Cell Proliferation And The Control Of Cellular Function

Cell Proliferation And The Control Of Cellular Function
1. Introduction
Babesias are tick–transmitted hemoprotozoan parasites belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa.
These parasites are etiological agents of babesiosis that infect a wide spectrum of mammals thereby
causing major health and economic problems in the livestock industry throughout the world.
Babesia bigemina is one of several Babesia species known to cause bovine babesiosis. The disease
is clinically manifested by anemia, fever, hemoglobinuria, and the presence of parasites in the host
erythrocytes (Homer et al., 2000).
The 70 kDa heat–shock proteins (HSP–70s) are intracellular proteins found in all organisms. HSPs
play important roles in cell proliferation and the control of cellular functions
(Lindquist, 1986). Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are known as stress proteins because various forms of
stress enhance their transcriptional activation and biosynthesis
(Lindquist, 1986). As many bacteria and parasites produce
HSP–70, the protein serves as an antigen for bacteria and parasitic pathogens (Erol et al., 1999).
Moreover, HSP–70 might play important roles in survival and proliferation of pathogens, such as
Schistosoma, Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, and Leishmania within the host (Lindquist, 1986). Many
pathogens encounter sudden temperature shifts during the transmission from the vector to a host.
Hsp–70 assists the parasite in adapting to a new host environment and is known to have a chaperone
function, forming complexes with a diverse array of cellular proteins and peptides
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Essay about The Schistosomiasis Parasite in Contaminated...
The Schistosomiasis Parasite in Contaminated Water
Ever wonder what kind of parasites are in your water, or how they can enter in to your body to make
you very sick? Well it is most definite that no on want to get sick. The information found in this
paper was collected over the past month, either by going to the library or by accessing information
off the Internet at home, almost every night. The point that will be given to you is a little in
information about the infectious disease called Schistosomiasis. The points the main points will be
the causative agents, symptoms, hosts, methods of transmission and history of the disease. So lets
see what Schistosomiasis is. Schistosomiasis is a parasite. This parasite is a worm that ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The next thing that happens is the worm migrates to the lungs and in 6 weeks matures in to an adult
worm. It causes severe pulmonary vascular obstruction and pulmonary hypertension via both
anatomic obstructive by the organism it self an inflammatory vasculitic response to the organism. It
is a common cause of cor pulmonale. The liver is involved usually quite extensively before
pulmonary involvement. It can cause seizures, abnormal neuralgic function, and increased pressure
on the brain. It infects the kidneys, urethras, and bladder. Schistosomiasis is s a common cause of
kidney failure, and bladder infections that lead to cancer. The eggs that are laid start developing after
four to six weeks. The parasite migrates to the bladder or urethras depending on the animal. They
can be one to two cm in length. Some of the symptoms of Schistosomiasis are pain in organs and
body, blockage and damage to the infected organ, and anemia. Most of the symptoms disappear
within a few weeks but death may occur. In some of the endemic areas the disease would go
unnoticed. There are a couple of reasons why it would go unnoticed. The first reason for this is
because of the age they were at the time of exposure. The second reason would be the manner of
exposure. The final reason would be the transfer of antigens, antibodies and anti–idiotypes from the
mother. Immediately after exposure the person will have intense transient

The Latest Advances In Drug Manipulations Of The Immune...
INTRODUCTION In order to provide a detailed analysis of recent pharmacological developments
involving the human immune system, it is firstly necessary to introduce the innate and adaptive
immune responses . Immunosuppressants and immunomodulators will be differentiated between and
a selection of new and often experimental drugs belonging to each category will be provided.
Specific drugs will be described including the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics involved
with each type. The possible clinical uses will be alluded to along with details from recent research.
INNATE IMMUNITY Innate immunity is the first line of defence and comprises physical (skin),
biochemical (complement, lysozyme) and cellular (macrophages, neutrophils) ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The role of complement & antibody–antigen complexes Antibodies have two distinct functions:
to recognise and combine with an antigen, and to activate a defence mechanism for example by
activating the complement sequence (Dale et. al., 1994). This sequence involves more than thirty
proteins (Mollnes & Harboe, 1996) and has the function of the destruction and removal of
invading micro–organisms and subcellular debris and to promote clearance of antigen–antibody
complexes (Dale et. al., 1994). These functions are achieved mainly via complement's ability to
attract leukocytes (Lessof, 1993). The interaction of antibody with specific antigen results in the
formation of the antibody–antigen complex. This complex has several functions: for instance, to
immobilise an antigen therefore preventing attack upon host cells, to block active toxic regions of
particular bacteria, and to allow phagocytic attack. Memory cells Once the antigens have been
destroyed the plasma cells disappear leaving a few as memory cells which enable a swift response
upon second exposure to the antigen (Trounce, 1997). Memory cells are the basis of active
immunisation against bacteria (Downie et. al., 1994). Humoral immunity is most efficient against
antigens dissolved in body fluids, that is extracellular pathogens, primarily bacteria whereas cell–
mediated immunity is most effective against intracellular pathogens such as viruses (Tortora &
Grabowski, 1996). CELL–MEDIATED

