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71
4.1 What Are Emotional Disturbance and Behavior Disorder?
An Adjustment Disorder is when students have difficulty
adjusting to new or stressful changes or events (e.g., a move to
a new house, divorce of parents). Students must exhibit the
difficulty within three months of the change or event, and their
symptoms must end no more than six months from the
conclusion of the change or event.
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa are disorders related to
weight and body image.
Anxiety Disorders may cause students to exhibit physical
symptoms (e.g., stomach ache) or inappropriate responses (e.g.,
giggles, cries). All students experience anxiety at some point; it
is only when that anxiety lasts a long time and interferes with
academic work that the student may be diagnosed with an
anxiety disorder.
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder causes students to
exhibit inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive behaviors that
interfere with social and academic performance. ADHD affects
approximately 3–10% of students, so Chapter 5 addresses it in
detail. However, please note that ADHD is not an independent
category under IDEA. Some educators categorize ADHD under
ED, but others categorize it under Other Health Impaired (OHI).
Bipolar Disorder causes students to go through a pattern of

extreme highs and lows. The swings in mood can be very quick
and difficult to predict.
Conduct Disorder is when students violate established rules or
norms. Some characteristics of Conduct Disorder include
bullying other students, physical cruelty to humans or animals,
running away from home, being reckless, or skipping school.
Major Depressive Disorder is when a student experiences
depressive episodes on a periodic basis. Students may become
irritable and not be able to get along with other students or
adults.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) causes students to
develop obsessions or compulsions that interfere with everyday
activities. Obsessions are persistent thoughts or impulses, and
compulsions are persistent behaviors or acts. OCD is a type of
anxiety disorder.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) causes students to have
defiant and hostile behaviors towards authority figures. These
behaviors must last for six months or longer. Typically, students
with ODD are less aggressive towards humans and animals and
less likely to destroy property than students with Conduct
Disorder. Students with ODD may argue and defy the rules of
adults or deliberately annoy or blame others.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) typically follows a
traumatic event (e.g., death in the family). For a diagnosis of
PTSD, the symptoms must appear no later than one month after
the traumatic event. Characteristics of students with PTSD often
include sleeplessness, nightmares, or fear. PTSD is one of the
anxiety disorders.
Selective Mutism is when a student does not speak in social
settings. Usually students exhibit characteristics of selective
mutism before they enter school, although a few students will
not speak during their years at school.
Schizophrenia causes dramatic personality changes,
hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, or catatonic behavior.
Symptoms often first appear during puberty, although younger
students may have schizophrenia.

Tourette's disorder results in verbal or physical tics that occur
regularly and without control. Common tics include blinking
eyes, sniffling, clearing the throat, tapping, snapping, shrugging
shoulders, or shouting out, although students exhibit a wide
variety of different tics. Sometimes, districts categorize
Tourette's under the disability category of Other Health
Impaired.
EBD and IDEA 2004
IDEA 2004 uses the term emotional disturbance (ED) as its
umbrella term, instead of EBD. The specific characteristics it
outlines also differ somewhat from those covered in the DSM-
IV psychiatric disorders. The formal definition in the
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (2004) is as
follows:
Emotional disturbance means a condition exhibiting one or more
of the following characteristics over a long period of time and
to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational
performance:
An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual,
sensory, or health factors.
An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal
relationships with peers and teachers.
Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal
circumstances.
A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated
with personal or school problems.
Emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia. The term does
not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is
determined that they have an emotional disturbance.
Note that socially maladjusted means that a student engages in
violence, truancy, substance abuse, or has problems with

authority figures.
Prevalence of EBD
EBD, as a disability, accounts for approximately 6.3% of
special education students. Approximately one-third of
identified students spend 80% or more of their time in the
general classroom. Minority students are overrepresented in
EBD statistics, meaning the percentage of minority students
receiving special education services related to EBD exceeds the
percentage of minority students in the overall student
population (Zhang & Katsiyannis, 2002). More students are
identified with EBD in secondary school than in preschool and
elementary school (Forness, Kim, & Walker, 2012).
A little less than 1% of school-age students receive special
education services for ED under IDEA 2004. Researchers
believe that the percentage of school-age students who have
EBD is higher than that; they estimate that it is 6–7%
(Kauffman & Landrum, 2006; Merikangas et al., 2009). Like
many students identified with EBD, these unidentified students
spend all of their school day in the general classroom.
Therefore, general and special education teachers need to know
the characteristics of these students and the teaching strategies
that can help them (Smith, Katsiyannis, & Ryan, 2010).
4.2 How Has the EBD Field Evolved?
Before special education legislation in the United States
provided a free, appropriate public education to students with
EBD, most students with emotional and behavioral problems
were characterized as having a mental illness. Mental illness is
the medical term for mental conditions that affect how a person
feels, thinks, and functions. Common disorders that classify as a
mental illness include schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and
obsessive-compulsive disorder.
IDEA 2004 does not use the term mental illness to describe
students with mental disorders. Mental illness is a medical term,

whereas EBD is the educational term. Some students with EBD
have a mental illness, whereas many students have behavioral
disorders that would not qualify as a mental illness.
Chapter 1 described Victor, the "wild boy of Aveyron," who
created a sensation when he emerged from life in a French
forest in 1800 at age 12 without communication or social skills.
Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard tried to educate Victor, but his efforts
were largely unsuccessful. Given what we know of his limited
emotional skills and behavioral difficulties, Victor likely had an
EBD (Lane, Jolivette, Conroy, Nelson, & Benner, 2011).
Victor was treated by medical professionals, but many others
were not as fortunate. Until the 20th century, many children and
adults who probably had EBD were excluded from society
activities, such as schooling and working. Those with severe
EBD may have been placed into institutions or poorhouses.
Some of these institutions neglected the basic needs of their
patients (e.g., limited food, dirty living conditions), and some
patients underwent controversial therapies (e.g., shock therapy).
In the middle of the 20th century, students with EBD began to
receive more attention from a variety of mental health
professionals and educators. Schools in major cities across the
United States were established for students with emotional
disturbances and for "maladjusted youth" (Birch, 1956). For
example, starting in 1946 in New York City, 14 special schools
were opened to provide instruction to students with emotional
disturbances. Some of these schools were in institutions or
psychiatric hospitals, and all the schools worked on modifying
the behavior of students as well as improving their academic
outcomes.
The New York City schools earned the nickname of "600"
schools because teachers who taught at these schools received
an extra $600 (Birch, 1956). In 1966, this name was changed to
Special Day Schools for Socially Maladjusted and Emotionally

Disturbed Children because a stigma had developed around the
"600" schools. Many schools that opened during this time (like
the Pioneer House in Detroit, MI or the League School in
Brooklyn, NY) were residential programs for students with
severe emotional disturbances (like schizophrenia). While these
facilities were available to a select group of students in major
cities, many students across the United States did not have
access to such classrooms and specialized instruction because
smaller schools in rural areas did not have enough students to
fill specialized schools or the financial resources to create and
run such schools.
In 1964, a division of the Council for Exceptional Children was
started to focus on behavioral disorders, and in 1968, the first
journal devoted to applied behavior analysis was published
(Lane et al., 2011). With the passing of PL 94-142 in 1975, ED
was recognized as a disability category, and schools across the
nation were able to receive funding to provide free and
appropriate education for students with EBD. Researchers began
developing and testing teaching practices for these students to
understand how teachers can best teach them.
4.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With EBD?
Typically, behaviors associated with EBD are characterized as
either "externalizing" or "internalizing." As the names suggest,
students aim externalizing behaviors toward other people (e.g.,
hitting, shouting, bullying), while they direct internalizing
behaviors toward themselves (e.g., nervousness, crying).
Students with EBD will usually exhibit one or the other set of
behaviors, though sometimes they exhibit both. Males exhibit
externalizing behaviors more frequently than females, whereas
females exhibit internalizing behaviors more often than males
(Kaiser, Cai, & Hancock, 2002; Walker et al., 1994).
Externalizing Behaviors
Students with externalizing behaviors provoke others and draw
attention through obvious behavior acts. Externalizing

behaviors appear to be more prevalent than internalizing
behaviors. That is, students with EBD are often identified with
externalizing behaviors—perhaps because externalizing
behaviors are often disruptive and noticeable (Feinfeld & Baker,
2004).
Students with EBD are more likely to talk out of turn and be out
of their seat than they are to display more violent or troubling
behaviors (Carter, Clayton, & Stephenson, 2006). These "minor"
behaviors, however, occur frequently and cause disruption in
classroom routines. All students will talk at inappropriate times
and demonstrate off-task behavior at some point in their school
careers. The student may have an EBD, however, when those
behaviors are sufficiently consistent and disruptive to the
classroom. Students with externalizing behaviors generally
appear to have difficulty or conflicts with other students in the
classroom and have difficulty making and keeping friends
(Heward, 2005).
It is important to note that several of the characteristics of
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) also appear
on the list of externalizing behaviors. ADHD, which will be
discussed in Chapter 5, is a separate disability category from
EBD. However, some of the characteristics of EBD appear in
students with ADHD, and many students with ADHD also have
an EBD.
Internalizing Behaviors
In contrast to students with externalizing behaviors, students
with internalizing behaviors try to avoid social interaction as
much as possible. Teachers and parents may overlook
internalizing behaviors because the student does not draw
attention to him- or herself, but these behaviors can be
detrimental if ignored.
If teachers and parents do not notice the behavior of
internalizing students, serious consequences, even to the point
of injury or death, can occur. For example, anorexia nervosa is

an internalizing behavior. If not treated, a student with anorexia
nervosa can develop major medical issues and, in some cases,
die. Another internalizing behavior may be depression. If
students do not receive proper attention and learn to live with
and manage depression, they may do harm to themselves or to
others.
Table 4.1 provides examples of externalizing and internalizing
behaviors.
Table 4.1: Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors
Externalizing behaviors
Internalizing behaviors
· Argue
· Bully
· Curse
· Damage property
· Disturb other students
· Fail to complete assignments
· Fight
· Ignore authority figures
· Be late for class
· Lie
· Get out of seat
· Produce audible noise
(e.g., hum, sing, snap, tap, whistle)
· Refuse authoritative requests
· Swear
· Talk when inappropriate
· Throw temper tantrums
· Throw objects
· Being anxious
· Being bullied
· Being fearful
· Nervousness
· Unhappiness

