain of chemical reactions.
• The resulting mass resembles sandstone but, depending on how it‘s made, can reproduce the strength of fired-clay
brick or even marble.
• If Dosier‘s bio manufactured masonry replaced each new brick on the planet, it would reduce carbon-dioxide
emissions by at least 800 million tons a year.
• ―We‘re running out of all of our energy sources, Four hundred trees are burned to make 25,000 bricks. It‘s a
consumption issue.‖ she said in March in a phone interview .

• Categorized in Middle East – Technology

Chart 7

93

1.House buried in the ground in Seoul, Korea-rammed earth construction

section

• Earth House would be a
house where we can reflect
on ‗ourselves‘ while living
in the present era.
• The concrete-lined
residence has two
courtyards with earth
floors, to which all rooms
are connected.
• Rammed Earth walls
provide all the interior
spatial divisions and the
walls facing both
courtyards.
• Rammed-earth walls make
use of the excavated earth
while wood from a pine
tree from the site is
embedded in the concrete
courtyard walls.
N

Site plan 95

N

plan

section

• The 14m x 17m concrete box is buried in the ground and contains
6 rooms and two earth filled courtyards.
• The rooms are all adjacent to each other and open directly to the
earth filled courtyard. Connecting rooms can be joined to create a
bigger room.
• Even though the viscosity of the existing earth was low, only
minimal white cement and lime was used so the earth walls can
return to the soil later.
• Rammed Earth walls provide all the interior spatial divisions and
the walls facing both courtyards.
• Four gutters are placed in the corners of the courtyard for
drainage. The house uses a geothermal cooling system with a
radiant floor heating system under the rammed clay and concrete
floor The lateral pressure from the earth on four sides is resisted
by thick concrete retaining wall and a flat roof and base plate.

96

2. Office building, New Delhi, India-adobe

• Architect and supervisor: Gernot Minke, Kassel, Germany
• Collaborator: R. Muthu Kumar, New Delhi, India
• Energy concept: N.K. Bansal, New Delhi, India
• Completion: 1991
• Area: 115 m2
97

• This office building was constructed in order to prove that domed and vaulted rooms built of earth blocks are
conducive to a better indoor climate and can be more economical than traditional buildings with flat concrete
roofs.
• The project was built as part of a research and development project sponsored by the German agency
Gate/GTZ.
• The building provides office and laboratory space for a research group with a usable area of 115 m2.
• The central hall acts as a multi-purpose room for seminars, meetings and exhibitions.
• The three domes were built of soil blocks, utilising a rotational slip form that was developed by the Building
Research Laboratory, University of Kassel, Germany (see p. 127).
• The soil blocks were produced by a manually operated press.
• For heating and cooling, an earth tunnel system was installed. Climate conditions require that the rooms are
cooled from April to September and heated from December to February. For this purpose, a 100-m-long
stoneware pipe system was installed in a depth of 3.50 m, through which ambient air is blown by two fans.
The blown air receives the nearly constant earth temperature of about 25°C, which corresponds to the annual
mean temperature. This air cools the building in the hot season and heats it in the cold season.
• The energy saving results in nearly 38,000 kWh per year, about 2/3 of the total amount.
• The saving in building costs in comparison with a conventional building with flat concrete roof was 22%.

98

3. Chapel of Reconciliation, Berlin, Germany- Rammed Earth
• The chapel stands at the border formerly separating West from
East Berlin, on the site of the former neo-Gothic Church of
Reconciliation, which was demolished by the then East
German government.
• The interior is of oval shape, and is delimited by a rammed
earth wall 7.2 m in height and 0.6 m in thickness. The roof and
outer shell, formed by vertical wooden strips, represents a
second oval that is eccentrically configured in relation to the
first.
• The rammed earth wall contains large fragments of broken
brick from the former church, as well as gravel, which
together constitutes 55% of the material.
• The clay content is only 4%. This coarse-grained mixture, with
a minimal moisture content of 8.1%, reduces material
shrinkage to only 0.15 %. With a humidity level of 50 % and a
temperature of 20°C, the equilibrium moisture content of the
loam is 0.7 %.
• The admixture of flax fibres and intensive compaction with a
tamping roller was able to produce a compressive strength of
3.2 N/mm2 (measured with 20 x 20 x 20 cm cubes). The
constantly changing radius of curvature required the use of an
intricate special formwork.

