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Y1475719 Word Count: 2490
Environment Department
University of York
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Examination Number: Y1475719
Module Code: ENV00040H
Module Title: Land use and management
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How can Tanzania ensure that sustainable land use planning will meet
conservation, carbon budget and agricultural demands by the year
2050.
1. Introduction
An integrated concept of land unites topography, spatial extent and natural resources: the soils,
water and biota (UNEP, unknown date). Land-use is selected to enhance ecosystem service
provision from natural resources. Growing stress [from population growth] on finite natural
resources have meant land-use conflicts have arisen, leading to unsustainable exploitation of
them which undermines the delivery of ecosystem services, locally and globally.
2. Tanzania and Land-use Change
Located in eastern Africa, Tanzania has a land area of 88.6 million ha., with a topical climate
(Muyungi and Omujuni, 1995). Here, land-use closely corresponds with unsustainable
socioeconomic development resulting in natural capital overexploitation (Turner II et al. 2007).
Table 1 summarises Tanzania’s socioeconomic environment. Population growth, rural poverty
and urbanisation predominantly drive land-use change here; the main change is tropical
deforestation. From 1990 to 2010, Tanzania lost 0.97% per year, a cumulative 19.4% (UN
FAO, unknown date).
Although the crucial
service of forests for
livelihoods and the
economy, their
degradation and meagre
management persist
(Mariki 2001 in Winrock
International, 2006).
Agricultural expansion predominantly drives deforestation, exploiting favourable
environmental conditions for cultivation and grazing (Rodrigues et al, 2004; Grace et al, 2006)
(figure 1). In addition wildfires, illegal activities and overextraction of forest products, weak
governance, inadequate developmental policies and lack of cross-sectoral coordination can be
credited (Tanzania 2001 and Kissinger et al, 2012).
Table 1:Socioeconomic environment of Tanzania (Kauzeni, Kikula, Mohamed and
Lyimo, 1993; Geohive, unknown date).
Population 2014: Estimated 53 million (0.3 percent growth rate)
2015: 31.6 percent resided inurbanareas (5.5 percent growth rate)
2050: population projected to reach 137 million
Rural population density: Up to 200km² per person
Economy Agriculture constitutes 50 percent of the GDP
90 percent of population engaged in agriculture (Ministry of
Agriculture, 1983)

Current Tanzanian land use is focussed on the overexploitation of natural resources, through
corruption and exploitation of the poor (Muyungi and Omujuni, 1995). The realities of land
degradation are dismissed,
thus are current land-use
policies are unsustainable.
Sustainable land use planning
in Tanzania is critical to
manage growing pressures on
finite natural resources, using
them sustainably and
effectively, to ensure current
and future needs are met. The
challenge is managing trade-
offs between immediate
human needs and maintaining
the provision of ecosystems
services in the long-term.
3. Current land-use.
From Tanzania’s current land use, it is experiencing subsistence and intensifying transitions
(figure 2). See Appendix A for land-use map (figure 3).
3.1 Agriculture
Approximately 44 Mha. are suitable for agriculture (Muyungi and Omujuni, 1995). The World
Bank estimated 27 percent of the total
land area is currently cultivated, with
arable land constituting 4.52%, and
permanent crops 1.08%. (IFAD, date
unknown). Small-holder subsistence
farming accounts for approximately
80 percent of agriculture, practising
agropastoralism using traditional
cultivation methods (Monela et al,
2005). The agriculture sector is based
in 8000 villages (Muyungi and
Omujuni, 1995). The livestock
population is estimated 24 million
(Levira, 2009).Figure 2: Tanzania is experiencing subsistence to
intensifying land-use transition,marked by the solid black
box. These transitionsin land-use activitiesare experienced
within a given region over time with demographic and
economic transitions. (Foley et al, 2005).
Figure 1: The percentage of total land-use change credited to different
drivers, 1980-2000.Deforestation by agriculture is the greatest cause of
change,shown by the extent conversion of forest area to small-scale
permanent agriculture. FAO, 2010 in INTOSAI WGEA, 2013).

