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TATA INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, MUMBAI
Internship Report on Drought Assessment, its Management and Mitigation Plan for
Villages in Giriyak Block of Nalanda District, Bihar
Partner Organization: Nav Bihar Samaj Kalyan Pratisthan Kendra (NSKPK),
Pawapuri Nalanda
Parent Organization: Action Aid, Patna Bihar
Internship Supervisor: Vinoy Kr. Ohdar
Faculty Supervisor: Dr. S. Mohammed Irshad
Report Submitted By:
Avikalp Mishra
MDM - Disaster Management, 2013-15
TISS MUMBAI
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Contents
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................3
2. Study area......................................................................................................................................................................4
3. Methodology.................................................................................................................................................................4
4. Results and Discussions................................................................................................................................................5
5. Disaster management framework for Drought............................................................................................................11
6. Drought Mitigation Strategies.....................................................................................................................................17
7. Early indicators of Drought.........................................................................................................................................18
8. Contingency Crop Planning........................................................................................................................................18
9. Drought Watch System...............................................................................................................................................19
10. Climate Forecast for Drought Management..............................................................................................................19
11. Drought Planning in Relation to Climate Change......................................................................................................20
11.1 Water conservation promotion...............................................................................................................................20
11.2 System optimization................................................................................................................................................20
11.3 Water quality protection.........................................................................................................................................21
11.4 Lifesaving irrigation.................................................................................................................................................21
11.5 Fertilizer Management............................................................................................................................................21
12. Institutional response during drought management................................................................................................21
12.1 Role of the Central Government.............................................................................................................................22
12.2 Role of the State Government ................................................................................................................................22
12.3 Role of Panchayti raj institutions............................................................................................................................23
12.4 Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) ...................................23
13. Institutional framework for Drought Management ...................................................................................................25
ANNEXURE 1................................................................................................................................................................26
ANNEXURE 2................................................................................................................................................................31
References.......................................................................................................................................................................36
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1. Introduction
Generally, drought is not considered as a crisis of urgent nature but considered as a management issue.
Drought is a natural, recurring climatic feature which stems from lack of rainfall over an extended period of
time (i.e. a season or several years resulting in severe shortage of water resources). It occurs almost in all
climatic regions of the world. Drought is a normal phenomenon in arid zone areas, a common phenomenon
in semi-arid zone areas and a rare to very rare phenomenon in dry humid and humid areas. It is a natural
disaster, which can be anticipated and also expected on the basis of rainfall pattern, temperature etc. In a
large country like India having many agro-climatic zones, though drought cannot be prevented totally, its
impact on the community at large can be minimized. The management of severe drought during 1987, 2002
and 2009 is a testimony to this fact.
Drought connotes a situation of water shortage for human, cattle and agriculture consumption resulting in
economic losses, primarily in agriculture sector. Drought is classified as Meteorological, Hydrological and
Agricultural. Unlike the Hydrological and Agricultural droughts, the Meteorological Drought, which
connotes specific rainfall reduction below -19% of normal rainfall, may not necessarily have any serious
impact if the departure from normal is not significant and the rainfall is sufficient enough to sustain soil
moisture. In India, drought essentially occurs due to failure of south-west monsoon (June – September).
Areas affected by drought need to wait till the next monsoon, as more than 73% of annual rainfall in the
country is received during the SW Monsoon season.
Situation in Bihar is not different from the rest of the country. In the southern part of Bihar which consists of
district like Patna, Gaya, Buxar, Jehanabad, Nawada, Nalanda, Rohtas, Bhojpur, Aurangabad, Kaimur,
Banka, Munger, Jamui, Lakhisarai, Shekhpura and Bhagalpur. Average annual rainfall in these parts of
Bihar is 1102.1 mm which mostly depends if the monsoon is of regular pace and of right time. Now in
Nalanda district there are 20 blocks but I am going to focus on Giriyak block which has been affected due
to its irregular and erratic behaviour of the rainfall. There are several villages in this block namely—
Rahimchak, Daulachak, Beldariya, Dariyapur, Sobhnagar, Rahimchak, Bindidih, Gorma, Pokahrpur,
Mustafapur, Chorsua, Mahabirnagar, Puri, Durgapur, Raitar, Dakbuglow English, Takhroja, Sikandarpur.
All these villages have been suffered from the shortage of rainfall since last 2-3 years. As this shortage of
rainfall is nominal but has created impact on the living conditions of the farmers as most of the farmers in
these regions are engaged in olericulture (i.e. cultivation and marketing of vegetables). So it is necessary to
conduct a study on these very areas to understand the hidden problems of the farmers or how they perceive
this as a problem or whether they have any kind of mechanism to deal with this problem, how they deal or
face in the time of water crisis especially when expected rainfall doesn’t happen, what are their opinion on
the conservation of natural resources like forest or water and what are the mitigation plan adopted by them
to overcome the problem of drought, how is the government responding on these issues
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The main aim of this study is to assess the effects of drought in these farming communities and to develop a
disaster management plan in order to mitigate the effects of drought in coming future.
2. Study area
The study area is Giriyak block in which some of the village like Rahimchak, Daulachak, Beldariya,
Dariyapur, Sobhnagar, Rahimchak, Bindidih, Gorma, Pokahrpur, Mustafapur, Chorsua, Mahabirnagar, Puri,
Durgapur, Raitar, Dakbuglow English, Takhroja, Sikandarpur are most affected. This information has been
collected from Nav Bihar Samaj Kalyan Prathistan Kendra, an NGO based in Pawapuri region of Nalanda
district and it is a partner organization of Action Aid, Patna. These regions receive average annual rainfall of
1000 mm to 1100 mm in the upper and lower reaches respectively The mean maximum temperature varies
from 38o
c to 40o
c (usually occurring in May-June) and minimum temperature varies from 6o
c to 15o
c
(usually occurring in December-January).
Agriculture is the major land use in these regions (with about 69% of total land area under agriculture).
There are two main agricultural seasons i.e., Kharif (hot wet season from June to September) and Rabi (cool
dry season from November to March). The hottest season (April and May) is called summer. Almost every
year, a large portion of these areas are often subjected to water stress conditions due to erratic nature of
monsoon. It has resulted in heavy dependence of population on groundwater resources.