· Cling to authority figures
· Complain of illness
· Cry
· Daydream
· Fantasize
· Not play with other students
· Spend time alone
· Suffer depression
Academic Characteristics
Students with EBD often perform below students without
disabilities on academic tasks (Kaiser et al., 2002). In fact, the
academic performance of students with EBD is often similar to
students with a specific learning disability (SLD) (Sabornie,
Cullinan, Osborne, & Brock, 2005). Students with EBD often
receive lower grades than students without EBD (Smith et al.,
2010). Students are also more likely to be suspended from
school, and missed classroom time contributes to lower
academic performance.
Students with EBD may exhibit some of the following behaviors
and characteristics, which affect academic performance. They
may frequently:
be absent,
blame others for poor performance,
have difficulty working in groups,
break classroom rules,
be inattentive,
interrupt classroom instruction,
intimidate other students,
have low self esteem,
manipulate other students and situations,
have poor concentration,
appear preoccupied,
resist changes in routine or transitions between activities,

speak out, or
violate personal space.
As you can see, many of these characteristics are caused by
externalizing behaviors.
4.4 What Are the Causes of EBD?
There is no consensus on the causes of EBD; the factors that
contribute probably include those related to biology, as well as
family and school environment (Quinn et al., 2000).
Biology
Students with family members who have experienced
characteristics of EBD have a higher rate of diagnosis of it, so
genetic predisposition likely plays a role (Kauffman, 2005). For
example, students with schizophrenia (one type of EBD) have a
higher likelihood of having a parent or sibling with
schizophrenia than students without schizophrenia (Haraldsson,
Ettinger, & Sigurdsson, 2011). Research in this area is at the
beginning stages, but with more work on the coding of genes
and a better understanding of the brain and central nervous
system, we may gain a better understanding of how genetics
influence the development of EBD.
Other biological factors may include malnutrition (especially at
an early age when brain development is rapid), physical illness,
or allergies (Kauffman, 2005). All of these factors have been
suggested as contributors, but there is no consensus on whether
these factors actually cause EBD; the research continues (Quinn
et al., 2000).
Environment
A student's family environment or events that occur within the
family may also contribute to EBD (Williams et al., 2009). Just
as parents can have a positive influence on their child's
behavior, parents can also negatively affect their child's
behavior. Perhaps a parent ignores a child, yells at them
continuously, or abuses them. All of these actions may
contribute to EBD. The family structure, how the family

members interact with one another, and outside influences may
all affect the likelihood of a student developing an EBD
(Kauffman, 2005).
The student's school environment may also be a contributing
factor, especially when school staff do not provide an
appropriate learning environment for students, or have an
inadequate behavior management plan. For example, teachers
may continuously berate students for not following directions,
and students may decide, consciously or subconsciously, to stop
listening to the teacher, to stop doing assignments, or to stop
coming to school altogether.
4.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With EBD?
As with other disabilities, a family member or classroom
teacher typically initiates the evaluation process for EBD.
School personnel or medical professionals may evaluate a
student. If schools do the evaluation, the personnel may
administer a battery of tests or use RTI for identification.
Schools may also conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment
(FBA) and write a Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) for the
student. In general, students are said to have EBD if they
exhibit chronic and/or extreme inappropriate behavior over an
extended period of time that has adverse effects on their
educational performance (Gresham, 2005). Generally, students
must exhibit the behavior(s), whether internalizing,
externalizing, or a combination of the two, for at least three
months (Quinn et al., 2000). These behaviors can develop at any
age, and can be most prevalent in certain environments (e.g., at
school).
There is no definitive screening test for EBD. Therefore,
evaluation procedures vary by state, district, and school (Zirkel,
2011). A determining factor is whether a student's actions
interfere with his or her ability to achieve academically.
When a parent or teacher begins the referral process, they first

need to document behavior patterns, both appropriate and
inappropriate, to determine if an EBD is present. This
documentation can be gathered through direct observations of
the student or through checklists, interviews, or questionnaires
(Figure 4.1). The documentation of behavior should occur in a
variety of settings (e.g., in language arts class, algebra class,
and the cafeteria) over a number of days.
Figure 4.1: Behavioral Observation Checklist
When a teacher expresses concern about a student's behavior,
the teacher must gather information about the type of behavior
and how often the behavior occurs. In this behavior checklist,
the teacher can make tally marks under each behavior to
determine which ones occur most frequently. The teacher can
also gather data across multiple days. This information can be
presented to the evaluation team or to the student's family to
help show why an EBD evaluation might be necessary.
Diagnosis of EBD may also come from a medical or mental
health professional. The professional will typically consult the
DSM-IV to determine whether the student fulfills disability or
disorder criteria. The DSM-IV is helpful because it provides
professionals with a consistent way to diagnose students; the
diagnosis of disabilities or disorders should not vary from
professional to professional. (Note that a fifth edition of the
DSM is due for release in May of 2013.) Schools may also use
the criteria set forth in the DSM-IV to assist with the diagnosis
of students with EBD.
The IEP team decides where the student with EBD will receive
instruction. Approximately one-third of students will spend
most of their day in the general classroom, where they will
participate in the general curriculum with academic or
behavioral accommodations (Smith, Katsiyannis, & Ryan,
2011). Common accommodations for students with EBD might
include preferential seating (near the front of the classroom or

away from distractions), use of a timer for monitoring on-task
behavior, and use of a quiet area to calm down.
The other two-thirds of students may spend some of their time
in the general classroom and some of their time in a resource
room or self-contained environment. The IEP team may decide
to place a student with extreme behavior difficulties in a special
school or even an institution. Students who are placed in special
schools or institutions (e.g., psychiatric hospital) often have
severe emotional or behavioral disorders that may cause them to
harm others or themselves.
Many students with EBD take medications, such as
anticonvulsants, antidepressants, stimulants, and tranquilizers
(Quinn et al., 2000) to help control some of their EBD
characteristics. As discussed in Chapter 5, the choice about
medicating a student is made by the family and medical
professionals. The school does have a role, though. For
medications to work effectively, they must be taken as
prescribed, and the school must provide a way for the student to
safely take the medication during school hours when that is
required.
Response to Intervention
Response to Intervention (RTI), as you've learned, is
predominantly used to identify students with SLD who
experience academic difficulties. RTI can also be used to
identify students with behavioral difficulties who require
specialized support. As described in Chapter 3, RTI is based on
a tiered model of increasing levels of support and intervention
to reduce academic difficulties. In addition to mitigating
academic struggles of students with EBD, this model may be
helpful in designing interventions aimed at correcting student
behavior.
A typical RTI model for behavior includes three tiers (Maag &

Katsiyannis, 2008; Sayeski & Brown, 2011). Similar to RTI for
identification of SLD, schools must use evidence-based
practices across tiers, and monitoring the progress of student
behavior within these tiers helps teachers make decisions about
response and nonresponse to the programs at each tier. Students
who demonstrate inadequate growth or who do not meet
specified scores move to the next tier of support.
Tier 1
At Tier 1, which takes place in the general classroom, all
students participate in a behavior management program. One of
the most common programs with a strong research base is
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support (PBIS),
sometimes referred to as Positive Behavioral Support (PBS). In
PBIS, the school establishes rules for school behavior. The rules
are stated in positive language and are applicable across school
settings. PBIS focuses on rewarding students for demonstrating
good behavior rather than punishing students for bad behavior.
Often token economies or reward systems are a part of PBIS.
Token economies involve giving students tokens (e.g., poker
chips or stickers) for demonstrating good behavior. Students
collect their tokens for a reward, and tokens can be taken away
for unacceptable behavior. Reward systems give students
tangible or intangible rewards for good behavior.
Another example of a Tier 1 behavior management program is
the Good Behavior Game. Students should receive instruction
on the rules and expectations of the behavior management
program and understand the consequences for following or not
following the rules. Tier 1 interventions should be easy to
implement and help manage the behavior of most of the
students.
At the beginning of Tier 1, students are screened for possible
behavioral difficulty using rating scales (Kalberg, Lane, &
Menzies, 2010; Walker et al., 1994), such as the Strengths and

Difficulties Questionnaire, the Student Risk Screening Scale
(see Figure 4.2), or the Systematic Screening for Behavior
Disorders. Some schools use the number of office referrals for
discipline as a screening measure.
Figure 4.2: Student Risk Screening Scale
The Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS) can be used to help
identify students who might be at risk for EBD. On this scale,
the teacher rates each student on a number of problem
behaviors. Students with many scores of 2 and 3 may be
monitored further.
Students who seem to be at risk for behavioral difficulties
according to this screening then participate in Tier 1. Teachers
monitor each student's progress to determine response or
nonresponse. Teachers identify a target behavior and collect
data on the frequency of that behavior (Lee, Vostal, Lylo, &
Hua, 2011). For behaviors that do not occur often, teachers can
actually count the number of instances. For behaviors that occur
frequently, teachers may use momentary time sampling. A timer
is set at specific intervals (e.g., 30 seconds), and when it
signals, the teacher checks to see whether the student is
engaging in appropriate or inappropriate behavior. When
teachers summarize the data, they can identify trends and
interpret how to design interventions for the student.
After a pre-determined amount of time (e.g., 4–6 weeks),
teachers look at the data to determine whether students have
demonstrated adequate response at Tier 1. Students who have
demonstrated an increase in positive behaviors or a decrease in
negative behaviors, or students who meet specified scores, will
remain in Tier 1. Their teachers may implement behavioral
accommodations, but the student does not require additional
programs or intervention. Students who do not demonstrate an
adequate increase in good behavior or decrease in negative
behavior begin receiving the additional support of Tier 2.