The, An Insidious Parasitic Disease
Schistosomiasis, an insidious parasitic disease, is estimated to affect more than 240 million people
worldwide with 700 million people living in at risk areas. (World Health Organization.) The
prevalence is highest in the paediatric population as they have "high exposure to infective water and
low levels of acquired immunity" (McGarvey, 2000, p.269) Infection is acquired through contact
exposure to cercariae (larval stage of parasitic blood flukes) from activities such as swimming and
bathing in infected water. This parasitic disease leads to poor general health, delayed growth and
development, decreased cognitive development and reproductive health issues (Terer et al., 2013).
Until recently, treatment guidelines have focused on annual school based deworming programs with
the anthelminthic drug Praziquantel (PZQ.) In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO)
expanded their treatment guidelines to include preschool aged children (children under the age of
five) in their mass drug administration (MDA) campaigns. This change came about from new
research exploring misconceptions related to epidemiology and immunology of preschool aged
children. Although it was been proven that Praziquantel is safe and effective in this population,
preschool aged children still have difficultly accessing appropriate treatment. This essay will discuss
the challenges and barriers in resolving this health inequity and in particular, the need for a suitable
pediatric Praziquantel formulation. These

Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Case Paper
ABSTRACT: A case of pancreatic adenocarcinoma diagnosed following work up for eosinophilia is
reported. A 68 year old female was referred to our Hematology clinic for an absolute eosinophil
count of 1869 per microliter. No allergic signs or symptoms were reported. Laboratory studies for
parasitic infestations autoimmune disease and collagen vascular disease were negative. Computed
Tomography of the abdomen revealed a mass in the neck of the pancreas with biopsy consistent with
adenocarcinoma. The patient received one cycle of modified FOLFIRINOX with complete
resolution of eosinophilia. There are rare case reports of tumor associated blood eosinophilia in sold
malignancies. The finding may be indicative of rapid disease progression and poor ... Show more
Tumor–associated blood eosinophilia (TABE) is rare occurring in about 0.5% of malignanicies [3]
with the onset usually being late when the disease is often widespread [4]. Lowe et al described
eosinophilia in cases of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, head and neck cancer, lymphoma of
the gastrointestinal tract and cancer of the bladder [5,6,7]. Three cases of eosinophilia in patients
with chromophobe renal cell carcinoma (CRCC) were described by Yong–Bao Wei et al [8]. TABE
may portend a poor prognosis and more aggressive disease

Spider Monkeys Social Behavior
Social Behavior Among Monkeys May Be More Nature Than Nurture
ScienceDaily (Dec. 4, 2003) – An unusual experiment with monkeys who were switched between
mothers shortly after birth has demonstrated the importance of nature over nurture in behavior.
Rearing
Young monkeys reared by a mother other than their own are more likely to exhibit the aggressive or
friendly behavior of their birth mothers rather than the behavior of their foster mothers, a University
of Chicago researcher has shown for the first time.
The discovery of inheritability of social behavior traits among non–human primates has important
implications for people as it reinforces other research that suggests that such characteristics as
sociability and impulsive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fights are rare as they prefer to draw back which is an important trait of Spider monkeys behavior.
As the thumb is absent in their hands, the Spider monkey's grooming is not as developed as in other
primates. They scratch themselves with hands and feet. Their social grooming in limited to the
mothers grooming their young.
It is said that the barks of spider monkeys are much worse than their bites. The crazy behavior of
Spider monkeys is intended solely to frighten the prowler and is merely a bluff. Moreover, spider
monkeys only intimidate human beings only if they have not had a brush with them previously. Any
negative experience with human beings makes them cautious and they try to keep away from them.
social behaviour, animal, the suite of interactions that occur between two or more individual
animals, usually of the same species, when they form simple aggregations, cooperate in sexual or
parental behaviour, engage in disputes over territory and access to mates, or simply communicate
across space.
Social behaviour is defined by interaction, not by how organisms are distributed in space. Clumping
of individuals is not a requirement for social behaviour, although it does increase opportunities for
interaction. When a lone female moth emits a bouquet of pheromones to attract male potential
mates, she is engaging in social behaviour. When a male red deer ... (100 of 19962 words)
Social behaviour
Chimpanzees are lively

A Report On The Disease
Introduction The disease discussed in this article is eumycetoma, a chronic granulomatous
subcutaneous infectious disease that is endemic in the "mycetoma belt" of 30 degrees North to 15
degrees South of the equator (Hellemond et al., 2013). Sudan has the highest country–wide
prevalence of eumycetoma, with 2% of the population being infected in the endemic villages in the
Gezira area (Ahmed et al., 2004). Although mycetoma can be caused by various bacteria and fungi
agents, the majority of mycetoma cases in Sudan, which is around 70%, are caused by the fungus
Madurella mycetomatis (eumycetoma) (Hellemond et al., 2013). Nonetheless, while most people
living in the endemic areas have been exposed to the fungi, only a few actually develop ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Schistosomiasis can even convert an already established Th1–response to a Th–2 response.
Furthermore, in eumycetoma endemic countries schistosomiasis is often a chronic disease that lasts
the duration of a person's life, and this could lead to a persistent Th2–type immune response
(Hellemond et al., 2013).Thus, if Schistosomiasis predisposes the development of eumycetoma,
efforts to eradicate Schistosoma in a population could also lower the number of eumycetoma cases.
If this is the case, then intervention strategies could be developed to target both Schistosoma and
eumycetoma in a population. Hypothesis The primary association examined in this study is the
relationship between a Th2–type immune response and the susceptibility to eumycetoma.
Hellemond et al. (2013) have previously shown that eumycetoma patients increased concentrations
of IL–10 circulating in their bodies. Thus, it is hypothesized that an infection of schistosomiasis,
which induces a Th2–type response that is accompanied by increased levels of IL–10, might
increase the susceptibility of a patient to eumycetoma. However, toxoplasmosis, which induces a
Th1–type immune response, should not be associated with increased susceptibility to eumycetoma.
Methods and Materials Hellemond et al. (2013) collected 84 serum samples from the endemic areas
of Sudan between 2001 and 2008. Of the 84 samples collected, there were 53 from