3.2 Forests and Woodlands
Approximately 39 million ha. is covered by forests and woodlands, the above-ground biomass
in estimated 3,636 Mt (Muyungi and
Omujuni, 1995). These areas provide
wildlife habitats, natural ecosystems,
and carbon storage. Forests are
categorised at reserved or non-
reserved (Tanzania, 2002) with the
respective land covers 37 and 57
percent (table 2). An estimated
135,000 km² are designated as forest
reserves and include 840 km² of
plantations and wood plots. The
majority of woodlands are categorized as miombo.
3.3Wildlife
In 2004, approximately 16.5% land was for conservation (Muyungi and Omujuni, 1995 and
Brockington, 2008). There are at present 15 national parks and 18 game reserves. Two of the
eight African biodiversity hotspots are here, containing wild animals and biodiversity endemic
to Tanzania.
3.4 Urban areas
Approximately 16.8 percent is urbanized. An estimated 17 percent of the population reside in
high-density settlements not legally recognised as urban (Muzzini and Lindeboom, 2008), in
dwellings made of concrete, cement and stone, in poor, unplanned settlements.
4. Environmental threats associated with land-use change
Land-use change is arguably the most pervasive socio-economic force driving changes and
degradation of ecosystems (Sachedina and Trench, 2009). It disturbs crucial ecosystem
processes and services. Figure 4 summarises the prevalent environmental issues associated
with land-use change in Tanzania.
Intensive agriculture and its land requirements has potentially severe consequences (figure 4).
Further, the removal of the forests protective cover exposes the top soils to increased erosion,
by wind and/or rain, disturbing the soil structure ultimately damaging its fertility. Forecasts for
2050, measure nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and irrigation for agricultural increasing globally
Table 2: Tanzania, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
classification of forest reserves (Tanzania, 2002).
Constitute
Reserved Local governmentreserves
Government-ownedindustrial
plantations
Village-ownedreserves
Unreserved
Informal reservesongeneral or
village-land

up to 2.5 times, with 73 percent of increases in developing nations (Wu, 2008). Yet in current
practices, only an estimated half of the N and P are harvested in crops.
Urban development causes a multitude of environmental problems as seen in figure 4 (Czech,
Krausman and Devers, 2000 in Wu, 2008). Additionally, urban runoff often contains sediment
and toxic contaminants, polluting waterways.
Forests ecosystem services provide habitats and extractable goods, sequestrate carbon, control
abiotic and biotic dynamics, and provide goods for extraction. These services are degraded or
destroyed due to deforestation. This, along with urbanisation and agriculture have substantially
fragmented Tanzania’s vegetative cover. Deforestation removes viable carbon sequestrating
and storing vegetation; the agrochemicals in intensified farming, and digestive processes of
livestock herd releasing methane are changing the global atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide (Marland et al, 2003). The local climate is warmed by forest-clearing, increasing
albedo (the proportion of solar radiation that is reflected back out the atmosphere). Lower
evapotranspiration and sensible heat fluxes, result in increased surface temperatures and
regional fluctuations in precipitation (Bala et al, 2007 and Werth and Avissar, 2004 in IUFRO,
2012)
Figure 4: Diagram to show the environmental impacts of specific land-uses, and how they interlink. Leakage of
nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) in runoff leads to pollution in local waterways, including eutrophication.
Irrigated agriculture alters the groundwater levels. Soil erosion directly causes sedimentation of waterways,
deteriorating ecosystem quality. Intensive farming and deforestation impact soil, waterways (salinization) and
land quality.Urban development causesairpollution,water pollution,urban runoffand flooding. All these factors
degrade habitats and decreases biodiversity and carbon stocks.

Due to the extent of deforestation in Tanzania, the local problems are quickly translated to
national problems, overlapping social, economic and environmental sectors (Msoffe, 2010).
The increasing demand for food-production is decreasing the land available for carbon
sequestration and habitats. Land degradation and associated habitat loss in Tanzania is
commonplace due to the consequences of deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices
and rapid urbanisation occurring in certain
locations (Sachedina and Trench, 2009).
This reduces the environmental quality, and
thus the provision of ecosystem services –
ultimately threatening those that rely on
them for livelihoods. This unsustainable
nature of land-use change has meant in
environmentally fragile regions, the
conditions worsen and poverty continues
(Wit and Verheye, unknown date).
5.Overcoming the environmental
threats: a transition to sustainable land
management
The improper land management in Tanzania
is currently leading to land degradation and
is damaging the productive and service
functions. To overcome threats from land
use change in Tanzania, the actions of the
rural poor need to be made sustainable
(figure 5). Ameliorating the dependence of poor households on natural resources will deliver
equitable socio-economic and ecological benefits in Tanzania, in turn reducing the rate of land-
use change. Intact forests need to be protected and conserved as they deliver more effective
and immediate results than secondary forests. These key measures will ensure that future
conservation, agricultural and carbon demands are met in 2050.
As defined by the World Bank (INTOSAI WGEA, 2013), sustainable land management (SLM)
is a knowledge-based process that assists integrate ecosystem components with environmental
management to meet escalating global demands while supporting ecosystem services and
livelihoods. SLM is imperative to meet the requirements of the globally growing population.
5.1 International Action
International cooperation is crucial to ameliorate climate change, biodiversity loss and
unprecedented rates of detrimental land-use change globally. Internationally, poverty is
incessantly related with environmental degradation (figure 5). Globally mitigating the natural
resource degradation-poverty-vulnerability trap (Cleaver and Schriber, 1994) in developing
countries will lead to a reduction in deforestation driven by poor households, and thus
mitigation climate change. Tackling the drivers of deforestation is a global issue, as they lie
outside of Tanzania and the forestry sector. These issues need to be overcome globally to
positively affect Tanzanian land-use and environmental quality. Particularly climate change,
Figure 5: Cyclical figure to represent how alleviating rural
poverty by the diversification of incomes and livelihoods,
reduce the dependence on forest and other natural reserves.
This will in turn reduce the rate of land use change,
as the need to search for viable will be lessened as the
new sustainable practices deliver environmental
benefits, as well as socioeconomic ones.