3. Methodology
The questionnaire is one of the effective instruments of data collection. Face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, mail questionnaires, and internet questionnaire are various modes of questionnaire.
Of all modes, face-to-face survey delivers the most representative results, however the selection of survey
mode depends on topic, local feasibility and goal of the study. In order to allow the investigator to collect
the most accurate data from a target population, questionnaire must be unbiased. Bias is a problem in the
design and administration of the questionnaire. It is a result of an unanticipated communication gap between
the investigator and respondents, which yields inaccurate results. It can arise from the way individual
questions or questionnaire as a whole is designed and administered. To avoid these biases, suggest various
steps while designing and administering the questionnaire.
The words used in the questions should be simple, familiar and unambiguous to the target population. The
length of the questionnaire should be short in order to avoid response fatigue and skipping questions
tendencies. The investigator should be careful while designing and administering the questionnaire to avoid
various types of biases. The investigator should pay attention towards the flow of questions. Questions on a
same topic should be grouped together and transitional statements should be used to switch between
different topics or sections. During the administration of questionnaire care should be taken to avoid
respondents' conscious reaction (fake responses to seek sympathy), sub-conscious reaction (tendency of
trying to be conservative), inaccurate recall, and cultural differences.
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The questionnaire intended to gather information on farmers' awareness towards drought and its impacts,
types of preparedness and adaptation strategies adopted by farmers, administrative mitigation and relief
measures and farmers opinion towards them. The field work was conducted in local language for better
understanding. The prepared questionnaire of the researcher was checked by the field coordinator Mr. Vinoy
Kr. Ohdar. After his acceptance the work was preceded.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Profile of respondent households
A total of 165 households were interviewed from three irrigation strata, of which 80% were household heads
and 20% were relatives of household heads. The average age of the respondents was 38 years (range was
19–64 years).The overall average household size of the sampled population was 6, which is larger than the
average size of 5 persons per household. Data on education indicated that some of the respondents had no
education, while some have completed their primary education, secondary or higher secondary, and
bachelors or higher education, respectively. Crop farming, livestock farming and agricultural labor are
income source of respondents respectively. It was very hard to estimate the average annual income of the
households’ income as each household vary in terms of their income. The main crops which are grown to
their field include rice, wheat, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables. Most of the farmers were having leased land.
4.2 General perception of drought impacts
Farmers were asked in their local languages about their perception of drought and its impacts on their
socioeconomic activities. Drought has different meaning to respondents based on their physical
environment, type and degree of involvement in agricultural activities, and level of impact on their financial
wellbeing. Various responses emerged for the open ended question:
“What does drought mean to you?” Farmers defined drought as less or no rain over the season resulting in
water scarcity for various uses mainly for drinking and agriculture (87.0%), lack of water and fodder for
livestock (45.7%), poor cereals and food grain production (18.4%), food scarcity (17.5%), and less
agricultural employment (13.9%). Besides this, few farmers have also perceived drought as increased
atmospheric temperature, financial weakness, increased commodity prices and no electricity supply.
Out of all the farmers interviewed, about 93% farmers' perceived drought as a natural phenomenon, while
7% perceived it as a mismanagement of water resources by the responsible authority. It was found that about
85% of farmers have experienced drought in the past years. When asked about the frequency of severe
drought experienced by farmers, about 11%, 68% and 21% of farmers believed that very severe drought like
situation. About 95% of respondents believed that less rainfall has been becoming more frequent in the
locality during the recent 10–12 years. The television or radio (79%) and newspapers (35%) were the main
sources of information to the farmers regarding scarce rainfall and possible mitigation and adaptation. When
farmers asked about their ability to fight back with drought, only 30% farmers believed that they were able
to deal with drought with the majority (about 70%) indicating they were not ready or unable to mitigate
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drought impacts. This supports previous work that indicated low resilience and high vulnerability of farmers
in this area to deal with drought and its impacts.
4.3 Perception of socio-economic impacts
An understanding of the socio-economic impacts of drought is essential in designing technological and
policy interventions for effective drought mitigation and relief. Droughts have significant economic impacts
as it affects the main economic activities of residents in the area (in this case rainfed or limited irrigation
agriculture). In case of rainfed agriculture, drought always results in crop failure, decreases the yield of food
grains (cereal and pulses), horticultural crops, and livestock production, which weakens the income of
agrarian households. It results in unemployment of unskilled labors and loss of their time in water collection
activities. All of these impacts ultimately weaken the financial condition of farmers. This can be observed in
the given chart.
For the Likert type questions related to economic impacts of drought, 72–75% of respondents have answered
that drought caused high to a very high reduction in employment opportunity and income. A typical rural
household in India spends about 15% of its annual income on celebrating festivals. But, drought mostly
affected the income of low income farmers forcing them to reduce their expenses on festivals, which has a
negative impact on social life and mental health. Nearly 54% of respondents reported high to a very high
reduction in their expenses on festival celebrations. About 60% of respondents reported high to very high
food scarcity during the drought years as compared to the normal years and 52% of respondents said that
drought has threatened their household food security to a greater extent. Approximately 58% of respondents
agreed that they have less to very less food grain choices for their daily consumption. It also explains the
severity of reduction in employment (as 80% rural population engaged in agriculture and allied activities),
and other indirect economic impacts of drought mentioned earlier. These economic impacts resulted into
social, health and psychological impacts on farming livelihoods. It involved impacts such as inequities in the
distribution of water, reduced school attendance, population migration, poor health and hopelessness. There
was a significant difference observed in spending on festivals based on income groups with poorer farmers
affected the most. Also, farmers from low income groups reported that their expenses on wedding
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ceremonies were reduced or ceremonies were postponed due to drought like situations due to insignificant
rainfall.