Effect Of Globalization On Neediness Essay
Many millions of people are excluded, left behind in squalor . . ." (Annan 2000). In spite of the fact
that the correct effect of globalization on neediness is exceptionally hard to evaluate, look into
assessments demonstrate that destitution has expanded by 82 million, 14 million, and 8 million in
sub–Saharan Africa, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean separately.
Investigating this, globalization itself can 't be considered in charge of the vast majority of the
neediness in creating nations as different variables, for example, terrible administration, poor
financial strategies, feeble changes, and so forth have additionally embroiled. Be that as it may,
globalization is a main consideration. As guaranteed by Princová (2010), globalization prompts to
riches redistribution – 'worldwide lavishness and neighbourhood destitution '. It makes the rich
nations, for this situation, the industrialized countries, to end up distinctly wealthier, and the poor
countries, the creating nations, to end up distinctly poorer.
Health Risks
Considering globalization from the wellbeing and illness edge, it has affected genuinely on the
epidemiology of irresistible infections, as respects to the capacity to counteract, control and kill
these ailments, worldwide and particularly in developing countries. One of the routes by which this
has happened is the upgrade of mechanical limits around the world, prompting to expanded outflows
and a resulting in a worldwide

Human Exploitation Of Host Immune Responses By Parasites...
Abstract
The broadly defined parasites have evolved a survival mechanism, which is evading the host's
immunity and obtaining multiple methods for successfully eluding the host immunity. The tactics
used in this mechanism is complex promoting persistence and completion of the life cycle. This
research investigates the interaction between host immunity and parasite. Paul Ehrlich, a German
physician and scientist, about 100 years ago commenced the concept of immune evasion (Damian,
1997). The concept of exploitation of host immune responses by parasites has been reinforced by
new data on its first known examples, especially the immune dependence of schistosoma egg
excretion. The infection caused by the parasite leads to a variety of outcomes that is the removal of
parasite or the death of the host. DAMIAN, R.T. (1997) 'Parasite immune evasion and exploitation:
reflections and projections', Parasitology, 115(7), pp. 169–175.
Introduction
Most studies have shown that most species are of parasitic form interacting with the host's immune
system. Subsequently, the host arranges their immune system to avoid infections by the protozoa.
However, the host's immune system is not always maximally efficient. The fact that the parasite
interacts with the host's immune system illustrates that they have evolved to reach such a successful
counteraction against the host's immunity. This research aims to shed light on the mechanism of
parasitic evasion, which leads to parasitic

Scurvy During The Age Of Scurvy
Scurvy (a vitamin C deficiency) had plagued the world for multiple centuries until actions were
finally taken in attempt to find an antidote. Scurvy is a disease which results from insufficient intake
of vitamin C and leads to the spots on the skin, spongy gums and bleeding from almost all mucous
membranes. Vitamin C deficiency and scurvy was hastened in the age of sail because of the rigorous
working conditions for sailors. The diet of sailors during the age of sail was obviously the main
factor in the plight of scurvy. As Vitamin C cannot be produced internally by humans, it must be
ingested through the diet. By examining the history of vitamin C, one can fully appreciate the
advances made in its research. Surprisingly, vitamin C's importance

Schistosomiasis
When people think of diseases, they usually think about the diseases that are most commonly
known. In reality, there are tons of minimally known diseases out there and some that people have
not even heard of. Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is one of those types of diseases.
Although the pronunciation sounds deadly, this disease is avoidable and the chances of getting
infected can be slim if there is awareness of the following information.
Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a parasitic disease that is carried by fresh water snails
infected with one of the five varieties of the parasite Schistosoma. This disease is caused by
helminths specifically blood flukes (trematode worms). The symptoms for this disease vary
depending ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Unfortunately, there are no vaccines available to avoid the infection. An oral treatment called
Praziquantel is the most common treatment that is given for Schistosomiasis. This treatment is
effective, low–cost, and safe. Reinfection can occur but the risk for a severe case of Schistosomiasis
to develop is much lower. Schistosomiasis can also be prevented by avoiding swimming in
freshwaters in countries where Schistosomiasis is common such as the Caribbean, South America,
and Africa. It is advisable to research the country that you are traveling to beforehand and inform
yourself of diseases prevalent in that country. Also, the most important tip is to drink safe water.
Even though you cannot get infected with consuming contaminated water, infection can occur if the
contaminated water touches your lips or skin on the face. Schistosomiasis is not prevalent in the
United States. It is more commonly found in tropical or subtropical areas and countries that are
higher in poverty with poor sanitation. It is highly important that travelers that plan to travel to
countries known to have Schistosomiasis cases avoid bathing or swimming in freshwaters. It is also
recommended that water used for bathing should be boiled for up to 1 minute to get rid of cecariae.
Schistosomiasis is a serious disease that can become deadly if the proper treatments or preventions
are neglected. It's important to not be blind of the fact that diseases