Chapel of Reconciliation, Berlin,
Germany
Architects: Reitermann + Sassenroth, Berlin, Germany
Completed: 2000
Area: 315 m2

99

4. Oaxaca School of Plastic Arts in Mexico-rammed earth

Site plan

sections

• A beautiful example of modern earthen architecture is the
Oaxaca School of Plastic Arts in Mexico
• Architect - Mauricio Rocha


• The architect decided to use the earth left behind
from several other campus construction projects for
the typography of his construction site.
• This brought about the idea of building the whole
school of rammed earth.
• Rammed earth is not only the perfect material for the
extreme climatic conditions of Oaxaca, because it
creates an optimal microclimate.
• It also offers the adequate acoustic insulation a school
needs.
• At the same time, works on the campus were
producing enormous amounts of earth. This
contingency led to the idea of creating a talus that
would create both a garden and the isolation required
for a school of art.
• The second type of buildings are quite separate from
the taluses, all north-facing except the gallery and
main hall (north-south), built on compacted earth.
• This not only helps the character of the building —an
organic system with uneven land that enhances the
richness of walls and courtyards— but also
constitutes an excellent building system that creates
an optimal microclimate for the extreme climatic
Ground plan conditions


5.Brittlebush experimental house-rammed earth construction

• A steel structure was designed to
frame three-inch rammed earth
walls surrounding a patio,
fireplace, and bed. The masts and
anchors on the structure can
adaptively accommodate a 150
square-foot roof membrane of
either shade-cloth or vinyl.
• Approximately 90% of the steel in
the project was salvaged from the
school scrap yard; 100% of the
rammed earth for the walls was
from the school property; 100% of
the wood used for the formwork
was salvaged from onsite
renovation waste.

102

• The design is an experimental desert dwelling for winter residents at Taliesin, the Frank Lloyd Wright
School of Architecture. The architect envisioned the design to be an open-air living space with protective
roof and walls for the sleeping area.
• Here the rammed earth walls are angled and not straight according to the anchoring point of the cloth.
• The formwork needed to be designed for making such angled rammed earth walls.

1. 2.

3.

1. Rammed earth walls and earth flooring
2. Shade-cloth anchored to the steel framing and earth walls
3. Space formed by the angled walls

103

6. Handmade school- straw bale-adobe and cob
Location: Rudrapur, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
Bauherr: Shanti Bangladesh e.V.
Architects: Anna Heringer, Eike Roswag
Engineers: Ziegert Roswag Seiler, Berlin
Construction: Dec 2005 -Feb/March 2006

North south Elevations

East west Elevations

104

Floor area: 325 m²
Building costs: 30,000 €
Building costs/m²: 92 €/m²
Thermal performance: no heating

Section Organically formed “cave space”

Cave space Cave space Cave space

Classroom Classroom Classroom

Covered Veranda

Plan

• On the ground floor with its thick earth walls, three classrooms are located each with their own access
opening to an organically shaped system of ‗caves‘ to the rear of the classroom.
• The soft interiors of theses spaces are for touching, for nestling up against, for retreating into for exploration
or concentration, on one‘s own or in a group.
• Light and shadows from the bamboo strips play across the earth floor and contrast with the colourful
materials of the saris on the ceiling.
• The exterior surface of the earth walls remains visible and the window jambs are rendered with a lime
plaster.
• The interior surfaces are plastered with a clay plaster and painted with a lime-based paint.
• The ‗cave‘s are made of a straw-earth daub applied to a supporting structure of bamboo canes and plastered
with a red earth plaster. The upper storey façades are clad with window frames covered with bamboo strips
and coupling elements hung onto the columns of the frame construction.
• A fifth layer of cob walling provides a parapet around the upper storey forming a bench running around the
perimeter of the building and anchoring the upper storey frame construction and roof against wind from
beneath.