4.4 Perception of environmental impacts
Drought like situations also affects environment in number of ways. Drought results in decreased river
flows, lake water levels and groundwater aquifers. Low-flow conditions in combination with high water
temperatures may cause deterioration of water quality to critical values. Furthermore, droughts reduce water
in the soil, which has negative impacts on soil fertility, biodiversity and can cause wildfire. They reported an
increase in the average atmospheric temperature during the rainfall scarce year as compared to the normal
year. Farmers perceived very high water scarcity in surface water bodies. As a result of scanty rainfall, water
storages in major, medium and minor irrigation projects of Nalanda division. Scanty and erratic rainfall
followed by excess heat and water scarcity has greatly affected the forests and pastures. In overall,
respondents have perceived high environment impacts of drought like situations in their field. Groundwater
extraction is increasing every year, except for a partial (but temporary) recovery following years of
exceptionally heavy monsoon rainfall. Excessive pumping of groundwater to cope with drought impacts has
led to groundwater depletion, which has caused crunch of water for general purpose work. Less educated
farmers believed that drought has caused pasture degradation. Farmers from low irrigation strata believed
that drought causes damage to live stocks. There was no significant difference observed in perception of
other environmental impacts due to high vulnerability of the study area to the drought of moderate to severe
intensity. Historical experience and knowledge about adaptation at the local level is critical for future
adaptation policy formulations. Hence after assessing farmers' perception and awareness of drought and
various drought impacts, the following sub-section tries to focus on adaptation strategies to mitigate drought.
4.5 Adaptations and Mitigation measures
Household level adaptations
Adaptation to drought is a two-step process, which initially requires the perception that drought is occurring
and then responding to its various impacts through adaptation and mitigation activities. The previous section
has shown that the farmers are well aware of drought impacts and its severity. Based on the perception of
drought impact severity, farmers used various drought preparedness and adaptation measures to mitigate the
drought impacts. Various drought preparedness measures adopted by farmers are shown in graph. Drought
mainly affects the crop and livestock production, therefore, about 80% of farmers preferred not to sell their
crop produce, and instead they stored it to deal with anticipated droughts. About 50% of farmers stored crop
residues to fulfil the fodder demand during the anticipated drought, and 50% of farmers reduced their
expenses and saved money. Farmers seek various options such as migration for employment, selling of
livestock, non-agricultural income sources to lessen the drought impacts. Only few farmers having irrigation
facilities sow crops on time despite of irregular monsoon and even less choose crops requiring less water to
deal with drought. However, it is observed that farmers from less irrigated areas tend to be well prepared to
deal with anticipated drought by storing harvested grain and saving money as compared to medium- and
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high-irrigated areas. Farmers with small land holding tend to sell their livestock and seek alternative sources
of income to cope with drought. A significant difference was observed in storing harvested crop, money
saving and adjusting sowing dates based on education level of the farmers. It is found that high educated
farmers were more conscious about these drought preparedness activities. Based on the perceived severity of
drought impacts, farmers adopted a variety of autonomous adaptation strategies to mitigate drought impacts
on agriculture.
The use of modern micro-irrigation practices such as sprinkler- and drip irrigation was also not popular, due
to high initial investment, high cost involved in renewing systems and lack of irrigation water source. Use of
this micro-irrigation technology by farmers has been reported very low as compared with the potential this
technology offers and the main reasons for this are constraints associated with obtaining, understanding or
maintaining the technology, household income, farm size, and power supply constraints. Land holding size,
household income and education are among factors that significantly influence farmers' behaviour with
respect to adaptation strategies.
4.6 Administrative mitigation measures
Besides household level adaptation measures, administrative strategies play a very crucial role in adapting to
drought. As a response to serious drought events in the Bihar State, the government has undertaken various
relief measures, which included provision of employment, supply of drinking water and distribution of
fodder in cattle camps. In addition to this, the government has also provided agricultural loans with low
interest rates, crop insurance schemes, and waived electricity bills depending on intensity of drought. Major
drought relief measures undertaken by Government of Bihar during drought 2012–2013 are explained and
discussed in the following sub-sections
4.6.1 Employment scheme
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was introduced in 2005 aiming to provide 100-
days employment to adult members of any rural household, who are willing to do unskilled manual work at
the wage rate fixed by the government every year. In the DPA (Drought Prone Areas) the scheme is
designed to serve mainly two purposes – first is a creating employment opportunity for rural households
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affected by drought and second is building drought resilience. Under this scheme, drought proofing activities
such as water conservation, increase in water harvesting potential of ponds and reservoirs in terms of manual
excavation and construction of tanks, check dams, percolation tanks, underground dykes, ponds, rain water
harvesting structures etc. are undertaken in DPA. Along with these activities, it also includes activities such
as watershed development, tree plantation, labour intensive fencing, nursery raising, canal development,
renovation of traditional water bodies and other related activities. In this study, this scheme is considered as
one of the administrative level adaptation and mitigation measures. For the questions related to the
employment scheme, mixed types of responses were received from the farmers. Only 45% of respondents
knew about work started under NREGA from Gram Panchayats (local self-governments at the village or
small town level in India), the rest of them did not receive any information or did not know anything about
it. Approximately 75% of respondents having information about NREGA demanded for employment under
the scheme, while only 45% of them got opportunity to work.
4.6.2 Cattle camps
Water and fodder scarcities are the major issues for livestock management during drought. At the very early
stages of drought, fodder distribution depots were assigned to private investors in the villages. They
transported fodder from some fodder rich areas and distributed it amongst the needy farmers at low price.
But as the drought prolonged, these cattle fodder depots converted into mass cattle camps and supplied free
fodder and fodder supplements to the livestock. The state provided USD 1.5 and 0.7 per day to cover fodder,
transportation, water supply and other related facilities costs for a big and small animal, respectively,
accommodated in the cattle camp. Despite of ineffective implementation of the relief measure, respondents
agreed that it was better than having nothing. The major drawbacks of cattle camps highlighted by
respondents were allocation of less fodder to the cattle violating the government rules, no or less water
availability for cattle, and no shadow or shelter, provision of poor quality nutrient, etc. Furthermore, it also
had some social impacts such as many families were forced to live apart as men and young boys stayed in
camp with their livestock and women were left behind in villages to take care of their families.