The Social Determinant Of Health
Introduction:
This research paper will focus on the social determinant of health involving access to clean water.
We have focused our research on the accessibility of safe water intake on First Nations Reserves in
Canada, we all know of the issues with limited access to safe water in other countries but we often
forget about our own issues at home here. Over a billion people in the world lack safe drinking
water, something that many of us in the Canada take for granted on a daily basis. As pointed out by
Peter Gleick, "nearly three billion people live without access to adequate sanitation systems
necessary for reducing exposure to water–related diseases"5. Throughout this paper we will explore
different solution options in order to prevent the spread of dangerous diseases through unsanitary
water conditions. Our research is going to express the importance of focusing on the issue we have
at hand here in Canada and increasing awareness for the issues here before worrying about other
countries over seas. Outbreaks of water–borne infections include but are not limited to; E'coli,
Salmonella, Schistosoma, Cholera vibrios and Hepatitis A. Thousands of people die every day
worldwide from water–related diseases; these deaths include mostly children and elderly, with some
of these incidents taking place in Canada.
Analysis:
We know and hear of the issues in Africa and other developing countries all the time, there are
starving and thirsty children and families living in poor

Biology Study Guide
Biology Qs 2 (a) (i) A = HUMAN LIVER (ii) B = HUMAN RED BLOOD CELLS (iii) C =
MOSQUITO INTESTINE (iv) D = MOSQUITO SALIVARY GLAND 2 (b) Adult flatworm
releases egg: INSIDE HUMAN HOST Egg hatches to become miracidium larva: FREE LIVING IN
FRESH WATER Miracidium larva becomes a cercaria larva: INSIDE SNAIL HOST Cercaria larva
develops into an adult flatworm: INSIDE HUMAN HOST 2 (c) The plasmodium parasite would be
most susceptible to human antibodies between the moment of initial infection and the arrival of the
larvae in the liver, as it travels through the bloodstream in the form of sporozytes. Here the parasite
is fully exposed, not ensconced in liver cells or red blood cells as during later phases of its
development. Though the lower numbers of parasites at this stage would trigger less of an antibody
response, this lower plasmodium population would also be more effectively countered by the human
body's natural defenses. 2 (d) i. 1. Multiple or even hermaphroditic reproductive organs to increase
reproductive chances 2. Morphological flattening to ease remaining on/travelling in a host organism
ii. Plasmodium: 1. The ability to seek out the human liver, which might provide essential fatty acids
the plasmodium parasite cannot produce on its own, is one important adaptation of this organism. 2.
The sporozyte phase of the plasmodium life cycle, which provides a great deal of morphological
(i.e. directly physical and not necessarily chemical) protection for

The Second Parasitic Infection After Malaria
Schistosomiasis is the second parasitic infection after malaria (kiros et al., 2014) and is a standout
amongst the most pervasive and disregarded illnesses of tropical and subtropical areas (rizk and aly,
2015). B. alexandrina snails are the intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni (le Clec'h et al. 2016)
with high prevalence in Egypt (el–Sheikh et al., 2012). Control of B. alexandrina upsets the life
cycle of the parasite (el–Sherbini et al., 2009) and contains a critical component in coordinated
methodologies for lessening the spread of schistosomiasis (rocha–Filho et al., 2015). Manufactured
molluscicides is an imperative part in the incorporated schistosomiasis control programs. The high
cost of these molluscicides and their negative effect on the earth being poisonous to creatures of
land and water (salem et al., 2014; world health organization, 2014), have stimulated interest for
quest for plant molluscicides (otarigho and morenikeji, 2012; kiros et al. 2014). The medicinal
plants represent the main source of molluscicidal agents for B. alexandrina control (el–Sherbini et
al., 2009) as these plants are less costly, less unsafe to the earth and having a high level of
degradability (salawu and odaibo, 2011; rocha–filho et al., 2015). Moringa oleifera Lamarck
(Family: Moringaceae) is an important medicinal plant referred as a miracle tree (radovich, 2009). It
is discovered broadly dispersed in both tropical and

What Is Schistosomiasis?
uction
Schistosomiasis, snail fever, has infected 240 million people in about 78 countries. This disease is
found predominantly in subtropical and tropical climates, such as Africa the Caribbean, South
America, East Asia, and the Middle East. This is one of five varieties of the parasite schistosoma
that are carried by fresh water snails. Schistosomiasis is the second most common parasitic disease.
If uncured, children with this chronic disease may suffer from malnutrition and anemia, which can
lead pervasive learning disabilities (Global Network).
Background
This disease is caused by a blood trematode, a flatworm that can survive in two hosts. It is spread
through the water (CDC, 2012). Once a person gets in contact with freshwater that ... Show more
These men, who were employed by home builders to work on the construction of country houses,
restaurants, and hotels, came to this city from endemic areas of the northeast of Minas Gerais State.
After a workday they showered, unknowingly, in a nearby–infected river. They used this one river to
bathe and dispose fecal matter since, they lived in improvised shelters without sanitary facilities.
Unexpectedly, This river supplied a local swimming poo, in which the population was already
infected. The snails from that s infected the Local Water. It then entered the skin of the workers and
infected them. Apart from the 50 people who were infected an estimated number of four to six
million residents in Brazil and battling this infection. The disease is prevalent in 519 of the 853
municipalities in Minas Gerais State. In this state alone approximately 1000000 people are infected
among the 10870063 who live the area (NIH,