105

Building construction and techniques

• The building rests on a 50cm deep brick masonry
foundation rendered with a facing cement plaster.
• Aside from the foundation, the damp proof course was the
other most fundamental addition to local earthen building
skills. The damp proof course is a double layer of locally
available PE-film.
• The ground floor is realised as load-bearing walls using a
technique similar to cob walling. A straw-earth mixture
with a low straw content was manufactured with help of
cows and buffaloes and then heaped on top of the
foundation wall to a height of 65cm per layer. Excess
material extending beyond the width of the wall is trimmed
off using sharp spades after a few days.
• After a drying period of about a week the next layer of cob
can be applied.
• In the third and fourth layers the door and window lintels
and jambs were integrated as well as a ring beam made of
thick bamboo canes as a wall plate for the ceiling.
• The ceiling of the ground floor is a triple layer of bamboo
canes with the central layer arranged perpendicular to the
layers above and beneath to provide lateral stabilization
and a connection between the supporting beams. A layer of Corner detail showing earthen
planking made of split bamboo canes was laid on the and bamboo construction
central layer and filled with the earthen mixture analogue
to the technique often used in the ceilings of European
timber-frame constructions.

Classroom with internal clay plaster

Cows help mix the earth, water and rice-straw mixture Cob walling built on top of a brick foundation and damp
proof course. The wall surfaces are later trimmed flat
using sharp flat spades.
106

7. Suoi re village-adobe, rammed earth

First floor plan Elevation

• Structure idea is simple, economical, utilizing the
availability of local materials.
• The villagers build their own homes. They will enjoy the
efficiency of space and the utility of each element: stone,
earth, bamboo, leaves, air, wind, sun, jungle sounds.
• Ground floor is designed to fit the concave slopes,
utilizing geothermal. It can avoid east northern monsoon
(which is very dry and cold in the winter) and collect east-
southern monsoon. The use of earth for construction
makes the house warm in winter and cool in summer.

Ground plan

section
107

• Ground floor is made of
rugged-stone wall, bamboo
doors, fine-bamboo ceiling
those make people feel warm
and balance in the house.
• Upstairs is made of brown
and smooth rammed-soil wall
with heavy stones beneath,
bamboo frames, palm leaves
roof.

108

109

8. Earth House is a 465 sq m, 4 bedroom residence-rammed earth

Site plan

• With integrated landscaped garden on a 97-acre property in coastal Victoria, this holistic architectural project
blurs the line between architecture, interior, landscape and furniture design.
• Careful consideration is made to site and context to ensure the house contributes to the rural characteristics of
the area from all exterior and interior vantage points.
• Rammed earth construction is used here to create shaded walls that merge with the surroundings.

110

Ground plan

• Constructed primarily in rammed earth using local Dromana crushed rock.
• The western elevation consists of solid rammed earth walls without penetrations, designed as thermal banks
capturing the afternoon sun.
• Designed around a large enclosed courtyard that provides protection from the strong winds.
• The eastern façade is where the rammed earth walls are punctured with glass windows to capture the scenic
surroundings.

111

9. The Old Water Mill, Rubdorf – Wattle and Daub, Straw clay

Location: D-08451 Blankenhain
Planning: Eckhard Beuchel, Crimmitschau
Earth building: self-build / Lehmbau Beuchel
Construction: 1992-1995
Usable floor area: 280 m²

The building has been completely renovated. The half-timbered
construction was repaired and previously made inappropriate
changes were corrected. The original infill panels were repaired or
replaced using traditional techniques (vertical stakes without
willow weave).
To improve the thermal properties of the external walls a second
inner layer of straw-clay reels (straw-clay wrapped around
horizontal battens to form elongated reels) was applied from the
inside.
All ceilings, sloped roof surfaces and internal walls were plastered
using earthen plasters in a variety of different techniques in order
to improve the indoor air climate.
The terracotta and flagstone floor at ground level is also laid in a
compacted earth bed.
The half-timbering was left visible on the outside with the infill
panels finished with an earthen render mixed with a proportion of Earth oven
horse manure.
Eight years on the infill panels do not show any signs of wear and
tear. Using a large wooden fork or comb a pattern was pricked into
the still wet plaster. This is an old traditional technique and serves
three purposes: it increases the moisture absorbent surface area, it
helps to reduce stresses which form in the surface of the plaster as
it dries (the same principle used when cutting into bread before
baking), and it also serves as an attractive decoration giving the
building a unique identity.