There has been difficulty in the waiving of the loan of the farmers. As according to some of the farmers
most of the loan goes to those who own the land. Most of the farmers in these regions are having leased land
hence they didn’t get any economical compensations. As according to MNACIP (Modified National
Agricultural Crop Insurance Programme) there is no any provision for compensation for those farmers who
do cultivation on leased lands. Most of these subsidy schemes go directly to the hands of the land owner
rather than to the hands of farmer. Another problem is the lack of information regarding the various schemes
related to crop insurance. Most of the farmers suffered due to this as they don’t able to claim about their
rights. Only few farmers got information and benefit from contingency plan. There was lack of awareness
and information on administrative drought mitigation measures observed amongst potential beneficiaries.
Some farmers are completely dependent on the olericulture and floriculture so in such case there is
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limitation in terms of their crop insurance as most of the vegetable does not come under crop insurance
programme except vegetable like Potato, Onion.
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5. Disaster management framework for Drought
It is the framework of Disaster analysis aimed at identification of fundamental aspects of disaster situation.
Level Phases of
disaster
Vulnerability
magnitude (area
specific)
(scale: zero-10)
Outcome
of
disaster
phase
Identified
trigger
mechanisms
Strategic
response/action/matrix
1. Normal Zero
(Rainfall is above
+19% to 19%
cumulatively for more
than 4 weeks. Period
throughout the season
Nil Nil Developing &
strengthening drought
preparedness
Assessing food and
water requirements and
resources
Constant monitoring of
drought related
characteristics
Drawing up of
perspective plans with
the vision of drought
proofing under
MGNREGA scheme,
IWMP scheme, DPAP
scheme
2. Alert/Watch 1-2
Forecast of late onset
of monsoon coupled
with continuing water
crisis and heat wave
Delayed onset of
monsoon and
anticipated deficit
rainfall in the areas
already affected by
drought from the
previous year
(APR-JUN)
Incipient.
Sudden
accelerati
on of
demand of
employme
nt
CAP (crop)
CAP (water)
CAP
(Health)
Preparation of updated
contingency crop plan
and its propagating
through effective agro-
advisory services
Propagating of short
term water
conservation measures,
water budgeting
Proper health
advisories and ensuring
availability of
emergency medical
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Rainfall forecast is
expected to be less
than the normal
rainfall and below
19% and deficit
continues for more
than 2-3 weeks and
soil moisture level is
unsustainable
services
Continuation of
ongoing alternative
employment generation
programmes in
drought affected/prone
areas through
MGNREGS as a part
of supplementary
employment and as a
social safety net
support under
MGNREGS
Monitoring over
exploitation of
groundwater for non
agriculture and non
drinking purpose(i.e.
industrial/ commercial/
entertainment purpose)
Energizing the
identified alternative
sources for the
requirement of water,
food, fodder and power
3. Warning 3-4
Delayed onset of
monsoon. Deficit
rainfall for more than
2 weeks. Acute water
crisis
(June-Mid July)
Rainfall is less than
the normal rainfall and
below 19% and the
Moderate CAP (crop)
CAP (water)
CAP
(Health)
CAP (food
and PD)
Role of extension
effective & realizing
the objectives of
contingency crop plan
by ICAR
Operationalizing short
term water
conservation measures
by municipal and
district agencies, water
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deficit continues for
more than 3-6 weeks
and soil moisture,
ground water, surface
water level is lower
than previous normal
average
budgeting by the
ministry of water
resources (irrigation),
drinking water and
sanitation.
Identify alternative
sources when the
village is in warning
period and the supply
of water may be
restricted
Judicious use of
drinking water
Meeting of crisis
management group to
review the action plan
initiated by line
department and
affected state
government and taking
decision for movement
of water and fodder
from surplus areas to
the deficient areas
Review and visit by the
area officers in the
deficit rainfall areas.
4. Emergency 5-7
Deficit or no rainfall
during the sowing
period. Mid season
withdrawal of the
monsoon. Dry spell for
more than 4 weeks.
Deficit rainfall in the
Severe CAP (Crop)
CAP (Water)
CAP (Cattle
care)
CAP
(Health)
CAP (EGP)
CAP (food &
Referring the issue to
committee for taking
up with cabinet for
taking certain vital
decisions like
deferment/rescheduling
/fresh loan, movement
of water and fodder
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range of 20% to 40%.
Wilting of crops due to
the shortage of water
and continuing heat
wave conditions.
(Jul-Sept)
Rainfall is less than
the normal rainfall and
below 25% and deficit
continues for more
than 6 weeks and soil
moisture, ground
water as well as
surface water level is
alarmingly low
PD) additional allocating of
food grains,
establishing cattle
camps, alternative
employment generation
programme enhancing
PDS allocations,
import of food grains
to meet the gap
between demands and
supply, checking up of
inflation etc.
Early release of
installments under state
disaster response fund
(SDRF) and ensuring
that the stat
governments utilize it
for initial emergency
measures.
Enabling employment
under MGNERGS as a
part of supplementary
employment and as a
social safety net
support
Monitoring and visit of
rainfall deficit areas by
each designed area
officer in the
department apprising.
5. Acute
(Potential
disaster)
7-10
Early withdrawal of
monsoon. Midseason
withdrawal, severe
Extreme
(Full
Blown
Drought)
CAP (Water)
CAP
(Cattle
care)
Monitoring of drought
affected states
individually by each
designed area officer in
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deficit of cumulative
annual rainfall. Severe
soil moisture deficit.
No rainfall for more
than 4-6 weeks in
sown area, resulting in
crop damage. severe
shortage in the
availability of ground
water and surface
water
(Jun-Oct)
Rainfall is less than
normal & below 25%
and the deficit
continue for more than
6 weeks and soil
moisture, ground
water and surface
water level in
alarmingly
CAP (Social
sector)
CAP (Energy
sector)
CAP
(Health)
CAP (Food
and PD)
CAP
(Labor and
Employment
)
the department about
ongoing relief
measures
Weekly crisis
management group
meeting and
monitoring of the
progress of drought
relief measures
Review of visit by area
officers to the deficit
rainfall states
Strict water
conservation measures
and monitoring of the
release of canal water
for irrigation
Assessment of
damages and
estimation of losses for
release of funds from
NDRF special
assistance to
farmers/dairyling/poult
ry/fishery sectors
Enabling employment
under MGNERGS as a
part of supplementary
employment and as a
social safety net
support
Revitalizing the
ongoing programmes
for vulnerable sections
of the society
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Preventive measures
for the loss of
human/cattle life on
account of potential
disaster
Measures for meeting
the shortage of
secondary and tertiary
sectors and measure for
economic revival
Legislative measures
like issue of control
orders for maintaining
sustained supply of
essential commodities.