Waterborne Illness
Water borne illness in third world countries
Danielle H Woods
Ivy Tech Community College
October 16, 2013
Water borne illness in third world countries
Third countries have myriad problems that interrelate in intricate ways to cause a series of problems
for their citizens. One major problem in the third world countries is the disease burden. Waterborne
diseases make a major contribution to diseases' burden in the third world. As per the World Health
Organization, waterborne diseases contribute to about 4.1% to the daily burden of diseases on the
planet daily. WHO puts the contribution of sanitation, poor hygiene, and unsafe water contribution
to waterborne diseases at 88% (Guidelines for drinking–water quality, 2011). Water ... Show more
Infants and the elderly are particularly susceptible to waterborne diseases due to their weak
immunities (3rd World Water Congress: drinking water treatment : selected proceedings of the 3rd
World Water Congress of the International Water Association, held in Melbourne, Australia, 7–12
April 2002, 2002). Children's immunity experiences most of the diseases for the first time making
the body not to respond adequately to the pathogens. Their immunity improves with age as their
immunity continues to register these pathogens and develops their antibodies. Elderly people have
weak immunity as immunity only gets impaired with old age. Protozoan diseases include
Amoebiases, Cryptosporidiosis, Cyclosporiasi, Giardiasis, and Microsporidiosis among others. Each
disease listed above has its own protozoan pathogen. Each protozoan has a common habitat in
contaminated water. Such habitats include sewage, on flies from contaminated water, animal
manure, run off water, groundwater, leaks, and where people share water with animals. Common
symptoms of these diseases include diarrhea, weight loss, low appetite, cramps, nauseas, fatigue,
bloating, fever, and muscle aches. | | | |
Some parasitic infections particularly from metazoans include Schistosomiasis and Dracunculiasis.
The former is caused by genus Schistosoma members while the latter is caused by larvae.
Schistosoma

Histoplasmosis Research Paper
capable of photosynthesis for their energy, and others absorb nutrition from the host. Protozoan
pathogens are commonly encountered during daily life. They may be attached to arthropod vectors
or in something as simple as undercooked meat. This animal like pathogen requires liquid to be
active b. Fungal pathogens– Fungal pathogen are found everywhere. Fungal pathogens are more
commonly found outside in the natural environment, but can be also found indoors and on/or inside
humans. Fungal pathogens like moist environments, but they require a carbon source to thrive. The
nutrient that is taken in by the fungi is first digested and then ingested, Storing their food in the form
of starch. Fungi eat saprophytes, parasites, or symbionts. c. Helminthic ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
a. There are several types of histoplasmosis. Mild forms of histoplasmosis will show no indication
of the infection with symptoms, but more sever histoplasmosis infections would show more life
threatening symptoms. The variation in symptoms is due to compromised immune systems
increasing the severity of the infection 10. Trichinella spiralis is a nematode parasite that is usually
transmitted to humans by eating undercooked meat from animals such as pigs. How does Trichinella
spiralis cause disease in humans? Why might ingesting this organism be more dangerous than
ingesting a beef tapeworm? a. Once the Trichinella spiralis is ingested it goes through the body into
the stomach, and encounters pepsin and gastric acid. Once this occurs larva is released and travels
into the small bowel mucosa where they mature into adult worms. The adult worms then travel into
the striated muscle an encyst into the body where they may live for years. Compared to beef
tapeworms Trichinella is far more dangerous, due to the potential that the larva will migrate to the
brain, this may cause very serious symptoms such as epilepsy or even death. Part II

Vitamin A Research Paper
acquired immune deficiency syndromes and this makes the individuals susceptible to infectious
diseases (7–9). For example, vitamin A plays a crucial role in the immune system such that a
deficiency in this essential vitamin is strongly associated with infectious diseases. Other nutrients
that have been studied with regards to nutritional immunology include zinc, copper, selenium, iron,
vitamins C, B6, folic acid, A and E and the essential (polyunsaturated) fatty acids. A brief discussion
of these nutrients follows.
Vitamins and how they affect immunity
Vitamin A
Insufficient vitamin A has been found to predispose humans and other animals to infectious
organisms such as Schistosoma mansoni, Trypanosoma cruzi, Sallmonela typhi, ... Show more
Similarly, supplemental vitamin E has been proven to enhance resistance to infections in lambs,
sheep, rodents, turkey and chicks (16). Other documented benefits of vitamin E include remarkable
elevation of specific antibody responses, T–helper cell function, and T and B cells cooperative
effects (17).
In another study, it was discovered that when vitamin E was administered at an estimated dosage of
10 to 50 times the normal dietary intake, it promoted the mitogenic response to T–cell and B–cell.
However, these responses were inhibited when the dosage was increased to about 170–350 times,
confirming a dose–dependent trend in animal species. On the contrary, studies with human subjects
showed an increase in the number of T–cells without an accompanying effect on mitogenic
responses. When vitamin E was added to an antioxidant cocktail and administered to the subjects, an
increase in both T–cells and mitogenic responses was recorded. This suggests a synergy between
vitamin E and the antioxidant nutrients (18).
Pyrodixine
Pyridoxine (B6) deficiency in monkeys, dogs, rats, and chicken is characterized by atrophy of
lymphoid tissue. In rats, deficiency of this vitamin leads to a clearly noticeable decrease in the
number of lymphocyte. Some other consequences of pyridoxine deficiency in rodents include
decrease in the formation and function of antibodies,