Tier 2
Students who demonstrate that they need additional behavioral
support begin receiving secondary intervention in Tier 2. This is
a second program that the teacher starts in addition to the Tier 1
behavior program. Tier 2 intervention occurs in the student's
regular classroom, and the student is not pulled out of class to
receive additional instruction. Typically, the teacher develops a
program or system for helping the student improve one to three
frequent behaviors (Maag & Katsiyannis, 2008).
Some common Tier 2 behavior management techniques include
individual or group token economies, behavior contracts, or
daily report cards (Sayeski & Brown, 2011). The teacher may
instruct students on appropriate social skills or problem solving
in tricky situations.
Teachers continually monitor student progress to see if these
secondary behavioral techniques improve student behavior.
Students who demonstrate an adequate increase in good
behavior or a decline in undesired behaviors do not need
additional support. These students may continue to use their
Tier 2 behavior strategy or the teacher may phase this out.
Students who continue to demonstrate undesired behaviors
move to Tier 3.
Tier 3
Students who reach Tier 3 should undergo a Functional
Behavioral Assessment (FBA) that leads to the development of
a Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP). Sometimes the FBA is also
called a Functional Behavioral Analysis. An FBA and BIP can
be used within or outside of an RTI framework.
Often, Tier 3 is conceptualized as special education for the
student. The FBA determines the individual behavioral triggers
for the student, and the BIP provides specific detail about how a

student will work toward IEP goals. At Tier 3, progress is
monitored in the same way as in Tier 1 or Tier 2. Teachers
gather data about the number of behavioral occurrences and
determine whether the student is making adequate progress
toward meeting their IEP goals.
Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention
Plan
Although the FBA is not named specifically in IDEA 2004, the
1997 and 2004 reauthorizations suggest such assessments be
conducted for students with EBD (Zirkel, 2011). The purpose of
the FBA is to determine the antecedents, setting, specific
events, and consequences of a student's inappropriate behavior
(Regan, 2009). Identification of the antecedents (the events
preceding a behavior) foster an understanding of the causes of a
behavior. The FBA measures a target behavior over time, which
allows the IEP team to identify behavior patterns and
disruptions. This data informs a student's BIP.
A BIP consolidates the information gathered from the FBA to
identify a target behavior and develop an intervention. This plan
aims to correct student misbehavior by teaching and reinforcing
a desired behavior. A BIP is highly individualized, builds off
student strengths and motivations, and often incorporates
positive reinforcement. With positive reinforcement, teachers
give students tangible or intangible rewards when they
demonstrate specific behaviors (e.g., remaining seated at an
assembly) or meet behavioral goals (e.g., raising hand to answer
questions during a 20-minute class period). (See Figure 4.3 for
examples of an FBA and a BIP.)
The goal of behavior intervention is to correct inappropriate
actions while building lasting desirable habits for students.
Similar to academic IEP goals, the BIP sets measurable goals
for frequency and/or accuracy of the desired behavior. Progress
towards goals is monitored and communicated regularly among
all members of the IEP team, including the student. Appropriate

corrections and incentives are designated in the BIP so student
behaviors can be reinforced consistently.
Figure 4.3: FBA and BIP
An FBA (a) helps teachers understand what triggers the
behavior of a student, and the BIP (b) is developed to help
improve the behavior of a student.
When Are Students Diagnosed?
Emotional or behavioral difficulties may surface at any time for
students, especially if home or school factors are contributors to
the EBD. For many students, their EBD begins in early
childhood and is present throughout adulthood. Students who
demonstrate inappropriate behavior in preschool, for example,
do not typically "outgrow" these behaviors. Some of the
disorders classified as EBD, such as schizophrenia, anorexia
nervosa, or bulimia nervosa, do not usually surface until
puberty. Thus, diagnosis of an EBD can occur during any period
of a student's school career or life (Quinn et al., 2000),
typically when the difficulties come to the attention of parents,
school staff, or medical professionals.
4.6 How Does EBD Differ Across Grade Levels?
While certain characteristics of EBD are common across grade
levels, others generally emerge later or change over time. As
students mature, the strategies they can learn and implement for
themselves, along with those that educators can implement, may
become more sophisticated. When students are ready to
transition out of the public school system, the length of time
that they have been practicing self-regulation and other
strategies, along with the support system that they and their
team have planned, is crucial for success in the postsecondary
world.
Early Childhood
Young children can exhibit extreme behaviors (e.g., throwing

tantrums, biting, hitting) that are indicative of EBD, regardless
of an official diagnosis. All students in early childhood
classrooms need to be explicitly taught social skills and have
correct behaviors frequently reinforced. Students at this age
may require significant modeling and frequent feedback on their
behavior. The need for modeling and feedback is particularly
important for young students with EBD, as they will be
experiencing working in groups and following directions from
teachers for the first time in their lives.
For students to understand and learn to manage an EBD, they
first need to recognize when they are getting upset, shutting
down (i.e., beginning to stop listening to the teacher), or
experiencing frustration. Once students and teachers can
identify the triggers of these behaviors, they can work to
increase awareness of when these triggers occur. This process
can begin as early as preschool, when students may first
demonstrate extreme responses to teacher directions and
consequences.
While students may not be able to fully engage in this cause-
effect thought process independently, helping students with
awareness of what causes certain behaviors can be beneficial for
helping them cope in the moment and later in their schooling.
Additionally, students should begin learning coping strategies
to use when they feel angry, overwhelmed, or frustrated.
As with many of the other disabilities, early intervention is
important for students with EBD. If preschools begin working
with students with EBD, students learn how to monitor and alter
their behavior when faced with certain situations (e.g., a
classmate taking the student's marker). The earlier students
learn how to appropriately act in school situations, the more
likely it is that their social skills and friendships will improve,
as well as their academic skills (because they can participate
fully in classroom instruction).

Elementary School
As a student encounters the multiple classrooms, teachers, and
grade levels of elementary school, an EBD may become more
evident.
The severity of the EBD and the student's ability to self-
regulate and respond to the environment help the IEP team
determine the appropriate educational setting for the student. As
previously mentioned, some students with EBD receive all
instruction in the general education classroom, whereas others
may spend some or all of their school day in a resource or self-
contained classroom.
At the elementary level, teachers need to establish a classroom
management system that promotes positive behavior and allows
for the teacher to conduct lessons in the classroom without
interruption. Teachers should explicitly model positive and
negative behaviors so students understand behavioral
expectations. For example, a teacher may demonstrate how to
walk to the classroom's carpet area and sit with legs crossed.
The teacher may demonstrate a non-example by running to the
carpet and lying down belly-first. With these demonstrations,
students understand how (and how not) to do something in the
classroom. With all behavior in the elementary classroom,
teachers need to provide positive feedback or redirection on
undesired behaviors.
Secondary School
Students in secondary school are usually more aware of their
specific EBD, any triggers or antecedents, and effective coping
mechanisms. Secondary students should work to actively self-
regulate and manage their behavior. They will most likely still
need modeling and feedback on behavior, but this may be less
frequent than in earlier grades.

BIPs for secondary school students may include behavior goals
that can be transferred beyond classroom instruction. It is very
important for adolescent students to demonstrate socially
appropriate behavior in non-academic settings. Failure to do so
can limit employment opportunities, placement in advanced
high school courses, and transition to higher education. Extreme
misbehavior may lead to criminal actions, which severely limit
students' educational and life opportunities. To mitigate this
risk, students must actively learn to manage their EBD, and
secondary school teachers must support them in that process.
Transition
Transition planning is especially important for students with
EBD, considering the relationship between behavior and
academics. Without appropriate intervention, students with EBD
tend to have lower grades, more course and grade failures, and a
higher dropout rate than students with other disability types
(Wood & Cronin, 1999). Over the last decade, postsecondary
outcomes continue to remain dismal (Zigmond, 2006). Failure to
develop basic skills in school contributes to employment
difficulties, access to postsecondary education, troubled
personal relationships, and high rate of involvement with the
criminal justice system (Bradley, Doolittle, & Bartolotta, 2008).
Ensuring students with EBD experience behavioral and
academic achievement in school is critical to improving their
postsecondary outcomes. In addition to the effective
instructional practices listed in this chapter, transition planning
can help students, family members, and educators prepare for
ongoing success. There are several factors to consider when
designing a transition plan for students with EBD, and a variety
of models to guide this process. Transition models should
include evidence-based academic interventions, increased
access to vocational training and exploration, support across
postsecondary transitions, and strong partnerships and supports
with families (Lane & Carter, 2006).
Tips for the General Classroom

Teachers can use the Transition to Independence Process (TIP)
to help students transition from high school to living
independently as adults (Karpur, Clark, Caproni, & Sterner,
2005):
Engage young people through relationship development, person-
centered planning, and a focus on their future;
Tailor services and supports to be accessible, coordinated,
developmentally appropriate, and build on strengths to enable
young people to pursue their goals across all the transition
domains;
Acknowledge and develop personal choice and social
responsibility;
Ensure a safety net of support by involving a young person's
parents, family members, and other informal and formal key
players;
Enhance a young person's competencies to assist him or her in
achieving greater self-sufficiency and confidence;
Maintain an outcome focus in the TIP system at the individual,
program, and community levels; and
Involve the individual, parents, and other community partners in
the TIP system at the practice, program, and community levels.
Explicit instruction in social, vocational, academic, and self-
determination skills can increase independence and
opportunities for employment for students with EBD (Carter &
Lunsford, 2005). Transition plans should also include
appropriate service providers, including social services and
mental health counselors. College-bound students with EBD
should have a plan that includes building relationships with
course instructors, engaging in the campus community, and
accessing available support resources (e.g., psychological
counseling) (Cooper & Pruitt, 2005). Strategic planning
increases the likelihood that students with EBD will complete
high school and successfully transition to their desired
postsecondary opportunities.
4.7 How Do I Teach Students With EBD?