112

Rear elevation

Former living room with original wooden ceiling Wood-fired stove and hot air heated bench

The building is heated using a wood-pellet-fired central
heating using integrated wall and floor heating as well as long
radiation convectors at skirting board level.
A wood-fired stove in the upper floor heats a large bench
formed out of earth providing pleasant radiative warmth in the
living rooms. It can also be used as an auxiliary heating
source. An earth oven for baking bread was also reconstructed
with a roofed covering.
All earthen material was sourced from the site or nearby
surroundings. A large proportion of all earthen building works
were carried out by the client and friends as self-build.
External render with prick patterning

113

10. Solar oval one- cob construction

• Building with cob allows the use
of local sustainable materials.
• In many areas the earth on site can
be used and only water, sand and
straw will need to be brought to
the site to make cob.
• The cob is mixed right where we
are building and stacked up on an
impervious foundation.
• There are no forms needed to
make a cob building.
• Curving sculptural walls are easily
created.
• Cob wall construction
Section
• An impervious base wall below
the cob for moisture protection of
the cob
• An earthen floor for solar mass
and economy of construction
• An interior cob bench for built-in
seating
• A built-in desk or kitchen area
with side storage niches
• A north wall closet for storage
space and insulation
• Small East and West end side
windows in cob wall for views &
area lighting
• A sleeping loft accessible by a
built-in ladder
• A corrugated sheet metal roof
• The structure is designed to
include seismic stability
Plan components
• A pleasing curved design
• Low cost as built by the local
labour and materials.

View

114

11. Global model earth ship Michael Reynolds- rammed earth and tyres

plan

• The Earth ship home are comfortable in almost any climate on the planet.
• These Earth ship designs are the result of 40 years of research and development
• Because every room surrounds you with thermal mass, the rooms provide an embracing
thermal stability.
• The walls are mainly from rammed earth and tyres.
• Floors are made of earth.
• The passage is full of light as the rammed earth walls are punctured screening the south sun
and merging with the earth flooring.
115

12. Carriage House-Kelly Hart-earth bag construction

• There is potentially about 900 s.f. of
usable floor area on two stories. It is a
hybrid design, utilizing earth bags
plastered with papercrete, a steel
prefabricated vault, concrete floor, and
wood-framed end walls.
• Since the steel vault is completely
covered with insulating earth bags, the
building is very well insulated, and
comfortable year-round.
• This cross section shows the hybrid
nature of this design. In order to gain
height, the steel shell is erected on top of
an earth bag stem wall, and then the earth
bags continue on up over the building.
• The double columns of the stem wall
provides thermal mass on the inside and
insulation on the outside. An insulated
Ground plan First floor plan concrete pad is poured for the
shop/garage floor.
• The second floor joists and tie beams are
essential elements of the design, since
they resist deformation of the vault from
all of the weight on it.

section

116

13. Tntre muros house-rammed earth

Site plan

Front elevation

Back elevation

plan

• The land like material of construction generates low impact in the projects environment.
• The raw material comes out of the generated cut in the sloping land.
• It does not produce rubbles, stores heat and regulates the interior climate by having the aptitude to absorb
the dampness more rapid and in major quantity than other materials.

117

• This architecture aims to highlight the nature of the material elements that compose it, promoting the aesthetic,
formal, functional and structural qualities as well as the maximum respect of the environment.
• ―There is always another way of doing things and another way for living‖
• A cut in the sloping land helps to generate a platform for the project and also to get enough raw material to
build the gravity walls.
• The waving form as a result of this cut in the land, defines the position and order of every wall.
• The succession of these adobe walls and the different heights of the roof caused the division of the house even
for the activity or the user.
• In order to get rid off the domino effect, the gravity walls break their parallelism solving the structure and
strengthening the character (spirit) of every ―refuge‖.
• The furniture is worked inside the thick adobe walls. The long corridor is used as an element that isolates the
project from their immediate neighbours and reinforces the autonomy of every space.
• No two earth walls are parallel to each other.
• The roof, walls and floor merge with each other creating an earthy space in the passage and rooms.

118

Glossary
Note: The definitions and the meanings of the terms used in dissertation are through general understanding from dictionaries-
The Oxford Dictionary, the Webster dictionary and from the Encyclopaedia- Microsoft Encarta 2006 and the online resource
www.wikipedia.com

Ideology: beliefs, philosophy

Gravel: small pieces of stone varying from the size of a pea to an egg.

Sand: Similar small pieces of stone(usually quartz), which are small but each grain is visible to the eye.

Soil: The same as sand except that it is so fine that individual grains are not see.