Dancing Skeletons: Life and Death in West Africa
Although the !Kung San of southern Africa differ greatly from the people in the west African nation
of Mali, both areas share similar problems. Both suffer from diseases, illnesses, malnutrition, and
having to adapt to the ever changing and advancing cultures around them. What I found to be the
most significant problem that is shared between both areas is that the people suffered from a lack of
education. In the book Dancing Skeletons: Life and Death in West Africa by Katherine A. Dettwyler,
there is a lack of education in proper nutritional practices, taking care of children and newborns, and
basic medical knowledge and practices. The Dobe Ju/'hoansi have recently started putting in schools
to help children receive an education to help ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also in the very first chapter of her book, Dettwyler describes one of the children she treated, kid
#104, whose mother left him in the house all day with a bowl of rice and sauce. He was not able to
talk or move because he suffered from extreme malnutrition. After the mother had weaned him, she
left him alone in the house all day, hoping that he would decide for himself when he was ready to
eat. The mother had no basic knowledge of how to take care of her child, leaving him all alone to
take care of himself (Dettwyler 1994: 2). When it came to differing views between western beliefs
and the native point of view, one of the bigger problems was the conflict about contraception and
stopping the spread of HIV and AIDS. Southern Africa, were the Dobe Ju'/hoansi subside, has one
of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS in the world. "[T] he world U/N. figures for June 2000 show a
seropositive rate among adults of 19.54 percent in Namibia, 19.94 percent in South Africa, and a
staggering 35.8 percent in Botswana (Lee 2003: 190)." Because of the epidemic the life expectancy
in the area has also drastically dropped. Western medical professionals have made clear to most
communities that condoms are the most effective protection from HIV/AIDs. Because of this many
western clinics and organizations in Africa distribute condoms to the local people. Regardless of the

How Schistosomiasis Is A Parasitic Disease Caused By...
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by trematode flatworms. This parasitic infection
endemic mostly impact impoverished nations that do not have clean running water. Schistosomiasis
is commonly found in 76 countries around the world. In under developed countries of Africa
Schistosomiasis, is second only to malaria as a cause of morbidity. Schistosomiasis affects
approximately 240 million people globally (Hotez, 2013). The main areas affected are the regions
near the equator, parts of the Middle East, Asia, South America, and the entire continent of Africa.
The mortality rate of Schistosomiasis in Sub–Saharan Africa is approximately more than 200,000
each year. Based on my research, Schistosomiasis is spread due to a combination of a lack of
prevention–based education and poor living conditions. In this paper we will discuss the origin of
schistosomiasis, get more in depth about the effects of schistosomiasis, and the methodology
regarding disease prevention.
Introduction of the Disease
Schistosomes are water–borne cestodes or blood flukes that use the human skin as their port of
entry. The symptoms of schistosomiasis can vary from having a fever, joint pains, bloody diarrhea,
ascites, abdominal pain, and hematuria. In the long run, patients can develop an abnormally enlarged
spleen and liver accompanied with enlarged lymph nodes. The current increase in the prevalence of
schistosomiasis has been attributed to causes such as increase irrigation schemes.

Research Study on the Interaction Among Platelets and...
Subjects
The study subject was divided into 4 groups. Group I: 21 patients with hepatic schistosomiasis (12
male and 9 females). Group II: 18 patients with HCV infection (10 male and 8 females). Group III:
23 patients with concomitant hepatic schistosomiasis and HCV infections (13 male and 10 females).
Group IV: 20 healthy individuals as controls (12 male and 8 females). Full history taking including
contact with water canal water were collected from the study subject
Abdominal ultrasound
Ultrasonography was conducted to all study subject to assess the hepatic physical condition
including the grading of portal tract thickening in S. mansoni positive patients and the extent of liver
cirrhosis.
Liver function tests
Serum levels of AST, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
HCV–RNA levels were analyzed by real time polymerase chain reaction using a commercial kit
(Bioer, Technology Co., Ltd) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Flow–cytometeric analysis
Platelets rich plasma (PRP) were separated and freshly tested for CD41, CD42, CD62P and CD63
expression using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and phycoerythrin (PE) conjugated monoclonal
antibodies (mAbs) (BD Biosciences. Com, Pharmingen TM). The flow cytometry for the immune
cells, EDTA treated blood was labeled with 10 µl monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in 3 tubes. Tube 1
for T cell contained CD3–peridin chlorophyll protein (PerCP), CD4–fluorescein isothiocyanate
(FITC) and CD8–phycoerythrin (PE). Tube 2 for NK cells contained CD16/CD56 PE and CD 3
FITC. Tube 3 for B cells contained CD19 FITC and CD22 PE (all Becton Dickson, San Jose, Calif).
A non specific Isotype Control was used in each sample. All antibodies were of IgG1k Isotype
Flowcytometer Epics ® Elite ʻʻCoulterʼʼ system was used for analysis. Results were expressed as a
specific percentage of positive markers, calculated by subtracting the non specific fluorescence of
the Isotype control form the specific fluorescence of the mAbs. For subtraction, the manufacturer's
software was used [15].
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using Instat software. ANOVA test was

