This document provides information on feeding strategies for wild and zoo animals. It discusses that feeding is controlled in zoos unlike in the wild. It classifies animals as herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores and describes their different digestive systems and nutrient needs. For herbivores, it discusses various fermentation types and cecotroph production. It also outlines the major nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals) and how they are obtained from different feed sources. Guidelines are provided for feeding different types of animals, and feeding behaviors of various species are described.

1. 1
FEEDING OF WILD/ZOO ANIMALS
Significance of feeding:
▪ Feeding in wild animals is different under captive conditions and in free-ranging
conditions.
▪ Feeding is a controlled activity in case of captive wild animal species unlike in the case
of free-ranging wild animal species in which cases, the animal by itself attempts to have
some control measures.
▪ Differing feed habits are there in case of captive wild animal places that are rich in
multiple species of wild animals.
▪ Hence, one should have a preliminary knowledge of the feeding-related activities in the
concerned wild animal species and a basic knowledge of nutrition, proper diets etc. is
essential.
▪ Scientific mode of feeding strategies forms the basis for the scientific management of
wild animal places.
▪ The field of wildlife nutrition is limited compared to domesticated animal commercial
nutrition.
▪ The basic principle of nutrition of wildlife mammals are same as domesticated
mammals, both mammals require 45 to 47 known nutrients.
▪ In most of Indian Zoos, animals are fed on the basis of their natural food habit and from
experiences with animals and Zoo keepers. Such types of diet may not be balanced for
the animal and may result in a deficiency.
CLASSIFICATION OF WILD ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING BEHAVIOR
Herbivores:
▪ They constitute the wide spectrum of different species of wild animals with anatomical
adaptations comprising symbiotic microbial populations of bacteria, protozoa etc.
▪ The feed resources to these animals have in general low nutritional values but are bulky
in nature.
▪ Among herbivores, the ones with complex stomachs (ruminants) are the most
efficient ones and the roughages and forages are most efficiently utilized by the species.
Microbial fermentation is the mode of digestion in these species. Example: Gaur, deer,
giraffe, antelopes like blackbuck, buffaloes etc.
▪ Pregastric fermenters are also available as wild fauna like kangaroo, wild pig,
hippopotamus etc. Similarly, hindgut fermenters like rabbits, guinea pigs,
capybara (caecal fermentation) and zebra and wild asses (colon fermentation) are
also existing under captive conditions.
▪ Cecotrophs are the ones that are produced in the morning and are the soft materials
that are often consumed directly from the anal region. Animals like rabbits and hares
produce these soft faecal pellets that have high protein, fibre, and water content
with increased amounts of the vitamin B complex.
▪ It is noteworthy to note that the bulk eaters like elephants or rhinos have poor digestive
efficiency but meet their nutritional requirements by consumption of high levels of feed
intake and fast rate of food transit without digesting fibre (as the case with giant
pandas).