as the poor populations of developing countries are experiencing the most severe
environmental impacts of it, particularly on agricultural production. International agreements
should invoke principles of environmental protection into every sector, although these have
rarely been translated into actions, reiterated by the shortcomings on the UN Millennium
Development Goals. Invoking international action will help mitigate environmental
degradation from a top-down perspective. International agreements on sustainable land and
water management are imperative to achieve this.
5.1.1 Introductory measures for policy
A multi-lateral, comprehensive, cooperative framework is essential to acquire global
collaboration. Different to current international treaties, incorporating binding targets for
poverty alleviation, habitat and biodiversity loss and climate change are imperative.
Securing a monetary fund to guarantee assistance to developing nations is crucial to ensure
their full adoption and dedication to meeting the targets. A clear agenda which outlines how
to achieve the outcome, but broad enough to be applied country-specific will increase its
effectiveness. For a summary of introductory measures for all levels, see figure 6.
5.2 National Action
Governments are the key implementer of policies for sensible land-use and regulating resource
exploitation. National policies must proactively involve all stakeholders’ (including local and
indigenous peoples) of natural
resources [namely forests] to
achieve effective
management and
conservation of forested areas
and biodiversity, whilst
enhancing ecosystem
resilience. Social inclusion in
decision-making is crucial, to
facilitate an integrated
approach to land-use
managements, with all
stakeholders working together
to form a coherent ‘land
paradigm’ (figure 7).
Sustainable management of Tanzania’s land resources requires knowledge of the extent and
nature of land resources, the allocation and response of the land.
To nationally mitigate the environmental problems of land-use change and meet conservation
and carbon budget demands Tanzania need to conserve and escalate their forest cover. They
need to motivate the population to value, conserve and protect it (Sachedina and Trench, 2009).
National policies need to facilitate the decentralisation of forest management, to improve
acceptance and governance and reduce illegal overexploitation. Environmental degradation
and deforestation would reduce if the country has a greater capacity of trained human-resources
to assist with protection and monitoring of forests, a target area could be the overexploitation
in and outside of restricted protected areas (Dube, 2007). This would assist in changing the
Figure 7: Land management paradigm (Enemark,2007 in INTOSAI
WGEA, 2013).

economic interests of the country to reduce corruption and enhance environmental protection
for self-economic gain. This could be the explanation for natural secondary succession
reclaiming approximately 15 percent of the area deforested during the 1990s, despite
deforestation rates increasing to unprecedented levels.
A national priority within Tanzania is to improve the infrastructure to support development-
oriented schemes, and to mainstream environmental protection through them. It is imperative
all stakeholders are included, using pro-poor, integrated approaches. This will ensure equitable
sharing of benefits, which promotes environmental improvement (figure 8, see Appendix B).
Policy reforms on the Forest Act (2002) for Participatory Forest Management and Participatory
land use planning (PLUP) in Tanzania promote community and private sector involvement in
forest management through village land forest reserves, individual, group and community
forests. Explicit mentioning of climate change mitigation targets will reinforce the importance
of achieving them. Fully incorporating environmental protection into the local economy would
incentivise its protection over unsustainably exploiting it. Hiring local people to do patrols with
competitive wages will tackle corruption. This would tackle the root of the problem, preventing
its displacement (Kaswamila and Songoraw, 2009). Solving community land tenure conflicts
is essential to ensure full participation to achieve policy aims (Tumsifu, 2007). Policy
mechanisms to derive co-benefits from agricultural production using a trade-off comparison
framework (figure 9). The creation of a fund for safe, proper housing infrastructures to be built
with minimal impacts on environmental degradation would control urban-induced
environmental threats.
Figure 9: Multi-faceted framework for comparing land-use and trade-offs of ecosystem services.
Ecosystem services delivery under different land-uses is displayed, using a 'flower' diagram (the
ecosystem service state is represented along the axis). Different land-use intensities are compared and
the landscape approach used in policy making, considering multiple sectors. The three landscape
optionsdemonstrates the impact of land-use on ecosystem service provision to enable decision-makers
to choose the sustainable land-use.
Modified from (Foley et al¸ 2005).