Guide To Madagascar
Medical Assistants Travel Guide to Madagascar Officially known as the Republic Of Madagascar,
this island is the fourth largest island in the world being referred to by some travelers as the "sixth
continent". The island is located in the southern hemisphere, three hundred miles off of the lower
east coast of Africa. This country experiences only two seasons consisting of a hot and rainy season
and a cool and dry season. The hot and rainy season runs from November through April and the cool
and dry season runs from April through October average temperatures run from highs of 85 with
lows of 63 degrees Fahrenheit. Madagascar consists of 226,657 square miles of land inhabited by an
estimated 23.57 million people and is considered to be the poorest ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
When traveling here you will want to make sure you bring with you essential first– aid supplies. It
would be favorable to bring antiseptic wound cleaner, antifungal ointments, antibacterial ointments,
1% hydrocortisone cream, oral rehydration tablets, multiple sizes of Band–Aids and gause,
tweezers, Q–tips, N95 face masks, eye drops, disposable gloves, scissors, safety pins, a suture and
syringe kit, aloe gel, sunscreen (SPF 15+), hand sanitizer, latex condoms (if deemed necessary),
acetaminophen and ibuprofen, diarrhea medication, extra glasses or contacts if you wear them,
insect repellent, antihistamine, mild laxative, altitude medication motion and sickness medication.
You will want to also obtain refills (enough to last through–out your visit) of any current
medications prescribed to you, inhalers, and a mild sedative for sleep. It is also necessary to bring a
bug screen to cover you while you sleep to help protect you for insect bites. These items are not
usually easily obtainable and you might need these on hand. Many common illnesses and infectious
diseases can be contracted around the island. There are six different illness exposure types that you
will need to

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)
Hepatitis C is an infectious disease and inflammation of the liver which caused by the hepatitis
C Virus(HCV). This disease was belongs the the microbial group of virus. This infection is
asymptomatic, but it is a chronic infection that may lead to scarring of the liver and ultimately to
cirrhosis. The liver is a vital organ that processes nutrients, filters the blood, and fights infections.
When the liver is inflamed or damaged, its function can be affected. Acute Hepatitis C refers to the
first several months after someone is infected. Acute infection can range in severity from a very
mild illness with few or no symptoms to a serious condition which require hospitalization.
There are about 20% of people are able to clear or get rid ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The only way to know if you have Hepatitis C is to get tested. A blood test called Hepatitis
C Antibody Test. This test helps to look for antibodies to the Hepatitis C virus. Antibodies are
chemicals released into the bloodstream when someone gets infected. Antibodies remain in the
bloodstream even the person already cleared from the virus. A positive or reactive Hepatitis C
Antibody
Test means that a person has been infected with the Hepatitis C virus at some point in time.
However, a positive antibody test does not necessarily mean a person still has Hepatitis C. In
addition, RNA test is needed to determine if a person is currently infected with Hepatitis C. Even if
there is currently no vaccine to prevent Hepatitis C, there are still ways to reduce the risk of
becoming infected with the
Hepatitis C virus. First, avoid sharing or reusing needles, syringes or any other equipment to prepare
and inject drugs, steroids, hormones, or other substances. Second, do not use personal items that
may have come into contact with an infected person's blood, even in amounts too small to see, such
as razors, nail clippers, toothbrushes, or glucose monitors. Third, do not get tattoos or body
piercings

Bladder Cancer
BLADDER CANCER Bladder cancer is the growth of malignant cells in the urinary bladder. Most
forms of bladder cancer start in the superficial layer of the transitional epithelium, and most often
affect the transitional cells. It may also be called transitional cell carcinoma or even urothelial
carcinoma. Urothelial carcinoma is also a term used for transitional cell cancer in the renal pelvis,
ureters, and urethra. Bladder cancer is a relatively common disease. It is the fourth leading cancer
among men (following prostate, lung, colorectal cancers), and the tenth leading cancer among
women; occurring in men about three times more often than women. Like most types of cancer,
bladder cancer usually involves epithelial cells, in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Urine flow may be routed out of the body through a stoma, or a variety of surgeries have been
developed to form artificial bladders from parts of the large or small intestine. In addition to surgery,
radiation and chemotherapy may be used in the battle against bladder cancer. More than 70% of
bladder cancer diagnoses are made when the cells affect only superficial layers of tissue. Of course,
this is excellent news because the survival rate for cancers caught early is much better than for
cancers caught in stage three or later. Even so, bladder cancer has an unusual habit of growing in
several places at once, so although it may be possible to catch one or two tumors, any invisible third,
fourth, and fifth tumors may not become symptomatic for another several months. This means that
the reoccurrence rate for bladder cancer is surprisingly high; up to 80% percent of bladder cancer
patients have at least one reoccurrence. The relation between bladder cancer and carcinogenic
substances is one of the most clearly demonstrated links between environmental exposures and
cancer. The good news is the bladder cancer is probably a completely preventable disease, if
exposure to the carcinogenic substances is limited or eradicated. References
Bladder Cancer. (2008). Retrieved 30 January, 2009, from Mayo Clinic Foundation for Medical
Education and

The, Snail Fever, And Katayama Fever
1. Describe the causative agent
Schistosomiasis have three different names and these are bilharzia, snail fever, and Katayama fever
(Mawyer, 2013). It is a disease caused by parasites, meaning they live off the living host to survive.
Examples of parasitic organism are viruses, protozoa, and helminthes. They are flatworm or fluke,
known as Schistosomes and they cause Schistosomiasis disease. Schistosoma is the spices name and
Trematoda is the class that the organism falls under. Helminthes is the group or family of
Schistosoma ((Keas, 1999). These organisms are facultative anaerobic, and they have the ability to
move around in water and in the host bloodstream. They reproduce sexually and asexually
depending on the stage of development; they are intracellular parasites at the mature stage. They live
in water in the immature state. Schistosomes are flatworm and are different from other worms
because they compose of the female and the male worm. The adult female worm is longer (1.5–
2cm) than the male worm (1–1.5cm). The female worm produces several hundreds of eggs daily to
enhance its survival rate. An adult life span of a Schistosome can go up to 5 to 10 years, so you can
image how dangerous this infection is (Ferrara, 2010).
This organism is eukaryotic, because they are multi– celled organisms. They are symmetric on
lateral sides; meaning if you were looking at the right side of a flatworm you will see that both the
right and left sides are the same. They have a