Teachers of students of any age with EBD must work to identify
the antecedents of student behavior to help mitigate
inappropriate actions. A teacher's ultimate role is to balance the
management of incorrect behaviors with teaching and
reinforcing appropriate ones. Students of all ages benefit from
clear and consistent expectations, routines, and communication.
Evidence-based practices should be used whenever available
(Farley, Torres, Wailehua, & Cook, 2012). Modeling desired
behavior, providing ongoing positive reinforcement, and
consistently responding to inappropriate behavior are general
strategies appropriate for all grade levels. Classroom
management techniques can also be tailored for students with
EBD.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, students with EBD often
struggle with academic performance. Thus, many of the
strategies in Chapter 3 for teaching students with SLD may also
help students with EBD. This section discusses common
classroom management strategies, including management
techniques for classroom rules, routines, and organization. It
also covers co-teaching, peer tutoring, and teaching self-
regulation and problem-solving strategies, along with focusing
on the positive. It concludes with a section on Applied
Behavioral Analysis. Many of these strategies either require the
teacher to create a positive and organized learning environment
or the student to learn to control their behavior in a manageable
way—or both.
Classroom Management Strategies
Good classroom management, an important component of every
teacher's classroom, is even more important in a classroom with
students who have EBD. Good management does not necessarily
mean being a strict or harsh teacher. Rather, it indicates that the
classroom runs efficiently, has clear and consistent routines,
and has behavioral expectations that the students know. In fact,
management techniques that are punishment-based rather than

positive-reinforcement-based are often ineffective for
improving the behavior outcomes of students. Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Support (PBIS), mentioned earlier
in this chapter, is one technique for improving classroom
management. Establishing routines with clear cues, as well as
carefully organizing physical space and instruction plans, can
also contribute to a well-run classroom.
PBIS
PBIS should be implemented school-wide so that all teachers
and staff understand how to approach behavior management
within the school. Its focus is on positive rules and behaviors.
Teachers are supposed to catch the students demonstrating good
behaviors and reward them with praise or a reward. For
example, a teacher might say, "I like how Lucas placed his book
under his desk," or "Thank you, Lily, for raising your hand."
The teacher should avoid saying, "Elizabeth, your books don't
go on the floor," or "Don't shout out the answer, Caleb."
The school designs an approach to management of behavior.
Usually, a few rules or expectations— typically three to five—
are developed and implemented across school settings. Teachers
receive training on teaching these rules and how to reward
students who follow the rules. Each set of rules or expectations
is positively stated, and informs students how to act or what to
do. Some examples of rules are the following:
Respect yourself; respect others; respect property.
Be safe; be responsible; be respectful.
Respect relationships; respect responsibilities.
These expectations are used not only in the classroom but also
in school assemblies, on the school bus, on a field trip, at the
playground, in gym class, and in the restroom. They can be used
across the entire school or the entire district. Teachers should
provide students with examples for following the expectations
while participating in different activities during the school day.

For younger students, it might be helpful to have pictures that
accompany the rules (Jolivette & Steed, 2010) to show them
what each appropriate behavior looks like.
One way to help students understand school rules and routines
is to have the teachers and students create videos that illustrate
examples and non-examples for behavior within the school or
community. Students play a major role in the acting or
producing of these videos and make them more meaningful and
interactive.
Teachers and staff need to have a policy for dealing with
instances when students choose not to follow the school rules.
Everyone should react in a similar manner. For example, if a
student hits another student, all teachers should know that the
consequence of hitting is an immediate referral to the office. If
a student throws trash on the floor, all teachers should deal with
this infraction within the classroom in a similar manner.
Classroom Routines and Cues
In addition to implementing PBIS, teachers must establish
classroom routines and cues. When students know how to walk
from their desks to the carpet area for "daily calendar," for
example, or when students know where to turn in their algebra
homework, teachers can spend more time focused on instruction
rather than on transitions and enforcing rules.
Classroom routines should include how students should respond
in certain situations. For example, when students are working in
small groups or independently, the teacher should develop cues
for having the entire class get back together. A teacher may
flicker the classroom lights or clap her hands. Some teachers
will set a timer and ask all students to have finished an activity
by the time it beeps. A teacher can count backward from 5 to 1,
which gives students an opportunity to put their materials away
and be ready for the next task. Whichever strategy the teacher

chooses, he will have to "teach" students how this strategy
works. In addition, the teacher must use the strategy
consistently and have clear consequences for infringements.
It is helpful, when delivering instruction, for teachers to move
around within the classroom (Musser, Bray, Kehle, & Jenson,
2001). A teacher who sits at a desk and expects students to
remain on-task is tacitly permitting students to get off-task.
When a teacher is walking around, students are more likely to
focus on the teacher, and they do not have the time or
opportunity to daydream or act out. If a student's behavior starts
to diverge from expectations, the teacher can glance at or
refocus the student by pointing to the board or to the student's
work. Teachers who move around the classroom also gather
information on how students are doing with a lesson or work.
Classroom Organization
Appropriate organization of the physical classroom space may
help students with EBD. A classroom that is highly organized
(e.g., desks in rows, all textbooks on the blue shelf) is less
distracting and enables students to focus on instruction
(Mundschenk, Miner, & Nastally, 2011).
Instruction also should be organized in a way that allows
students to know what to expect (Cancio & Conderman, 2008).
For example, teachers should always state the goal of a lesson,
teach by building upon previously-learned knowledge, and have
a review at the end of the lesson. Teachers should also consider
the pace at which they deliver their lessons. Sometimes teachers
slow instruction down, thinking that lower-performing students
need slower instruction, but that is not the case. A lesson that is
delivered at a brisk pace keeps students' attention and provides
fewer opportunities for off-task behavior (Archer & Hughes,
2011).
Teachers may find it helpful to break longer units or projects

into smaller, more manageable tasks. When students can
complete a task and feel a sense of accomplishment, they may
be more willing to dive into the next task. Teachers should also
think about establishing priorities for instruction. What are the
three or four most important components of a unit that students
must learn? Focusing on a few, instead of 20 or 30, components
may help students with their academic performance, which, in
turn, may positively affect their behavior.
Co-Teaching
Co-teaching can be a helpful strategy when students with EBD
are in the general classroom (McDuffie, Landrum, & Gelman,
2008). When teachers work together and are well trained in
effective co-teaching strategies, the academic performance of
students can improve and instances of inappropriate behavior
can decrease. Typically, when students are actively involved in
a lesson, students have fewer opportunities to be off-task. Also,
with two adults in the classroom who are constantly monitoring
and interacting with the class, undesirable student behavior can
be redirected quickly.
Peer Tutoring
Another useful strategy for teaching EBD students in the
general classroom is peer tutoring (Bowman-Perrott, 2009),
which pairs students to work on academic skills. Peer tutoring
can be used in any content area at elementary, middle, or high
school grade levels. Typically, one student will "coach" the
other as they are reading, doing math problems, or working on
an activity. The coach provides feedback, and both students get
an opportunity to be the coach during the lesson.
For peer tutoring to be effective, the teachers need to provide
appropriate training for the students as to how to properly serve
as a peer tutor. Peer tutoring works because students have to
teach, explain, and think about concepts in different ways to
express them.