5.3 Local Action
Unsustainable socio-economic development drives deforestation in Tanzania, thus tackling
rural poverty is crucial to alleviating deforestation (Kaswamila and Songorwa, 2009). This will
involve diversifying and securing household incomes, to reduce local dependence on forests
and their resources to reduce the rate of land-use change. Social inclusion is vital in decision-
making and implementation as discussed. Local communities are the key stakeholders for
sustainable, landscape-wide integration of forest protection to reduce land-use change.
Bottom-up strategies are in place, such as from the UN REDD+ initiative (figure 10),
incentivising local
people who would
otherwise
overexploit natural
resources for a source
on income, to
preserve and enhance
them. They integrate
capacity-building,
education and
knowledge transfer to
support sustainable
practices in the long-
term. Environmental
conditions are improved through soil-improvement, water management, and replanting
schemes, to deliver carbon, biodiversity and socioeconomic benefits (Wit and Verheye,
unknown date).
Tanzania’s food demand will increase unprecedentedly. Thus making traditional agricultural
practices sustainable will reduce the dependence on agro-chemicals, reducing the
environmental degradation. This will reduce carbon emissions and promote increased
biodiversity. This will lead to
enhanced ecological and socio-
economic benefits landscape
wide, and ultimately reduce
land-use conversion.
Respecting cultural values will
likely increase the likelihood of
acceptance of the improved
practices within local
communities, but may also
hinder more beneficial practices
(World Bank, 2002 and Dube,
2007). This will mitigate the
environmental impacts from
deforestation. They
Figure 10: (a) Agroforestry scheme - Integrated agricultural and conservation
practices. Harbours more diverse habitats,provision of more ecosystem
services and socioeconomic benefits; (b) Reforestation scheme – Efficient use of
degraded land.Harbours carbon and socioeconomic benefits.
Figure 6: A summary of the recommended introductory measures for
all levels of authority.

simultaneously involve community involvement and mitigate deforestation. The
decentralisation of forest management to local institutions reduces the cost to the state in
protecting forests. They are more locally responsive and efficient, by harnessing the local skills,
motivation and labour of local people (Barrow, 2005). A benefit is the rational commitment to
people’s participation in their own affairs.
Reducing deforestation will promote biodiversity increases by preserving habitats (Wright,
2005). As diversity increases, ecosystem resilience will increase, so they are less vulnerable to
stresses. Carbon sequestration potential will also be increased. Despite government reforms
and new sustainable development movement, deforestation and land degradation remain rapid.
Improving the quality of the local environment in turn makes resource-dependent people more
resilient; forests, for example, can protect agricultural land and villages from soil erosion and
flooding. The achievement of sustainable restoration projects will rely on the inclination of
farmers and agropastoralists to incorporate them into their practices (Winrock International,
2006).
The constraints preventing poor communities partaking in bottom-up strategies, such as land-
tenure, need to be incorporated, promoting community-based forest management (Monela et
al, 2005). The fair representation of local needs and wants in policies should be guaranteed,
which will increase its acceptance. Proper education on making subsistence farming
sustainable is imperative, to ensure it is a long-term change (Sachedina and Trench, 2009).
Diversifying income diversity for households is imperative to reduce the reliance on forests,
derived from off-farm labour. Diversify the tree planting regimes, with fast-growing legumes
(Winrock International, 2006). Gender inequality needs to be tackled, to have any intentions of
alleviating poverty.
6. Conclusions
Sustainable land use must incorporate the management of all attributes and components of
land, and their responsible consumption and exploitation on all levels. Policies must consider
all functions, to ensure the long-term interests internationally and nationally are stronger than
the short-term interests of certain privileged groups.
Integrating these components into Tanzania’s policy framework for strengthening
involvement, increased acceptance and the sustainable management and success of forest
ecosystems. All the action discussed will ensure that carbon, agriculture and conservation
demands are met by 2050. The removal of viable forests will decrease, as will the pressures
induced on them. This will allow them to ecologically recover from socio-economic pressures.
Their biological diversity will increase, which will enhance the provision of ecosystem services
– namely carbon sequestration. Poor people are part of the solution rather than the problem.
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Kaswamila, A., and Songorwa, A., (2009) Participatory land-use planning and conservation
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Kauzeni, A., Kikula, I., Mohamed, S., and Lyimo, J., (1993) Land Use Planning and Resource
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APPENDICES
A) Land-use map of Tanzania

Figure 3: Land use map of Tanzania, showing agriculture as the dominant land-use, with the fertile lands in the
southern region (Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Landcover datasets from
University of Maryland and the World Land Cover dataset from the USGS EROS Data Centres Global Land
Characteristics Database.)

Appendix B
Figure 8: A representation of the effectiveness of bottom-up schemes involving local communities and indigenous
people in alleviating deforestation and land degradation. In general, there is a reduction of deforestation and
degradation where community projects are in practice, showing the improvement in environmental quality and
land cover that involving the local people have. Source: Rob Marchant, University of York

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