2. 2
Carnivores:
▪ Carnivores are meat-eating animals and require highly digestible and high-quality food
resources with nearly all types of nutrients.
▪ The various species of this group require most of the time unique types of nutrition. For
example, felids need a dietary requirement for the amino acid taurine, preformed
vitamin A and essential fatty acid ‘arachidonic acid.’
Omnivores:
▪ Large group of wild animals belong to this in general. Most of the rodents, flying foxes,
sloths, bears, non-human primates, pigs, many species of birds etc. belong to this
group.
▪ Carbohydrates become the major nutrient received from the plants, while moderate
amounts of protein and fat are received from meat sources.
GENERAL NUTRIENTS AND FEEDSTUFF
Carbohydrates:
▪ This is the chief source of energy in case of wild animals.
▪ Ruminants like deer or giraffes or antelope make use of the complex carbohydrates
subsequent to the bacterial actions in the rumen and the rumen microflora help the
proper digestion of nutrients.
▪ Cereals, grains, roots, tubers, and fruits have high carbohydrates.
▪ Fruits are rich in pentoses and hexoses, whereas tubers and seeds are rich in glucose.
Proteins:
▪ More significance needs to be provided towards the provision of adequate amounts of
protein to wild animals, especially carnivores.
▪ The proteins comprise the ingredients of the internal framework of cells especially the
interstitial cells like dentine, osteoid tissue, connective tissue etc.
▪ Essential amino acids like arginine, methionine, threonine, leucine, lysine etc. are to be
given importance during the provision of protein-rich diets.
▪ It is to be noted that protein deficiency may result in retardation of the growth rate,
cessation of lactation in case of nursing animals, impairment of reproduction, decreased
body resistance level etc.
Fats:
▪ Fats are important nutrients in case of wild fauna like domestic animals. They provide
fat-soluble vitamins like A, D, E and K.
▪ In addition, the fat materials provide some satiety value to the concerned wild animal
species in addition to the provisions of the palatability of the feed.
▪ Provision of optimal amounts of fat is a must for wild animal species. Fat provides the
most concentrated forms of stored energy and fat reserves in fact help a lot in the
provision of energy during adverse climatic extremes.

3. 3
▪ For example, phocids like elephant seals may spend a considerable time on land
without any access to food while suckling the pups. In such occasions, fat is the major
nutrient factor that helps the survival of the concerned species.
▪ Similarly, in case of hibernating animals like bears in cool regions it is the fat that gets
accumulated often and is useful as an energy resource in winter months.
Roughages:
▪ Tree and shrub leaves, grass and legume silages, straw, fodder, hulls, shells, maize, hay
etc. form the roughages.
▪ They are bulky in nature but are poor in energy content and are rich in fibre.
Concentrates:
▪ These are low in fibre but are rich in protein or energy content.
▪ Cereal grains, non-cereal seeds like amaranthus green, grain milling by-products like
wheat and rice bran, beet pulp, citrus pulp, molasses etc. fall under this category.
▪ Fish meal, sunflower meal, cotton seed meal etc. provide more than 20% crude protein.
Mineral mixtures:
▪ Mineral supplements need to be added along with the routine food materials to be
offered to the dietary items of captive wild animals. It is to be borne in mind that
minerals also are supplied by a balanced diet.
▪ However, these can be supplied as mixtures including limestone, dicalcium sulphate,
salt, trace mineral mixtures etc.
▪ Among minerals, it is zinc that has an effect on hair growth and calcium with
phosphorous are also to be given maximum significance in case of wild animals.
▪ Deficiency of minerals like calcium and phosphorus may lead to the development
of bone disorders like rickets, osteodystrophy etc. Nursing animals need an
additional allowance of calcium in their dietary items.
Vitamin supplements:
▪ Vitamins like fat-soluble ones and water-soluble ones are of much helpful in various
metabolic functions occurring in the body.
▪ Care must be paid in the provision of adequate amounts of vitamins to the diet of captive
wild animals.
▪ The vitamins can be supplied along with the main diet as a special mixture to rectify
feather loss-like conditions.
▪ Species like red-vented bulbul, frugivours bats, guinea pigs, non-human primates
etc. are in need of a direct supply of vitamin C because they lack the enzyme L-
gluconolactone oxidase required for the synthesis of vitamin C.
Water:
▪ Watering in case of wild animals has to be given more significance. Generally, wild
animals prefer water content and even in the wild, wild animals move to the water holes
frequently in every day.