One peer tutoring program, Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies
(PALS), has been proven to help students with disabilities
(McMaster, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2007). With the reading version of
PALS, students work in pairs to work on basic reading skills,
such as letter sounds and sight words. At older grade levels,
students can read books about any content (e.g., science,
history, fiction), and students in the pair read to one another,
make predictions about what they will read next, and provide
conclusions about the reading.
With the math version of PALS, the pair works step-by-step
through math problems. When one student makes a mistake, the
coach helps the partner by "teaching" the student. This teaching
helps the partner who made the mistake understand why it
happened, and it helps the coach because the coach has to work
on explaining something in his or her own words.
Several variations of peer tutoring are useful in the classroom
(Ryan, Pierce, & Mooney, 2008). Peer modeling is a variation in
which students demonstrate desired behaviors to students who
need help with these behaviors. Observing peers doing
something correctly is almost always more helpful than a
teacher just talking about it. For example, if Malik is having
difficulty walking to the cafeteria (without running), his
classmate Jaquan may show Malik how to walk out of the
classroom, down the hallway, down the stairs, and into the
cafeteria by walking.
Students can also participate in cross-age tutoring, in which
students from different grade levels tutor one another. Usually
students are at least two grade levels apart. The older student in
the pair takes on the role of teacher, and the younger student
benefits from the one-on-one attention, teaching, and immediate
feedback provided by the older student.
Teaching Self-Regulation

Teaching students self regulation, that is, to monitor their own
academic progress and behavior in the classroom, is an
important strategy for students with EBD (Lane, Graham, &
Harris, 2006). In learning self-regulation, students first learn to
set goals. They then learn how to self-instruct, self-monitor, and
self-reinforce (Sandmel et al., 2009). For example, a student
may set a goal to write an introductory paragraph. One of their
self-instructions may be to "Take my time." The student may
self-monitor by asking "Did I include all the sentences?" Self-
reinforcement may have the student saying "I like the first
sentence." Like other strategies for students with EBD, self-
regulation is positive and puts much of the responsibility for
learning on the student.
One way to help students monitor their behavior is through
consequence maps (Tobin & Simpson, 2012), a visual
presentation that illustrates two courses of action that students
can use when they feel a certain way or when they do something
(Figure 4.4). On the consequence map, the trigger is on the left
side. Desirable behaviors are shown on the top track of the map;
undesirable behaviors are on the bottom track of the map.
Consequence maps can help a student understand what may
occur as a result of his actions, and help him make positive
choices to regulate behavior. They are typically developed by
the teacher, sometimes with student input. Many consequence
maps for common situations for students with EBD can be found
on the internet.
Figure 4.4: Consequence Map
If a student is angry and wants to hit someone, this consequence
map can help the student work through the consequences that
will be based on their decisions. The map shows the student
consequences for desired and undesired behaviors.
Teaching Problem-Solving Strategies

Some students who are older or more mature can go a step
beyond consequence maps and be taught problem-solving
strategies to help monitor their behavior and make wise choices
(Cook, 2005).
Once students understand their triggers, they can use the DIRT
mnemonic to help them work through a trigger:
Define the problem.
Identify appropriate choices.
Reflect on the choices (i.e., make a choice).
Try it out.
Students need to practice problem-solving strategies, including
DIRT, under supervision before they can employ them on their
own. To teach students how to use DIRT to work through
different situations, a teacher can set up role playing
experiences, conduct the role play, and debrief the students
about whether they made the best choices in that situation.
For example, Courtney is a seventh-grade student with EBD.
She has difficulty following teacher directions when an
academic task is challenging. In Courtney's science class, her
teacher begins to administer a test. Courtney gets really
frustrated with a reading passage on the test, and she wants to
throw the test off her desk. Instead, she uses DIRT to problem-
solve her course of action. Courtney thinks:
Define the problem. "This test is really hard. I might fail."
Identify appropriate choices. "I could take the test, or I could go
and tell Mrs. VanWert that I am frustrated about the reading on
the test."
Reflect on the choices (i.e., make a choice). "I will go talk to
Mrs. VanWert and see if she can help me with the reading part."
Try it out. Courtney raises her hand and talks to Mrs. VanWert.
Positive Reinforcement
Remaining positive is particularly important when working with

students with EBD (Musser et al., 2001) because these students
often receive a lot of negative attention, which rarely helps the
student or improves a situation. When teachers use positive
reinforcement, they focus on acknowledging (i.e., reinforcing)
when students use desirable (i.e., positive) behaviors.
The following are some examples of positive ways teachers can
interact with students with EBD:
Develop positive teacher and student rapport. Treat all students
with respect, and develop a trusting relationship with each
student.
Use positive class rules. It is always better to tell students what
they can do rather than what they cannot do (Table 4.2).
Positively stated rules provide students with an idea of how
they should act.
Table 4.2: Examples and Non-examples of Classroom Rules
Examples of positive rules
Non-examples of positive rules
Be prompt.
Don't be late for class.
Raise your hand.
No shouting answers.
Treat others with kindness.
Don't be mean to others.
Walk in the hallway.
No running.
Respect the property of others.
Do not touch other people's stuff.
Keep hands to yourself.
No pinching or biting.
Listen while others are speaking.
No talking.
Use the word please. If a student is off-task, a teacher should
say, "Martin, please return to your seat." The teacher should

give the student a few seconds to comply with the request
before stating the request more directly. If the student does not
comply, the teacher might say, "Martin, you need to return to
your seat." These directions are positive yet direct.
Use the word do instead of don't. Like class rules, it is better
for students to hear "Do keep your hands to yourself," instead
of "Don't touch your neighbor." Often, when students hear a
"don't" statement, it is almost a challenge for them to follow
through with the "don't" action.
Provide positive reinforcement when appropriate. Students may
receive reinforcement in several ways, including verbal praise,
gestures, privileges, and tangible rewards, as shown in Table
4.3 (Jolivette & Steed, 2010; Kern, Delaney, Clarke, Dunlap, &
Childs, 2001).
Table 4.3: Methods and Examples of Positive Reinforcement
Methods
Examples
Verbal praise. Students should be told what they did well.
"I like how you turned in your assignment quickly and quietly."
"Excellent work solving that ratio problem."
"Thank you for coming to me when you felt bullied at
lunchtime."
Gestures. Students can be given a signal for praise.
Thumbs up.
High five.
Smile.
Privilege. Students can earn a privilege for
appropriate behavior.
"You earn 5 extra minutes of recess."
"You can work with a buddy on this project."
"You can complete the rest of your essay in the library."
Tangible reward. Students earn a small
prize or something that is meaningful to them.
"You can pick a prize out of the class treasure box."
"You earn two tokens."
"You get a partner-of-the-day pencil."

Allow students to make choices (Green, Mays, & Jolivette,
2011). When students get to make choices, they feel like they
have more ownership over what they do during the school day,
and that often leads to positive academic gains and behavior.
The choices are always designated by the teacher beforehand.
For example, students may get to choose whether they go
outside for recess or play in the classroom, or they may get a
choice of working the even-numbered or odd-numbered
problems in their geometry textbook.
Use a Daily Report Card. A Daily Report Card (Figure 4.5) is a
behavioral report that is sent home each day to report on and
monitor a student's targeted behavior (Vannest, Davis, Davis,
Mason, & Burke, 2010). The Daily Report Card is an excellent
way to keep open the lines of communication between school
and home.
Figure 4.5: Daily Report Card
A Daily Report Card is filled out by writing in specific
behaviors for a student on the blank lines.
Make a behavioral contract. The teacher and student might
create a behavioral contract (Figure 4.6) that identifies and
explains how to track progress on a targeted behavior and spells
out the rewards that accompany success in adhering to the
targeted behavior (Cook, 2005). Sometimes, the parent is also
involved in the development and maintenance of a behavioral
contract.
Figure 4.6: Behavioral Contract
This contract, between a student and his teacher, outlines the
behaviors that are expected of the student, how behavior will be
measured, and how the student will be rewarded for meeting
expectations.
Use Check In–Check Out (CICO). With CICO, the student
checks in with a teacher at the beginning of the school day,
receives feedback on behavior during the day, and then checks

out with the teacher at the end of the day. The interaction with
the teacher is positive, and students usually earn points for
appropriate behavior and work toward rewards (Todd,
Campbell, Meyer, & Horner, 2008). Some teachers may actually
use CICO multiple times with a student during the school day.
The teacher might ask, "Did you eat breakfast this morning?";
"How did your algebra test go?"; "Do you have the money you
need to go on the field trip?"
Rewarding Desired Behavior
When students demonstrate appropriate behaviors, it is
important to provide positive consequences, or rewards.
Rewards are not necessarily a physical prize and may be
tangible or intangible. There are many ways to reward desired
behaviors (Table 4.4):
Use a "mystery motivator." Place a picture or a written
motivator in an envelope (Musser et al., 2001). For example, if
a student likes playing a game on a computer tablet, the mystery
motivator might be a picture of a tablet or the words, "You get
10 minutes on the tablet!" If the student completes an
assignment or participates in an activity properly, she gets to
open the envelope and receive the mystery motivator.
Use a token economy. Students earn tickets or tokens when they
follow rules and meet expectations. These tokens can be earned
individually or with a group and used to collect tangible or
intangible rewards (Anderson & Spaulding, 2007).
Table 4.4: Tangible and Intangible Rewards
For individual students
For groups of students
Tangibles
Intangibles
Tangibles
Intangibles
Balloon
Certificate
Eraser

Gift certificate
Highlighter
Notebook
Pen
Pencils
Ribbon
School memorabilia
Sidewalk chalk
Stamp
Stickers
Toy
Call home (with student present)
Class activity
Class game
Extra time
First to line up
Lunch with teacher
"No homework" pass
Note home
Office helper
Sit near friend
Special seat
Field trip
Movie
Pizza party
Call home
Choice of activity
Class activity
Class game
Class recognition at assembly
Extra 5 minutes of activity
Hold class outside
Listen to music
Lunch outside
Monthly movie
Note home