Clay: Soils that stick when wet – but very hard when completely dry.

Organic Soil: Soil mainly composed of rotting, decomposing organic matters such as leaves, plants and vegetable matter. It is
spongy when wet, usually smells of decaying matter, is dark in colour and usually damp.

Lime probably is the most used stabiliser. It is made by burning shells and lime stones in a mud kiln.

Loam: soil composed of sand, silt, and clay in relatively even concentration (about 40-40-20% concentration respectively)
Blocks of earth produced manually by throwing wet earth into a formwork are called “adobes” or “mud bricks” or “sundried
earth blocks.”

When moist earth is compacted in a manual or powered press, the compressed elements so formed are called “soil blocks.”

In their unbaked state, bricks produced by an extruder in a brick plant are called “green bricks.”

Larger blocks, compacted in a formwork by ramming and, are called “rammed earth blocks.”

Rammed earth – a process by which a soil mixture is “lifted” into formwork and compacted to make a strong, monolithic
wall.

Plasticity: property of a material by which it can be moulded into shape while soft and then set into a hard or slightly flexible
form.
Cohesion: The action of holding together or forming a whole.

Compatibility: Closely and neatly packed together.

119


Image Credits
Charts

Chart 1 By the student
Chart 2; chart 5 Anti seismic construction handbook- Wilfred
Carazas Aedo Alba River Olmos
Chart 3; chart 4 Earthen architecture in the world – Auroville earth institute
Chart 6 Australian earth building handbook (Standards Australia, 2002)
Chart 7 www.earth architecture.org

Cover page Khamir craft park, Kutch, (photo by student)

Chapter 2:

1 – 66, 109 Earthen architecture in the world – Auroville earth institute
67, 68, 70, 71, 73, 74 mud- Laurie baker
76-79 Cob and straw bale, by Anupama Mohan ram
80 Building with cob: a step by step guide, by Adam Weismann
and Katy Bryce, green books
81-89, 69, 72, 75, Building with earth- Gernot Minke
90-102 Anti seismic construction handbook- Wilfred
103-108 The rammed earth house, by David Easton
110 Resurrection: rammed earth construction
Michael Padavic
111 www.Rammed earth construction.com

Chapter 3:

1 Earthen architecture for sustainable habitat, by Satprem Maini
2-13, 16, 19-23, 28, 29-33, 38, 39, 41-46, 48-50, by the student
53
14 Drawings from Auroville Earth architecture handbook
Page 43-49, page 55-57, and page 59-60 figures from Building with earth, by Gernot Minke
Page 53 figures from Resurrection: rammed earth construction,
Michael Padavic
Page 54 Earthen architecture in the world – Auroville earth institute
Page 50-52 Anti seismic construction handbook- Wilfred
Page 58 Earth architecture, by Ronald Rael

Appendix 2 Anti seismic construction handbook- Wilfred
Appendix 3

1, 4,9,10 Mud architecture of Indian deserts, by K B Jain
2, 3, 5-8, 11-13 Banni hamlets (photos by student)
Appendix 4 www.auroville earth institute.com (Sub part- earth
technologies)

Appendix 5 Case studies studied from

1. Building with earth by Gernot Minke.
2. Earth architecture by Ronald Rael,
3. www.eartharchitecture.org

120

Bibliography
BOOKS
Rael, Ronald. Earth architecture .New York: Princeton architectural press, 2008.
Minke, Gernot. Building with earth: design and technology of a sustainable architecture. Basel: Birkhauser, 2006.
Carazas Aedo, Wilfred; River Olmos, Alba. Anti seismic construction handbook. France: Villefontaine Cedex.
Fisher, Nora. Mud, mirror and thread
P. Crouch, Dora; G. Johnson, June. Traditions in architecture
Rudofsky, Bernard. Architecture without Architects
Jain, K B; Jain Minakshi. Mud architecture of the Indian desert
Bhatia, Gautam. Laurie Baker Life, work, writings. New Delhi: Raj press, 1991.
Baker, Laurie. Houses: how to reduce building costs. Center for science and technology for rural development
(COSTFORD), July 1986
Majumdar, Mili. Energy Efficient Buildings in India
K. S., Jagadish. Building with stabilized mud
Stein, Mathew. When technology fails
Udamale, Sanjay. Architecture for Kutch
Maini, Satprem. Vikas community in Auroville. Auroville earth institute, June 2000
Maini, Satprem. Building with arches, vaults and domes. Auroville earth institute, May 2003
Maini, Satprem. Building with earth in auroville. Auroville earth institute, November 2002
Maini, Satprem. Earthen architecture for sustainable habitat. Auroville earth institute, November 2002
Weismann, Adam; Bryce, Katy. Building with cob: a step by step guide, green books.