4. 4
▪ However, it is to be understood that certain species may not take water much like
blackbucks. The water requirement may be met by the water content of the food itself
or through the oxidation of organic constituents that produce metabolic water.
▪ High moisture diets are generally preferred by wild animals like non-human primates.
It is also equally true that high-moisture food items are often subjected to fungal as well
as microbial proliferation.
▪ Wild ruminants mostly drink water either in the late evening or early morning. Camels
have the capacity to take more water at a time. Wild animals like felids require the
provision of water ad libitum.
Feeding strategies in case of wild animals:
▪ Otters, badgers, pelicans, penguins, gharials, dolphins, ferrets, pole cats, mink etc. are
often fed with fish.
▪ Hence, more care needs to be taken while feeding the fish to the wild animals.
▪ Rotten fish or fish with a more pungent smell is to be avoided. Gill regions in the fish
need to be examined for freshness.
▪ Avoid the feeding of fishes like carp and herring that contain the enzyme termed
thiamenase since this may destroy the thiamine in the diet.
▪ Cooked fish or fishes like butter fish and mackerel may be used. Usage of oily fish like
herring in fish meal may lead to the oxidation of vitamins A and E in the diet.
▪ Wide trays may be used for feeding species like star tortoises.
STANDARD GUIDELINES FOR FEEDING OF CAPTIVE ANIMALS IN INDIAN ZOOS
General guidelines for feeding herbivores:
▪ The proportion of concentrates in the diet should be restricted to 25-30% on a DM basis.
In no case, it should exceed 30% of the total diet on a DM basis.
▪ Concentrates may be used as a vehicle for supplementation of minerals and other
micronutrients.
▪ Concentrate mixture should be supplemented with a balanced mineral mixture @ 2 %.
▪ Fruits and vegetables are not recommended.
▪ To avoid overfeeding/underfeeding concentrate feed should be offered in different
feeding stations inside the enclosure.
▪ Many zoos feed green fodder ad-lib. Restricting the amount of concentrates and fodder
would not only be economical but will also reduce the refusals.
General guidelines for feeding omnivores:
▪ Wild fruits are different in nutrient composition than cultivated fruits. Cultivated fruits
contain more sugar, less fibre, and less calcium than wild fruits, thus it may not always
be correct to feed them large quantities of cultivated fruits.
▪ To meet the Ca requirement of these fruit-eating animals is the most difficult task.
▪ Feed large quantity of green leafy vegetables to them.

5. 5
▪ When the animals are fed in a group, the basic idea is to provide adequate nutrition to
the weakest one. This approach however may cause obesity to the dominant members
of the group. Food may be scattered around the enclosure so that every member of this
group has access to food.
▪ Obesity should be closely monitored.
▪ Nuts may be given as a treat, not as a routine food.
▪ Do not feed the same fruit or vegetable every day. Variation is desirable.
▪ Calcium supplements may be added to the concentrate portion of the diet.
General guidelines for feeding carnivores:
▪ Order carnivore includes many species of animal with diversified food habits. This
generalization is limited to largely meat-eating species.
▪ Muscle meat is deficient in calcium. However, if bones are regularly chewed problem
of metabolic bone diseases can be easily averted.
▪ Do not feed eggs, milk etc to obligate carnivores. If you are intended to improve
vitamin supply then go straight for a vitamin supplement.
▪ Liver cannot be used as a supplement. Because a lot of hygienic issues are involved in
feeding the liver. It is generally preferable to supplement the diet with vitamins.
▪ Smaller felids, growing animals and lactating mothers do not require an off day.
▪ Freezing and thawing the meat before feeding is helpful in reducing parasitic load.
▪ Strict code of hygiene should be maintained at all times.
FEEDING HABITS
▪ The feeding habit varies from species to species.
▪ Chewing bones is a preferred activity among lions, tigers and jaguars and the activity
is less in panthers.
▪ These carnivores prefer larger pieces of meat to alleviate hunger more readily than the
smaller meat pieces. Lions and tigers carry the beef pieces to one side of the cage before
it sits for feeding.
▪ In lion, tiger, and jaguar the posture of consumption was of extending the fore legs and
holding the meat while the hind legs are tucked up within the body, whereas in panthers
all the four legs are tucked up within the body.
▪ Wild dogs eat while they were in a standing position in a hurried gulping manner.
▪ Among the large felines like tiger, lion, panther and jaguar the time taken to consume
the meat was from 16.5 to 39 minutes in a very slow manner.
▪ Tigers soon after feeding lick the cage wall a few times and then drink water, whereas
lions drink water soon after feeding.
▪ After the weekly starvation of lions and tigers a characteristic restlessness was evinced
by the sound and arrival of the food delivery vehicle.
▪ During the act of drinking the large cats curl tongue backward and then flick it forward,
rolling it up slightly into a spoon shape, as they do so and they swallow after every 4 or
5 laps.