Providing Consequences for Undesired Behavior
Like desired behaviors, undesired behaviors also should have
consequences, in this case to redirect the behavior. Some
behaviors (e.g., smacking another student) merit immediate
consequence. Other behaviors may receive delayed
consequences (e.g., refusing to participate in a class activity).
Whether the consequence is immediate or delayed typically
depends upon the severity of the behavior. For example, hitting
another student is completely unacceptable, and while the
teacher should want all students to participate in the lesson, the
teacher may need to address the student's noncompliance before
class ends.
Teachers should outline these consequences as they are creating
their classroom management plan. It is much easier to be
proactive in planning contingencies than to react in the moment.
Also, it is best if the entire school has contingency plans that all
teachers are aware of and can implement school-wide.
Here are some examples of consequences for undesired
behaviors:
Time out. The student goes to a designated space (either in the
teacher's classroom or another area of the school) to reflect
upon his or her actions. Time out should be used sparingly or
else the practice loses effectiveness. A teacher should always
monitor a student who is in time out.
Time out and reflection. When a teacher requests a student to do
something and the student refuses, the teacher may send the
student to another classroom with another teacher (Benner,
Nelson, Sanders, & Ralston, 2012). In the other classroom, the
student is directed to reflect upon the behavior. The regular
classroom teacher then debriefs the student in a discussion
about the antecedents and the behavior. Sometimes the student
may write about his or her feelings or experience before

returning to the regular classroom.
Office referral. The student goes to the office to meet with the
principal or staff member who is in charge of discipline. Office
referrals should be a last resort for behavior difficulties, or they
should be used in cases of extreme behavior, such as hitting,
kicking, or biting. Students may also be sent to the office if
they threaten the teacher or other students.
Academic Strategies
Many of the strategies for students with SLD may help students
with EBD improve their classroom performance. In addition, the
strategies in Table 4.5 may be useful.
Table 4.5: Academic Strategies for Students with EBD
Strategy
Explanation
Example
Computer-assisted instruction
Students interact with a computer program that
teaches or practices a skill.
Students have the opportunity to review or practice
skills (e.g., vocabulary, multiplication, identification
of U.S. states) in an interactive way that holds
student attention.
Copy, cover, compare
Students view information, cover the information
and answer, and then check for accuracy.
The student views the math fact on a flash card:
9 x6 = 54. The student covers the fact. On a separate
sheet of paper, the student fills in the answer 54.
Then, the student looks back at the flash card and
compares answers.
Corrective feedback
Students benefit from feedback that is provided
immediately and helps them understand a mistake and correct it.
The teacher sees a misspelled word, points to the
word, and asks the student about a specific spelling

rule (e.g., dropping "y" when adding a suffix).
Mnemonics
Students use a mnemonic to help them remember
how to complete an activity or solve a problem.
A student uses the mnemonic PEMDAS(parentheses,
exponents, multiply, divide, add,subtract) to solve a
math problem.
Previewing
Students get a chance to preview materials before
working on the material. This helps students focus
and organize their thinking around the topic.
A teacher lets a student look over a test and ask
clarifying questions before taking the test.
Prompting
The teacher provides verbal or non
verbal prompts(i.e., cues) to help the student stay on-
task oranswer a question.
A teacher may point to a question in the student's
textbook, or the teacher may rephrase a question.
Response cards
Students use a card, sign, or item and hold it up to
display response to a question.
Students have a "true" card and a "false" card.When
the teacher asks, "The Civil War took place inthe 20th
century," students hold up the appropriate card.
Allowing student toretake a test
Students who are now familiar with the test layoutand test conte
nt get an opportunity to take the test again.
Students get a second opportunity to take fractions
test and try to beat their previous score.
Story mapping
Students map out the important parts to a story orpassage. Often
, students use a graphic organizer for the mapping
(Figure 4.7).
Students use a graphic organizer to represent the
who, what, when, where, and why of a reading

passage.
Taped read-alongs
Students listen to a taped voice while they read
along in a book or reading selection.
Students listen to A Tree Grows in Brooklyn.
Adjusting task difficulty
The teacher changes the mastery level of a task to
the student's level.
A student may have to master 80% of questions
instead of 90%. Alternatively, a student may read a
slightly easier version of text on the same topic.
Figure 4.7: Graphic Organizer
This hamburger, which is an example of a graphic organizer,
provides students with a way to organize their thoughts when
they are writing a paragraph. Students write the main idea of the
paragraph on the top bun. Then they write supporting sentences
on the hamburger and toppings. Finally, students write a
conclusion on the bottom bun.
Powell, S. R., & Driver, M. K. (2013). Working with
exceptional students: An introduction to special
education[Electronic version]. Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/
3.1 What Is a Specific Learning Disability?
A specific learning disability (SLD) is a disorder in one or more
of the basic psychological processes (i.e., thinking, problem
solving, remembering) used in receiving, understanding,
storing, and responding to information. It affects the academic
skills of a student, so students with an SLD may struggle with
reading, writing, spelling, mathematics, listening, or speaking—
or with more than one of these skills.

Defining SLD
Struggling with writing or listening, or with math or reading,
does not necessarily indicate that a student has an SLD. In fact,
at some point, almost every student will struggle with one of
these skills. It is when the difficulties are severe enough to
interfere with learning in the classroom that a student may be
diagnosed with an SLD.
A student cannot be diagnosed with an SLD if his or her
difficulty mainly stems from visual, hearing, or motor
disabilities, rather than disorders in psychological processes.
Unlike some disabilities, such as deafness or physical
disabilities, an SLD is not visible. This makes it more difficult
to know which students may have an SLD.
Students with SLD must have average or above average
intelligence (i.e., a student with SLD cannot have an intellectual
disability). The student's SLD, however, inhibits acquisition of
new knowledge or skills and contributes to performance below
that of students without an SLD.
A student with an SLD needs to access information in a
different way than students without SLD. Researchers have
demonstrated that students with SLD benefit tremendously from
small-group or individualized instruction (e.g., Swanson, 2001;
Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000). However, even with effective
instruction, an SLD does not disappear; a student can learn to
successfully adapt, but there is no "cure."
As you will learn throughout this book, many students have
more than one disability. The most prevalent comorbid
disability (a disability that occurs at the same time) for students
with SLD is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, or ADHD
(see Chapter 5). Almost half of students with SLD also have a
diagnosis of ADHD (Pastor & Reuben, 2008).

SLD and IDEA 2004
In IDEA 2004, which includes SLD as one of 13 disability
categories, specific learning disability is defined as "a disorder
in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which
disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical
calculations." To have an SLD under IDEA 2004, students must
demonstrate difficulty in one or more of the following areas:
Oral expression—the ability to express your thoughts and needs
by talking; for example, asking questions in class or talking
with a student at lunchtime.
Listening comprehension—the ability to understand information
presented orally; for example, answering an oral question or
lining up at the door when the teacher verbally prompts.
Written expression—the ability to express thoughts and needs
by writing; for example, writing a persuasive essay or
answering questions by writing.
Basic reading skill—the ability to understand the relationships
between letters, sounds, and words; for example, using
knowledge of letter sounds /c/ /a/ /t/ to sound out the word cat
or recognizing that a makes different sounds (e.g., apple is
different from ate).
Reading comprehension—the ability to understand information
presented in text; for example, explaining the action of a
sentence or retelling a story after reading it.
Mathematics calculation—the ability to perform mathematical
tasks with operations; for example, solving 24 + 57, or 1 1/4 –
1/2, or 129 ÷ 13, or counting to 100 by 3s.
Mathematics reasoning—the ability to solve mathematical
problems presented within different contexts; for example,
solving word problems or understanding geometric proofs.
As you can see, SLD are categorized into difficulties in
language, reading, and mathematics skills. Those related to

reading are the most often diagnosed (Fletcher, 2005; Wanzek &
Kent, 2012).
According to IDEA 2004, students cannot be diagnosed with an
SLD if the root cause of their difficulty can be pinpointed to
one of the following:
Visual, hearing, or motor disability (e.g., deafness, visual
impairment, spina bifida)
Intellectual disability (i.e., low intellectual functioning)
Emotional disturbance (e.g., anxiety disorder, conduct disorder)
Cultural factors (i.e., the student's cultural background is quite
different from the school, and the student has not had many
opportunities to learn within the school's culture)
Environmental or economic disadvantage (e.g., the student has
moved schools four times in a school year, or the student lives
in extreme poverty with little access to food, or the student was
involved in a car accident and missed 60 days of school)
Limited English proficiency (i.e., the student's first language is
not English, and the student is still learning English)
Some schools use more formal terms to describe SLD. The
following are names for disabilities that might fall under the
category of SLD:
Dyslexia: A language and reading disability that causes students
to struggle with reading and writing.
Dyscalculia: A mathematics disability that causes students to
struggle with understanding mathematical concepts and
completing mathematical tasks.
Dysgraphia: A writing disability that causes students to write
illegibly.
Dysphasia or Aphasia: A disorder related to difficulties
understanding spoken language and poor reading comprehension
that causes students to struggle with communication and
understanding.
Central Auditory Processing Disorder: A disorder of processing

and remembering tasks that are related to language.
Visual Perceptual or Visual Motor Deficit: A deficit related to
reversal of letters, inability to copy, or losing place in text.
Prevalence of SLD
SLD affects approximately 5% of school-age students (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Some researchers
(Geary, 2004; Shalev, 2004), however, believe the rate to be
slightly higher, because diagnostic criteria for SLD vary by
state, which leads to a wide variability in the reported number
of students with SLD in schools (approximately 3% in Kentucky
to almost 9.5% in Rhode Island). IDEA 2004 now allows
Response to Intervention (RTI) as an alternative method of SLD
diagnosis, and policymakers and researchers believe this may
lead to a decrease in the percentages of students diagnosed with
SLD, particularly as teachers use more evidence-based
practices.
Boys are diagnosed with SLD more often than girls (see Figure
5.1); this is likely due to identification methods (Siegel &
Smythe, 2005). For example, Siegel and Smythe (2005) tested a
large number of students over several years. The number of
boys and girls who performed low on the academic assessment
was the same. In schools, however, where tests are administered
to determine SLD status, boys may have a more difficult time
with the tests—or perhaps teachers are more likely to notice
boys struggling with an academic task because they often "act
out" more than girls (Limbrick, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011).
3.2 How Has the SLD Field Evolved?
Until the middle of the 20th century, students with SLD were
often considered to be lazy and underachieving; some students
were categorized as having mental retardation (intellectual
disability). Some of these students were educated in special
schools or institutions, but many were excluded from any school
at all. In the late 19th century, the initial work with students
with learning disabilities centered on students who
demonstrated average intelligence but struggled with reading