6. Recovery
(Post
disaster)
> 10-0
(Oct- Jun)
Normal rainfall in
rabi and
subsequent seasons
easing of soil
moisture stress
situation.
Farming/rural
community
livelihood
requirements
returning to normal
activity
Mitigated CAP (
Water)
CAP (Cattle
care)
CAP (Energy
sector)
CAP
(Health)
CAP (Food
and PD)
CAP (Labor
and
Employment
)
Rescheduling of farm
loans
Early release of inputs
subsidy
Payment of
compensation for
losses in time to the
beneficiary i.e. Agri-
insurance, NDRF,
SDRF etc.
Adequate availability
of seeds for sowing in
the next season
Monitoring of the
ongoing relief
measures and taking
necessary course
correlation
Monitoring of the
climate and ensuring
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alternative
arrangements against
relapse of the drought
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Report 2012
Note: Contingency Action Plans (CAP) in respect of Crop, Water, Cattle care, Health, Energy sector, Food
and Livelihood security – (To be prepared by concerned Central Government Ministries/Department)
6. Drought Mitigation Strategies
Droughts are caused not merely by failure of rains but also due to lack of proper dispersal. Some areas get
scanty rainfall, and therefore the strategy has to be built around water conservation and a cropping pattern,
which should be supported by a judicious cropping pattern. Only those crops should be permitted which can
be supported by the rain water. This should be worked out on the basis of the recorded rainfall data and its
dispersal. There should be a proper regulation of ground water use. Apart from proper geographical
dispersal of shallow and deep tube wells and dug wells through an appropriate legislation, sinking of tube
wells should not be permitted beyond a certain depth. This would ensure availability of ground water in
times of water scarcity. The legislation should also provide for regulation of flowing water in the rivers,
streams and rivulets so that it is not used for irrigation in the years of scanty rainfall and water scarcity.
Restoration of village ponds, tanks, streams and rivulets should be undertaken after village-wide survey. The
work of survey and restoration should be completed in a period of three years. Fodder is a big problem at the
time of droughts. A combination of pasture development and afforestation programme will provide not only
the fodder during normal and drought years but also lead to soil and water conservation, and employment
generation on a sustainable basis. Funding of these programmes can be done from the funds under the rural
development and employment generation programmes under the various centrally sponsored schemes. Some
of the measures that would help in effective response and mitigate the hardship of the people are as under:
Arrangement for reasonable buffer stock of food grain and fodder
Ensure supply of good drinking water in rural areas for human and livestock in drought affected areas
Assess fodder requirements in drought affected districts and locate areas where shortage is likely to
occur and arrange supplies from outside
Fodder cultivation to be encouraged wherever feasible
Rejuvenation of traditional rainwater systems like Rivers, Tanks, Ponds etc.
Rainwater harvesting for both the drinking and cropping purposes
Management of human livestock population to reduce pressure on fragile arid ecosystem
Timely availability of credit, postponement of revenue collection, and repayment of short-term
agricultural loans
Appropriate land-use planning (Inter-cropping system), discouraging the cultivation of water-intensive
crops, and encouraging sprinkler and drip irrigation systems
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Creation of local task force in each district to initiate relief measures immediately after the drought takes
place
Implementation of crop and livestock insurance schemes
Provisions for cattle camp in drought affected areas
Early warning and drought monitoring should be carried out on the basis of long, medium and short term
forecasts
7. Early indicators of Drought
The following constitute ‘early warning indicators’:
For Kharif (sowing June to August)
(i) Delay in onset of South-West Monsoon
(ii) Long ‘break’ activity of South-West Monsoon
(iii) Insufficient rains during the month of July
(iv) Rise in Price of fodder
(v) Absence of rising trend in Reservoir Levels
(vi) Drying up of sources of Rural Drinking Water Supply
(vii) Declining trend in the progress of sowing over successive weeks compared to corresponding figures for
normal year
For Rabi (sowing November to January)
(i) Deficiency in closing figures for South-West Monsoon (30th
September)
(ii) Serious depletion in level of Ground Water compared to figures for normal years
(iii) Fall in the level of Reservoirs compared to figures of the corresponding period in the ‘normal years’ –
indication of poor recharge following SW Monsoon.
(iv) Indication of marked soil moisture stress.
(v) Rise in price of fodder
8. Contingency Crop Planning
Under rainfed conditions which are prevalent in Bihar, the farmers have learned to keep their cropping
practices flexible so that corrective measures can be introduced, depending on the type of weather
aberrations (Subbiah 2000). Normally, the following kinds of aberrations are observed under rain-fed
conditions:
Delayed onset of monsoon rains
Long break in rainfall during the middle of the rainy season
Lack of rainfall during the post-rainy season; and
High soil temperature at sowing time (in case of post-rainy season crops)
In response to late onset of rainfall conditions, farmers change from long duration high-yielding crop
varieties to short-duration low-yielding varieties. The mid-season correction for each aberration varies from
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place to place, depending on the rainfall pattern, soil type, choice of crop, and so forth. Corrective measures
include reducing the plant population by thinning crops to reduce crop competition for available moisture
and providing supplemental irrigation in case there is a long break in rainfall during the crop season.
However there are very few options to manage terminal droughts due to early withdrawal of monsoon.
Harvesting the crop for fodder is the only way to slightly re duce the damage. Nevertheless most of the
drought management strategies need to be adapted from the beginning of the season in order to be effective.
In other words, “one has to plan for drought management, before planting the crops even if the forecast is
for a good year”. Therefore, the farmers sow a mixture of crops and thin out the crop stand as the intensity
and duration of rainfall becomes clearer over the passage of time.
9. Drought Watch System
There is a need to have a Drought Watch System at district and state levels, which should be developed,
implemented and managed by experts in meteorology, agriculture, irrigation, public health, food supplies etc
(Das 2000).