PAPERS
University of Arizona. “Earth blocks manufacturing and construction techniques.” Tucson March 26-28, 1982, Arizona.
Indian institute of Science. “Alternative building technologies.” Bangalore
Yaser khaled Abdurrahman al-sakkaf. “Durability properties of stabilized earth blocks” Malaysia January 2009.
“Rehabilitating indigenous technologies for mud construction”
Vasilios Maniatidis & Peter Walker. “A Review of Rammed Earth Construction” United Kingdom may 2003.
“Use of cost-effective construction technologies in India to mitigate climate change.”
Architecture Design Magazine. “Remembering Laurie baker – the unseen side.” August 2007
Mohammad Sharif Zami & Dr. Angela Lee. “Contemporary earth construction in urban housing – stabilised or
unstabilised? “United Kingdom 2008
“The building arts - Chapter 3.”
Michael Padavic. “Resurrection: Rammed Earth Construction” Arizona January 11, 2002.
Mohan ram Anupama. “Cob and Straw Bale: My experience with sculpting A building by hand.” Chicago.
Deepa Mehta. “On Conservation and Development: The Role of Traditional Mud Brick Firms in Southern Yemen.” USA
2007

UNPUBLISHED THESIS
Tom, Sanya. “Living in earth” Uganda 1996
Dave, Anand. “Exploration of mud construction in contemporary architecture” Gujarat 2006
Unknown. “Project report on mud architecture.”

121


Future

“The standard of living and culture among the world’s desperately poor peasants can be raised through cooperative building,
which involves a new approach to rural mass housing. There is much more in this approach than the purely technical matters
that concern the architect. There are social and cultural questions of great complexity and delicacy, there is the economic
question, and there is the question of the project’s relation with government, and so on. None of these questions can be left out
of consideration, for each has a bearing on others, and the total picture would be distorted by any omission.”

-Fathy, 1973: xv in Preface

Man has been endowed with reason, with the power to create, so that he can add to what he's been given. Perhaps he has
always been the biggest scavenger ignorant towards nature. Forests keep disappearing, rivers dry up, wild lives become extinct,
the climates ruined and the land grows poorer and uglier. When we start seeing land as a community to which we belong, we
may begin to use it with love and respect.

Use of conventional materials alone for construction, can drain the available energy resources and cause environmental
degradation/pollution. Also such materials require large amount of embodied energy and are expensive. This clearly indicates
the need for alternative building technologies like the ones mentioned in this paper.

If we look at the history of earth construction then there is versatility in its application methods, construction techniques, and
aesthetics.
Its monumentality is seen in many structures from ancient times till today, some of them as seen in chapter 1.
There are economic, social and environmental aspects related to the use of every material anywhere. Nowadays, everyone is
becoming aware about the problems related to pollution, deforestation, demolition waste, depletion of resources, and climatic
variations but no one is aware about the solutions. According to me, the use of earth as a building material is one of the
solution. The knowledge about the material is abundant but because of some wrong notions about the material and degradation
about its use only for non permanent/temporary structures has led to its decreasing use. The use of earth for construction has
always created amazing and everlasting structures. It has a promising future with respect to every aspect attached with it.

Demand for new buildings as well as the cost of the building construction is growing at a steady place. Construction techniques
are evolved through time, also the method of working have advanced with newer type of machinery and tools that can speed up
the construction process, also decrease manual labour and produce maintenance free earth buildings.

If all the minor and important detailing and application methods of earth material are studied thoroughly and experienced
practically then it becomes easy to produce everlasting buildings from earth. Taking the ground soil on which we walk and
play, analysing it and mixing some other components with it to strengthen it for building and following the techniques that
have evolved through times is all what we have to do for getting a environmentally and ecologically beneficial structures. Only
then, perhaps, it will be possible again to have new buildings that reflect the identities of their local environment and culture.

122


Thesis on earth architecture

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