and writing—in other words, those with SLD.
One of the earliest pioneers who differentiated learning
disabilities from mental retardation (now called intellectual
disability) was a German physician, Adolph Kussmaul.
Kussmaul was the first physician to write about signs of heart
disease and diabetic comas, and he also developed an interest in
language disorders. In 1877, he wrote about patients with an
inability to form sentences and patients with "word blindness"
who could read and speak but not understand spoken language
(Lawrence, 2009).
Another German physician, Oswald Berkhan, described patients
with difficulty reading and comprehending text in 1881. Six
years later, another German physician, Rudolf Berlin, formally
coined the term dyslexia after he worked with a patient who
demonstrated normal intelligence but could not read or write. At
the turn of the 20th century, others (e.g., William Evans Bruner,
James Hinshelwood, and W. Pringle Morgan) wrote about
students with apparent learning disabilities and methods to help
such students (Courtad & Bakken, 2011).
In the United States, with the introduction of compulsory school
attendance in the first half of the 20th century, teachers were
faced with teaching a wide variety of students in the classroom.
They noted that some students who seemed to be of average
intelligence had great difficulty learning. In 1963, Samuel A.
Kirk first used the term learning disabled to describe students
who struggled with reading and language and required special
education (Danforth, Slocum, & Dunkle, 2010). This
recognition of learning disabilities spurred the founding of the
Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, which later
became the Learning Disabilities Association of America, an
important advocate for the education of students with learning
disabilities.
The Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act of 1969,

which became part of the Education of the Handicapped Act of
1970, formally defined learning disabilities and mandated that
schools provide special education services to students with
learning disabilities. The definition was as follows: a disorder
in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using spoken and written language. These
may be manifested in disorders of listening, thinking, talking,
reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic. It was not until the
passing of PL 94-142 in 1975, however, that federal legislators
recognized specific learning disability (SLD) as a separate
disability category in the law that governs how schools provide
services to students with special needs.
3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
Each student with an SLD has his or her own set of difficulties.
Some students may struggle only with reading or language,
while others may struggle with reading, mathematics, and
spelling (Hanich, Jordan, Kaplan, & Dick, 2001; Mather, 2003).
Students with SLD may also exhibit nonacademic difficulties
that relate directly or indirectly to their academic difficulties.
Challenges With Reading
Students with an SLD may struggle with a wide variety of skills
that contribute to success with reading. Students may not
understand that letters make sounds. They may have difficulty
decoding, blending, rhyming, pronouncing words,
differentiating homophones, increasing their reading rate, or
comprehending text. Students may also have difficulty
remembering words and the meanings of words, as well as
interpreting punctuation (Bryant, Bryant, & Hammill, 2000;
Jiménez- Fernández, Vaquero, Jiménez, & Defior, 2011;
Williams & Lynch, 2010).
Understanding that letters make sounds. Students may not
understand that the letter a makes a specific sound—and in
English, it makes several different sounds. For example, the a in
apple sounds different from the a in made.

Decoding. Students with difficulties decoding have difficulty
with phonemes, the smallest units of sound that a word can be
broken into. (The word dog for example, has three phonemes:
/d/ /o/ /g/). As a result, they often struggle with sounding out
words.
Blending. When students have difficulty combining letter
sounds or phonemes into words, they struggle with what is
referred to as blending. For the word dog, students need to take
the /d/ sound and combine it with the /o/ sound and combine
that with the /g/ sound.
Rhyming. Students may have difficulty knowing that pan
rhymes with can and man. Rhyming is a fundamental skill in
reading and spelling because it helps students understand
patterns. For example, if a student understands that pan, can,
man, and tan all rhyme, she should be able to decode these
words and spell them fairly easily.
Pronouncing words. Students may struggle to pronounce words,
whether they are simple, such as dog, or more difficult, such as
extermination.
Differentiating homophones. Students may confuse homophones
(e.g., their, there, they're) and have trouble with their meanings
and spellings.
Increasing reading rate. Students with an SLD may read at a
much slower rate than others. Their reading may sound choppy
and fragmented, and the slower rate may cause difficulty with
comprehension.
Comprehending text. Students have difficulty understanding the
meaning of words, sentences, and paragraphs. When asked to
explain the main idea of a paragraph, students may not be able
to tell the who, what, when, where, and why of the paragraph.
Poor comprehension may be due to a lack of fluent oral reading
skills, silent reading skills, or both.
Remembering words. In reading, many words, such as the, that,
and around, appear often in text, so it is best for students to
memorize and recognize these words on sight—which is why
these words are called sight words, and avoid wasting time

sounding them out. Some students struggle with remembering
sight words, which causes slower rates of reading and
comprehension.
Remembering the meaning of words. Students may struggle to
recall the definitions of words, and this causes difficulty with
comprehension.
Interpreting punctuation. Students may overlook periods or
other end punctuation. This can make it hard to understand what
is being read.
Challenges With Oral Language
Students with an SLD may experience difficulty with skills
related to oral language, such as expressing ideas, sequencing,
structuring words and sentences, and memorizing facts.
Expressing ideas. Some students understand a concept or know
an answer but exhibit difficulty explaining it orally. For
example, a student may have written an essay explaining the
parts of a cell, but not be able to explain cell parts when the
teacher asks in class.
Sequencing. Students might have trouble placing events in a
proper sequence. They might tell stories out of order or with
major parts missing.
Structuring words and sentences. Students may have difficulty
with grammar when they speak. They may leave off (or add on)
endings to words (e.g., saying "I pass the football" instead of "I
passed the football").
Memorizing facts. As information is presented orally or within
text, students may struggle to memorize facts or definitions.
Challenges With Writing
Students with an SLD may exhibit difficulty with tasks related
to writing. They sometimes experience difficulty writing by
hand (in particular, with reversals of letters and numbers),
establishing effective posture and grip of writing utensil,
increasing their speed of writing, and copying. Students can
also struggle with encoding, structuring sentences, and
organizing written words or ideas.

Writing by hand. Students may struggle to print or use cursive
letters. For example, some students use an inappropriate
combination of uppercase and lowercase letters. Students may
also have difficulty keeping letter size uniform or writing
legibly. These problems may be a sign of fine motor problems,
which require specialized instruction. Students may write letters
and symbols backwards (e.g., b for d or 2 for 5).
Establishing effective posture and grip. Students may exhibit
strange body posture and hand position when writing with a
pencil or pen.
Increasing their speed of writing. Students with writing
difficulties may write considerably slower than students without
writing difficulties. Like difficulty with letter formation, this
may be a sign of fine motor problems.
Copying. Students may have difficulty copying onto paper what
a teacher has written on the board or is displaying on a
document camera.
Encoding. Spelling words may be difficult for some students.
Encoding involves either spelling words by sight or spelling by
breaking a word into phonemes.
Structuring sentences. Some students may struggle to reproduce
common sentence structure or word order. For instance, they
may write "Dan goes to the store" as "Dan to the store goes."
Students may omit words and use poor grammar when they
write.
Organizing written words or ideas. When writing on a piece of
paper, students may struggle to write on the lines (see Figure
3.1) or keep their writing centered on the paper. Again, this is a
possible sign of fine motor problems. Students may also
struggle with the organization that goes into writing a paragraph
or a story (e.g., topic sentence, developing sentences, closing
sentence).
Figure 3.1: SLD and Handwriting
This student has an SLD and struggles with writing. Notice how
many of the letters are formed backwards and how the student

has difficulty writing in a straight line. This student's brain is
likely sending mixed messages with regard to letter shape and
writing.
Challenges With Mathematics
Students with an SLD could have trouble with mathematics
tasks, such as counting, understanding symbols, writing
numbers and symbols, recalling basic facts, understanding place
value, solving word problems, organizing work, and increasing
the pace of work (Auerbach, Gross-Tsur, Manor, & Shalev,
2008; Wadlington & Wadlington, 2008).
Counting. Students may have difficulty counting. Some students
may not know the proper order for counting (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10), while other students may miscount (e.g., saying
"2, 4, 5, 6, 7"), double count (e.g., saying "1, 1, 2, 3, 4"), or not
understand that counting helps shows an amount of a set (e.g.,
saying "1, 2, 3, 4. There are 3 items altogether").
Understanding symbols. Some students may have trouble with
symbolic thinking; for example, they may not understand that 2
represents two items and is written as two. Some students may
struggle with connecting second to 2. Students may also
misinterpret operational symbols (e.g., +, –, ?, ÷), leading to
difficulty with solving mathematics problems.
Writing numbers and symbols. Students might have difficulty
knowing how to write the number symbols. Some students
reverse numbers (e.g., 2 for 5 and 6 for 9), which can cause a
myriad of difficulty. Some students might have trouble turning
larger numbers presented orally into written numbers (e.g.,
writing "six hundred five" as 6005).
Recalling basic facts. Students who struggle with mathematics
often have difficulty memorizing and recalling basic facts (e.g.,
7 + 8, 12 – 7). When students have to take time to figure out or
count the answer to a basic fact, it diminishes their capacity to
solve more complex mathematics problems.
Understanding place value. Students may not realize that the

same 10 number symbols (0–9) can be used to represent any
number, so they struggle with numbers greater than 9. Students
may also not understand regrouping where "carrying" or
"borrowing" is necessary (e.g., knowing that 10 ones is the
same as 1 ten), which leads to computation difficulties.
Solving word problems. Students can demonstrate difficulty in
solving word problems, or mathematical problems embedded
within text. Many students struggle with the reading and
comprehension of the text. Some find it tricky to understand
which numbers and information are relevant and which
operations are necessary to answer word problems.
Organizing work. When students do not properly line up
numbers for computation as they write them, the disorganization
can cause mistakes. In Figure 3.2, 12,397 + 4,203 will be easier
to solve in Example B than in Example A because the numbers
have been properly spaced and aligned.
Increasing the pace of work. Students with an SLD may work
mathematics problems at a much slower rate than students
without an SLD.
Figure 3.2: SLD and Organization of Math Work
Nonacademic Challenges
Just as many typical students have problems with reading,
writing, spelling, mathematics, listening, or speaking at some
time during their schooling, many, if not all, students exhibit
one or more nonacademic characteristics that make learning
difficult at some time during their school career. These
characteristics include cognitive, social, emotional, and
behavioral characteristics. Students might have problems with
attention, organization, or frustration, for example. When these
characteristics are displayed on a consistent basis and combined
with some of the academic difficulties discussed, then a student
may be said to have an SLD.
Nonacademic characteristics that students with an SLD may
exhibit:

Distracts easily; for example, student stops working when
another adult walks into the classroom.
Has a short attention span; for example, student only focuses on
a task for a few minutes.
Has difficulty adapting to change; for example, student
struggles when switching from a geography lesson to a
mathematics lesson.
Is restless or impulsive; for example, student fidgets or leaves
seat frequently.
Has difficulty listening and following directions; for example,
student forgets teacher directions to (a) put backpack away, (b)
get out homework, and (c) start journal entry.
Gets frustrated easily; for example, student stops working when
a task is difficult, or student circles answers on a difficult test
without trying to answer each item.
Has difficulty knowing left and right; for example, student
walks the wrong way in library after librarian says, "Detective
novels are on the right."
Has poor eye-hand coordination; for example, student struggles
with placing coins in specific coin slots on a game.
Has delayed or immature speech; for example, student uses a
"baby voice" when answering questions.
Has immature expressive language; for example, student can't
answer basic questions about a story.
Is disorganized; for example, student's locker is disheveled, and
the student cannot find appropriate materials.
Has difficulty finishing assignments on time; for example,
student consistently finishes tasks after the rest of the class.
Has poor social skills; for example, student has difficulty
making friends.
Has difficulty with self-regulation; for example, student
struggles with completing a five-step task on his own.
During the evaluation of a student for a possible SLD, the
evaluation team needs to make sure that the cause of the
student's difficulty is a specific learning disability and not
another disability. For example, most of the characteristics of

ADHD are nonacademic characteristics of people with SLD.
Because almost half of students with an SLD exhibit inattentive
or hyperactive characteristics of ADHD, the evaluation team
cannot assume the student does not struggle with attention
issues as well as learning difficulties.
3.4 What Are the Causes of SLD?
An SLD may have a number of causes. The brain, heredity, and
the environment may all play a role. Scientists and researchers
have not determined which of these factors is the most salient
and whether an SLD is caused by one factor or a combination of
factors.
The Role of the Brain
Researchers have determined that the brain plays a role in SLD.
For example, in Finland, students with learning disabilities and
their siblings (without an SLD) participated in MRI brain scans.
The siblings of students who had an SLD had more brain
abnormalities than non-siblings without SLD (Mannerkoski et
al., 2009). This study indicates that some brains are wired in
ways that contribute to SLD. Multiple studies have
demonstrated differences in the brain activity of students with
an SLD versus without SLD (Davis et al., 2011; Kucian et al.,
2006; Landi, Mencl, Frost, Sandak, & Puch, 2011; Simos et al.,
2006).
Most researchers believe that an SLD is caused by malfunctions
in the way that the brain receives, stores, retrieves, and
produces information (Rissman, 2010). These four ways the
brain interacts with information can also be referred to as input,
integration, memory, and output.
Figure 3.3: The Brain
The brain is a complex system that helps us receive, store,
retrieve, and produce information. While scientists know that
different parts of the brain have different functions, they have
not pinpointed the parts of the brain related to SLD.

Input involves information coming into the brain, and
perception is how information is interpreted in the brain. Most
often, information is delivered to the brain via sight (visual
perception) or sound (auditory perception). Students with an
SLD may struggle with the perception of one or both of these
types of input. Students who struggle with visual perception
may find it hard to distinguish between different symbols. For
example, a student may understand g to be p or q. They may
also have difficulty focusing on the words on a page. Students
who struggle with auditory perception may demonstrate
difficulty with interpreting the phonemes or sounds of words.
They may also become overwhelmed by too many sounds
occurring at the same time.
The second way the brain interacts with information is
integration—it stores and organizes that information.
Remembering information in a sequence is much easier than
trying to produce it haphazardly. Some examples of sequences
that you know are the alphabet, the days of the week, or the
multiples of five.
Students with an SLD may struggle with sequencing and
organizing information. They may lose or misplace items or
finish assignments late. Students with an SLD may also have
difficulty with abstraction, which can affect their social
interactions. As just one example, these students may find it
tricky to understand when something is a joke or when a pun is
used.
Three types of memory help students store and retrieve
information. The first is working memory, which involves the
brain working with small pieces of information. When
completing a computation problem, for example, the brain may
keep basic facts and knowledge about a regrouped 10 in
working memory. The second kind of memory is short-term

memory, in which the brain keeps information for a short
amount of time, without transitioning it to long-term memory.
For example, a student remembers four digits of a phone
number just in time to dial the number. The student probably
cannot remember the four digits five minutes later. The third
kind of memory is long-term memory, where the brain stores
information for future use. For example, a student remembers
his home phone number and uses this information when sharing
the phone number on college applications or with friends.
The fourth way the brain interacts with information is output—
how a person provides information from the brain. One type of
output is language output. Students with an SLD may find it
difficult to think of an answer and find the correct way to
provide that answer at the same time. Another type of output is
motor output. Students who struggle with motor output may
have trouble with writing, coloring, or using scissors.
The Role of Heredity
Research shows a strong genetic component of SLD. Parents
who struggled with a learning disability are more likely to have
a child with a learning disability (Landerl & Moll, 2010), and
researchers of siblings and twins have confirmed this link by
showing that siblings and twins have a greater likelihood of
having an SLD if their sibling has one (Del'Homme, Kim, Loo,
Yang, & Smalley, 2007; Kovas & Plomin, 2007). Scientists and
researchers are only just beginning to understand the specific
genes and factors that may contribute to SLD. Over the next few
decades, they will likely discover a lot more about the
connection between heredity and SLD.
The Role of Environmental Factors
Environmental factors that may contribute to SLD include the
following (Courtman & Mumby, 2008):
Malnutrition—for example, a mother is malnourished when

pregnant, and the baby's brain does not develop appropriately,
or a student does not receive proper nutrition during important
growth stages.
Chemicals or toxins in the environment—for example, a student
ingests lead paint, which may cause nerve or brain damage.
Radiation—for example, a student is exposed to radiation, and
the radiation may cause brain damage.
A mother's excessive alcohol or drug use during pregnancy—for
example, a mother drinks too much alcohol, and the baby does
not develop in a typical manner.
Anything that deprives the brain of oxygen—for example, a
baby's umbilical cord accidentally gets wrapped around the
baby's neck during delivery, and the lack of oxygen causes
damage to nerves and the brain.
Second-hand smoke—for example, excessive smoke in the
house causes damage to a child's brain.
Poor instruction in school (see the RTI section later in this
chapter)—for example, an ineffective teacher only showed
movies during class time and did not cover any of the sixth-
grade standards in science.
3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
The first indicators that a student in the general education
classroom might have an SLD are often persistent difficulty
with academic tasks and performance below grade level. As in
all special education evaluation procedures, the general
education teachers, school administrators, or parents or
guardians can request that the identification process begin.
If personnel from the school suggest an evaluation, it must take
place within 60 days of referral. This prohibits schools from
delaying identification. Parental consent must be obtained
within those 60 days, before the evaluation takes place; if a
parent or guardian does not grant consent, a school district can
initiate due process procedures to circumvent the parent's
consent refusal. A team of school officials then evaluates the
student using a variety of data sources to determine if an SLD is

present. The process can follow either the IQ/achievement
discrepancy model or Response to Intervention (RTI).
IQ/Achievement Discrepancy
Before IDEA 2004, all students with learning disabilities were
identified using an IQ/achievement discrepancy formula (see
Chapter 1). Students needed to demonstrate a "severe
discrepancy" between their intellectual ability and their actual
achievement in the classroom.
As discussed in Chapter 1, critics of the discrepancy
requirement claimed that schools were waiting too long (i.e.,
sometimes years) to identify students with learning disabilities,
resulting in the waste of precious time for providing quality
special education instruction. Critics also charged that some
students were misidentified as having an SLD (due to
assessment bias) when the students did not have learning
disabilities (Kavale, Spaulding, & Beam, 2009). For example,
students with English as their second language may have been
misidentified because they scored lower on an assessment in
English than they would have scored on a assessment in their
native language (Fletcher & Navarrete, 2003; Sullivan, 2011;
Waitoller, Artiles, & Cheney, 2009). Not all researchers,
however, agree that the IQ/achievement discrepancy model is a
bad idea (Kavale, 2005). For example, once a student is referred
for an evaluation, the IQ/achievement model allows
psychologists and teachers to identify students quickly, and
students can receive appropriate special education services soon
after testing and diagnosis. With this model, however, students
are often not referred for evaluation until they have been in
school for several years.
If schools choose to use the IQ/achievement discrepancy model,
four criteria must be met before determining whether a student
has an SLD (Restori, Katz, & Lee, 2009).

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