The pre-requisites for the operation of such a drought watch system are:
A network of rainfall stations, with reliable records of good quality, that are homogeneous and extend
over a period of at least 20 and preferably more than 50 years
Weekly/monthly rainfall records that are in computer compatible form
Weekly/monthly rainfall totals that are available at the drought watch center within two or three days at
the end of the week/month
The drought watch centers should have the capability of issuing weekly/monthly drought watch
statements whenever rainfall situation demands
10. Climate Forecast for Drought Management
As drought is a phenomena associated with scarcity of water, the period during which the scarcity of water
is likely to be experienced, the extent of scarcity of water and the areas/regions that are likely to be affected
by drought have to be known in advance. Information about the onset of drought conditions in a timely and
reliable manner is useful in many ways to organize corrective steps in mitigating droughts for farmers. The
information will facilitate:
Decisions at the time of sowing about the choice of crops/varieties
Adoption of management practices related to soil moisture conservation
Fertilizer application and manipulation of plant population during the crop growing period
Improved long range forecasts would diminish uncertainty in long-term planning and facilitate
Development and sectoral planning especially for water, an increasingly scarce regional resource
Drought preparedness and mitigation strategies - governments need justification and confidence to
embark on long-term approaches; and
Capital investment projects through a more certain environment for investors throughout the economy
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Reliable long-term forecasts would also enable improvements in a larger number of strategic planning
decisions in the public and private agricultural support services. For example, the availability of reliable
seasonal forecasts should vastly extend the scope of response farming, allowing researchers to develop a
limited range of different agronomic packages; in any particular year, the most appropriate extension
packages could be promoted in accordance with the actual forecast for the area (Williams 2000). In India,
demand for water – urban, rural, industrial, agricultural, and ecological – is increasingly outstripping supply.
Options to satisfy future requirements increasingly demand international collaboration. Potential benefits
from better regional water resource planning and management would justify major investment in improving
their liability and precision of long-lead forecasts.
Provision of improved long-range forecast of the seasonal rainfall before the beginning of the season.
This provides time to the planners to adopt different strategies
Close monitoring of the rainfall over different parts of the country on daily, weekly and monthly scales
within the rainy season
Delineation of different agro-climatological zones which helps in specific measures for agricultural
planning on climatological basis
Continued research efforts to enhance our capabilities of forecasting monsoon rain over local, regional,
and all India based on different temporal scales
11. Drought Planning in Relation to Climate Change
Drought planners should also take steps to plan for the possibility of climate change or climate variability.
They must plan for the change, since they are already considering changes in population and technology that
will affect the demand. To address climatic uncertainty, drought planners should assess the sensitivity of
water resource systems to climatic change. One could conduct a simple analysis by examining for example
how a 2o
C or 4o
C increase in temperature and a 10% increase or decrease in rainfall affects a system’s
vulnerability to drought. Alternatively, one could use a more sophisticated scenario based on climate
models. The sensitivity of the system to these kinds could be compared to the impacts of other factors such
as population growth and technological change. Drought planners in sensitive regions can take steps to
improve the ability of water resource systems to recover from drought (Das 1999). Among the steps that can
be taken are
11.1 Water conservation promotion
Water conservation can be encouraged by reducing or eliminating wastage. Agriculture is the greatest user
of water in the country and has the greatest potential for conservation.
11.2 System optimization
Better use of existing infrastructure would reduce vulnerability to regional droughts. Water resource
managers should explore ways to transfer water between neighbouring systems during droughts.
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11.3 Water quality protection
Water pollution, control and abatement programs can increase the amount of water available for
consumption during droughts. States and river basins should have comprehensive drought contingency plans
that will reduce the impacts of drought quickly, such as automatic short-term water rationing.
11.4 Lifesaving irrigation
Drought prone areas suffer from inadequacy of the soil moisture resulting into partial or total failure of the
crop. One lifesaving irrigation can transform the situation from failure to productivity. The concept of life
saving irrigation received great impetus with the concept of water harvesting. It is already reported that 15 to
20 percent of rainfall goes as runoff from the cultivated areas. The runoff can be stored into farm pond and
used at the critical stages. Generally for the cereals, grain formation stage is critical. However, in moisture
deficit areas, this depends on the nature of soil whether it has moisture or not. It has been seen that under
normal condition or situation, one irrigation at the critical stage would boost yield by 50-60%. One pre-
soaking may make difference between the crops versus no crop. When taken as a second crop there may not
be enough moisture below the seeding zone due to which crop cannot be established on the seed zone.
Irrigation of 6 cm depth can saturate seed zone to establish the crop stand. Whatever may be the situation,
the lifesaving irrigation is important. Use of available water judiciously for such kind of situation would be
the best way to manage the drought. Even under certain situation lifesaving irrigation can be managed from
regular irrigation projects. In drought prone areas, although there are no irrigation facilities, technological
developments have been made to harvest, conserve, and recycle excess rainwater for the use during water
stress period. Such techniques are vogue in almost every moisture deficit area of the world. However in
recommending a particular practice of harvesting rainwater for providing lifesaving irrigation care should be
taken to match the practice to the available natural resources.
11.5 Fertilizer Management
The crops in drought prone region suffer two kinds of stresses like moisture stress and nutrients stress.
Nutrient stress is more pronounced due to low nitrogen content of soils. By providing moderate fertilizer the
crop growth can be enhanced and drought can be escaped. It is, therefore, rightly said that ‘be at the drought
by fertilizer application’. Numerous large-scale trials have been conducted on farmers’ fields to prove the
worth of fertilizer use in dry farming. Use of fertilizer, particularly nitrogen accelerates the growth and
develops profuse root system thus making plants more capable to face the drought. The time and method of
application are important. Placing the fertilizer 10 cm below the soil surface in the vicinity of moist soil at
seeding is the most effective. Usually 25 to 50 kg N/ ha dose is recommended. For Kharif the level can be
increased by 25% more due to alternate wetting caused by intermittent rains.