The Magic and Science of Ancient Egyptian Medicine
THE SCIENCE AND MYSTERY OF ANCIENT
EGYPTIAN MEDICINE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE 1. Introduction 1 2. The Edwin Smith Papyrus 2 2.1 Authorship 3 3. The Ebers papyrus 3 4.
Human anatomy and physiology 4 4.1 Head, heart and thoracic cavity 4 4.2 Limbs and Injuries 5 4.3
Disease, Illness and their remedies and cures 6 5. Medicine and Dispensing 7 6. Conclusion 8 7.
Bibliography 9
Page 1
1. INTRODUCTION A broken bone, a runny nose, stomachache, toothache, headache or strange
lumps and bumps; these are just a few of the ailments that have plagued man ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
When one reads the Edwin Smith Papyrus, it is very apparent that it was written during a war in
order to treat war injuries. Page 3. 1. AUTHOURSHIP There has been much debate as to who the
author was. A major part of the papyrus was written by one scribe, with only a small section being
written by another. Some attribute the text to Imhotep, an architect, high pries and physician of the
Old Kingdom (3000–2500BCE). Imhotep was a famous magician but "medicine was the mistress he
most zealously wooed." (Hurry 1926:23). The highest office that he held during his lifetime, was
that of vizier to the Pharoah and that title must have held him in high regards with his patients. He
moved in the highest of social circles and rendered fine service the bodies and spirits of this he
treated. It has even been said that he, Imhotep, rather than Hippocrates, is the true father of
medicine.
3. THE EBERS PAPYRUS The Ebers Papyrus (c.1550BC) is full of incantations and disgusting
applications, which are intended to turn away disease–causing demons and it also includes 877
prescriptions. It may, if ancient medical terminology has been correctly interpreted, contain the
earliest account of tumors. Even though it consists of incantations, which are meant to turn away
disease–causing demons, it also contains evidence of empirical practice and observation. Some
examples of remedies found in the

Chemical Processes in Milk
Abbreviations:
GRAS: Generally Regarded As Safe
FBA: Fructose Bisphosphate Aldolase
FBP: Fructose Bisphosphate
GAP: Glyceraldehyde 3–Phosphate
DHAP: Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate
MSA: Multiple Sequence Alignment
Introduction
Lactococcus lactis is a Gram positive bacterium commonly used to produce buttermilk and cheese.
In most cases they are known to produce Lactic acid. Traditionally regarded as a GRAS microbe,
and with its ability to produce lactic acid, it is one of the most important organisms used in the dairy
industry, used extensively in the early stages of production of several kinds of cheeses(Siezen,
Bayjanov et al. 2010). A good understanding of the genetic and enzymatic information of the cycles
that drive the production of lactic acid in these microbes is essential for the dairy industry.
The purpose of this report is to discuss about Fructose 1,6–Bisphosphate Aldolase Class II in L.
lactis. However, studies on several other bacteria like E. coli, Streptococcus sp. and other
Lactococcus sp. will also be used as reference containing similar versions of this enzyme taking part
in their cycles.
Name EC Number Accession Number Protein Length Gene Length Organism
Fructose–bisphosphate Aldolase 4.1.2.13 CDG05391 298aa 897bp Lactococcus lactis
Table 1: Details on FBA. Source:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/CDG05391.1
The Enzyme is also known as Fructose 1,6–bisphosphate Aldolase, FBA, Fda, FBA, or simply
Aldolase.
FBA catalyses the reversible reaction in Glycolysis

Summary Of Parasite Rex Inside The Bizarre World Of The World
Zimmer emphasizes his prologue in two different stories. The first story is about a twelve–year–old
boy named Justin who lives in Tambura Sudan infected with a single cell parasite called a
trypanosome also known as the sleeping disease. Zimmer explains that the parasite is transmitted by
two different hosts the tsetse fly and humans. The infection cycle starts with the tsetse fly drinking
human's blood pouring in Trypanosomes. The trypanosomes then steal oxygen and glucose invading
all the organs including the brain. Sleeping sickness gets its named from the way trypanosomes
disorder people brains by damaging the biological clock and turning day to night. Justin had to take
some injections of melarsoprol which contains twenty percent of arsenic and steroids for swelling.
This brutal procedure was followed because Justin had parasites in his brain.
The second story took place a few months after his trip to Sudan. Biologist Daniel Brooks guided
Zimmer and seven other biologists through a jungle in Costa Rica. Brooks caught several different
types of frogs to look under a microscope, most of the parasites were new to science. Zimmer then
goes into detail of how the book Parasite Rex Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous
Creatures is about a new study of life and that it has taken a long time for scientist to appreciate the
sophisticated adaptation parasites have made to the inner world.
Chapter 1: Nature's Criminals The chapter opens by Zimmer defining the

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