12. Institutional response during drought management
Drought management is always a measure of responsiveness and resourcefulness of governments at different
levels. It requires a strong institutional structure to monitor and provide a timely response to drought, while
it is primarily the responsibility of the state government to manage the drought. The central government also
22. 22 | P a g e
plays an important role in monitoring drought and providing financial assistance to the states. The district
administration headed by the collector plays the most important role in responding to the drought on the
ground. Drought thus requires a well- coordinated responses at all the levels of the government.
12.1 Role of the Central Government
At the Central level, the Ministry of Agriculture is the department responsible for drought monitoring
and management
In the Ministry of Agriculture, the Drought Management Division of the Department of Agriculture &
cooperation coordinates relief measures. An officer of the rank of an additional secretory is designated as
the “Central Drought Relief Commissioner” for this purpose. The schemes of CRF& NCCF are however
administered by the ministry of home affairs and assistance under these schemes is released by the
Ministry of Finance
A Crisis Management Group (CMG) functions under the chairmanship of the central drought relief
commissioner with representative of ministers and organizations whose involvement in necessary. The
crisis management group should meet regularly to review the drought situation in the country and
progress of relief measures
The CWWG, which is an ongoing arrangement for early warning & monitoring, assists the crisis
management group through provision of data and information relevant to drought
In all those states where a drought has been declared , the crisis management group must ask for
periodical reports on the drought situation and review the progress of relief measures
Above the crisis management group there is a National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC), which
operates in respect of all calamities under thechairmanship of the cabinet secretary. Members of the
NCMC include secretaries of various ministries and heads of agencies concerned with the exigencies of
a particular calamity
In a situation of severe drought the central government normally constitutes a cabinet sub-committee or
a group of ministers for taking policy decisions speeding for dealing with drought
It is necessary that the ministry of agriculture raises relevant policy issues at the appropriate level. For
example, the allocation of & distribution of food grains would require the involvement of department of
food and FCI of India
12.2 Role of the State Government
The State Department of Relief which has been renamed as Department of Disaster Management in
many States is responsible for directing drought operation in the state
The Department of Relief, headed by Relief commissioner (renamed as secretory, Disaster Management
in many states) is assisted by the Additional Relief Commissioner in certain states or Directors and
Deputy Secretaries and other Ministerial staff
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The Relief commissioner/secretory, DM monitors the drought situation in the state on the basis of
information available through various departments and agencies and submits reports to the government
at different levels
The relief commissioner/secretory, DM recommends the declaration of drought on the basis of situation
on the ground. Once the state government declares drought all the necessary orders for concessions and
waivers are issued by the relief commissioners.
Relief commissioner/secretary issues various instructions to the collector for the provision of relief
assistance to the people affected by drought.
The relief commissioner/secretory DM administer the CRF of the state and issues orders for the release
of all financial assistance to the district administration and other departments
The relief commissioner/secretory conducts the assessment of losses and relief needs. On the basis of
this assessment the relief commissioner submits a memorandum to Government of India through the
state government for seeking financial assistance from NCCF
Additional mechanisms should be set up for managing drought. These mechanisms may vary from one
state to another. In some states a cabinet subcommittee is set up for taking policy decisions in drought on
a regular basis
12.3 Role of Panchayti raj institutions
It is necessary to involve the Panchayti Raj Institution (PRIs)—Zilla parishad, Panchayat Samitis, And
Village Panchayats—in the implementation of drought management programmes
PRIs need to provide funds from different sources, particularly the devolution of funds through
successive finance commission for water conservation and maintenance of water supply schemes
Almost 50% of the NREGS is implemented through village Panchayats. PRIs need to use funds for
starting relief employment programmes as well as building community assets such as percolation tanks,
village tanks, wells and canals, which reduce the impact of drought
The PRIs need to play an important role in the regulation of water use at the individual household and
village level. It should recommend using water resources for the purpose of drinking and fodder
cultivation.
12.4 Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
The state government and district administration need to involve NGOs in organizing drought relief.
NGOs and CSOs have the advantage of local presence and community outreach which could be utilised
for organizing, distribution of relief assistance and implementing mitigation programmes. NGOs can
also be very effective in providing the feedback to the government and securing corrective actions.
The state government and district administration can set up a coordination forum for NGOs and CSOs at
the state and district levels respectively. The coordination forum meeting can be conveyed to discuss the
drought situation and implementation of the relief programmes.
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NGOs and CSOs can monitor the various indicators of drought, particularly its impact on the people and
bring these to the attention of the state government. The state government can initiate necessary relief
measures in the drought affected areas based on the feedback from these organizations
NGOs and CSOs can convey the local demands for relief employment to the district administration.
They can suggest specific works to be started so that the people are provided with the employment
within the short distance of their homes. These organizations can help the district administration in
planning the relief employment in a way that durable community assets can be created. They can also
coordinate with the local administration in ensuring the payment f wages and food grains on time
NGOs and CSOs can work with the local community in augmenting the sources of drinking water
through repairing wells, hand pumps, tanks, ponds and any other local water structure. They can also
help the community in regulating water use within the community ensuring equitable distribution of
available water
NGOs and CSOs can monitor the distribution of the food grains in the fair price shops and prevent
hoarding and diversion of food grains in the open market. They can ensure that food grains are supplied
to the entire fair shops particularly those in the remote areas and all the people in the drought affected
areas can purchase food grains through these shops as per their entitlements. NGOs and CSOs can also
monitor that the people are paid their wages in the form of food grains as per the norms fixed by the
government
NGOs and CSOs can provide assistance to the sick, elderly and disabled people in the drought situation.
They can run community kitchens with government assistance. NGOs need to bring the cases of hunger
and starvation to the attention of the government
In consultation with the government, NGOs and CSOs can set up cattle camps and fodder depots after
getting the necessary authorization from the government. They can receive the government assistance as
per the CRF/NCCF norms as well as the necessary veterinary care for this purpose
In consultation with the government, NGOs and CSOs can monitor the functioning of the ICDS and
midday meals so that the children get necessary nutrition during the period of drought
NGOs and CSOs need to help the government in dealing with the public health aspects of drought. They
can assist the government in disinfecting sources of water creating awareness about public health issues
and monitoring malnutrition and disease among drought affected population.
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13. Institutional framework for Drought Management
Government of India
High level
Committee on
Calamity Relief
Ministry of Agriculture
& Cooperation, Crisis
Management Group,
Coordination,
Monitoring, Response
Central Drought
Relief Committee
Calamity Relief Fund (CRF)
National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF)
Monitors the occurrence of natural calamities relating to
cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, hailstorm on a
regular basis and assess their impact on area and
population
State Government
Chief Secretory
State Drought Relief
Committee
District
Collector/Commissio
ner
Block Development
Officer (BDO)
Gram Panchayats
Crop Weather Watch Group (CWWG)
1. IMD—Rainfall
2. NCMRWF
3. NCFC—Crop Forecast
4. CWC—Reservoir Level
5. ICAR—Technical Inputs
6. NADAMS—Forecasting
Special Task Force/Committee
NGOs
CWWG
1. Rainfall
2. State Reservoir level
3. State Agriculture Department
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ANNEXURE 1
Agencies responsible for specified activities
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ANNEXURE 2
Questionnaire for Accessing Drought Impacts and its Management
General household characteristics
Q.1. Village details
Name: ______________ Block/Taluka: _____________ District: ________________
Q.2. Respondent details
Name: _______________ Gender: ___________ Age: _______ Education: ___________
Relation with the house head: ____________ Category: ___________ Housing: ___________
Q.3. What is the main source of income?
(i) Agriculture (ii) Livestock (iii) Agriculture labor (iv) Small business (v) Others
Farmers’ perception of drought and its impact
Q.4. What is drought?
Drought is (i) Natural disaster (ii) Manmade disaster
Q.5. What are the impacts of Drought?
(i) Drying of water sources
(ii) Makes surrounding dryer
(iii) Famine
(iv) Crop Failures
(v) Loss of livestock
(vi) Poor health of humans/malnutrition
(vii) Increase in food prices
(viii) Poor health of livestock
(ix) Decline in livestock prices
(x) Other impacts on livelihood
Q.6. Have you ever experienced any other droughts? If yes, please specify years:
How often drought occurs?
Q.7. Do you think droughts are becoming more or less frequent in last 10-12 years?
(i) More (ii) No difference (iii) Less (iv) Don’t know
Q.8. How do you get information on the weather forecasts?
(i) No information
(ii) Radio/T.V
(iii) Word of Mouth (friends/neighbors)
(iv) News Papers
(v) Self Judgment
(vi) Traditional Knowledge Sources
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Q.9. Can you anticipate onset of drought forecast? Yes/No……………
Q.10. How much prepared do you consider yourself to deal with drought?
(i) Very high (ii) High (iii) Medium (iv) Less (v) Very less
Q.11. Do you delay repayment of loan due to drought? If yes, specify reasons:-
(i) Inability to pay by fulfilling households needs
(ii) Subsidy expectation from government
(iii) Reduction in income due to drought/crop failures
(iv) Other reasons
Q.12. Rate the following Drought impacts
Scale Very
high
High Medium Less Very less
Drought threatened household food security
Drought has caused food scarcity
Drought caused no choice in food preferences
Drought caused malnutrition
Drought affected on health
Drought caused unemployment
Drought caused reduction in household income
Drought caused reduction in spending on festival
Drought caused population migration
Drought affected schooling of children
Drought caused hopefulness and sense of loss
Q.13. Have you postponed any ceremony due to drought? If yes, which and why……………..
Q.14. Reported farmers’ suicide in village. If yes, major reasons
(i) Indebtness (ii) Drought (iii) Family problem (iv) Others
Agriculture and Livestock
Q.15. How much is the average sowing cost per acre? ............... Rs
Q.16. What is the source of irrigation water during normal year and drought year?
Sources Dug well Bore well River Lake/pond Canal Others
With electric pump
With diesel pump
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Q.17. Which Irrigation practice is used?
(i) Flood irrigation
(ii) Sprinkler/Drip
(iii) Mixed
Q.18. What is your approximate farm income in normal year and in drought year?
Q.19. Type and number of livestock
Type Bullocks Cows Buffaloes Others
Number
Q.20. Problems related to livestock
Problems Less production Waste and pasture
shortage
Livestock diseases Lack of market
Normal year
Drought year
Q.21. Do livestock get sufficient water in drought year?
(i) Very less (ii) Less (iii) Medium (iv) High (v) Very high
Q.22. Source of fodder
Sources From own farm Brought from shop Govt. depot
Normal year
Drought year
Q.23. Gross income from livestock
Average year………………
Drought year………………
Environmental impacts
Q.24. How do you rate following environmental changes caused by drought?
Scale Very high High Medium Less Very less
Increase in average temperature
Forest degradation
Pasture degradation
Water scarcity in surface water bodies
Decline in ground water levels
Deteriorated water quality
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Adaptation strategies and mitigation measures
Q.25. How do you prepare during normal year to cope with drought?
(i) Do nothing (v) Migration for employment
(ii) Store crop harvest (vi) Seek alternative source of income
(iii) Store crop residue (vii) Use less water consuming crops
(iv) Save money (viii) Early sowing of crops
Q.26. Do you have information about government National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(NREGA)?
If yes, do you ask job
Do you get sufficient job opportunity
How much is the average wages of men and women
Are you satisfied with government NREGA
Specify the problems of NREGA
Q.27. Agricultural adaptations used to mitigate drought impacts
Scale Very high High Medium Less Very less
Do you change your crop calendar
Do you change to less water consuming
crops
Do you keep land unsown after the
possibility of drought
Do you change traditional irrigation
practices to modern
Do you use water harvesting through farm
pond etc.
Do you save water by reducing wastage
during drought year
Q.28. Crop insurance:-
Do you have crop insurance in drought year?
If yes, do you get sufficient compensations?
How much crop insurance per acre of failed crop area?
Are you satisfied with government crop insurance scheme?
Specify the problems of crop insurance
Q.29. loan subsidies:-
Do you have Kissan Credit Card?
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If yes, how much loan do you have through Kissan Credit Card?
Did you able to pay back loan during normal year?
Are you able to pay back loan during drought year?
If no, why?
(i) Crop failure due to drought
(ii) Inability to pay back fulfilling the family needs
(iii) Waiting for loan subsidies from government due to drought
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