6. 6
▪ Tigers, Jaguars, and Panthers show a preference for chicken meat when offered than
beef.
▪ Almost all species of the carnivores like the panther, lion, wild dog and tiger eat more
quickly in winter than in summer.
▪ In panthers, lions and tigers, smelling and licking of the meat were noticed. Tigers and
lions show a greater degree of smelling the licking than the other species.
▪ Elephants use the trunk as a prehensile organ and may even pick up grass by using
strikes with their legs on the ground later, the grass materials may be struck on their
own legs to wither away the dirt or sand and then by using the trunk, they may place
the feed materials into the mouth. The trunk will not be protruded during the eating
activities of the elephant.
▪ Bears have the habit of climbing trees or rocks in order to remove the bee hives and by
using their forelimbs, the hives are destroyed and used to suck honey in addition to
lapping using their tongue.
▪ Crocodiles have the habit of gulping the feed materials.
Sick diets:
▪ Most seriously ill-wild animals refuse to eat or just pick at the food. Force-feeding often
may not be practicable, especially in carnivores or herbivores.
▪ Soft diet like chicken preferably in cooked form may be attempted as one of the
significant diets in wild animal species.
▪ Intravenous fluids like dextrose saline, Ringers lactate etc, may be chosen in wild
animals that have totally ceased eating activities.
▪ Attempts may be done to provide the most palatable food for the targeted wild animal
species.
▪ In wild animals especially carnivores with severe gastritis whatever food are offered or
ingested, it may be vomited often. In such cases, a blended diet may be offered. Egg
white may be offered to carnivores with severe vomiting, in addition to administration
of 5% dextrose saline solution, in these gastritis-affected wild animals.
▪ Provide drinking water ad-libitum to all the sick wild animals in general.
▪ Provision of a bland diet in small quantities spaced in several daily doses may help to
minimize the incidences of vomiting or rejection by the concerned wild animal species.
Geriatric animal feeding:
▪ Avoid feeding with less-digestible feeds.
▪ Avoid full-stomach feeding.
▪ Provide adequate quantities of vitamins and minerals.
▪ Provide water ad-libitum.

7. 7
Recent research (2013) on the standardization of animal diet in Indian Zoos on 50 species in
34 Zoos in the country suggests guidelines in general as follows: -
Sl. No.
Name of
animal
(Captive)
Weight of
animal
Food suggested and their weight
1 Spotted deer 70 kg
6 kg quality green fodder with 500 gm balanced
concentrate feed/animal/day. Fruits and vegetables are
not recommended.
2 Hog deer 40 kg
3.75 kg quality green fodder with 280 gm balanced
concentrate feed/animal/day.
3
Brow-
Antlered
Deer
100 kg
7-9 kg of quality green fodder with 500 gm balanced
concentrate feed/animal/day.
4 Barking deer 25 kg
2-3 kg quality green fodder with 250 gm concentrate
feed/animal/day. Daily ration should be divided into 3-4
times. Fruits to be avoided.
5 Sambar 150 kg
Quality green fodder 9 kg/animal/day; tree fodder 2
kg/animal/day; concentrate 7.5 kg/animal/day.
6 Black Buck 40 kg
Quality green fodder 2.5-3 kg/animal/day with 250 gm
concentrate feed/animal/day.
7
Four-horned
Antelope
Quality fodder 2-2.5 kg green fodder with 200 gm
concentrate feed.
8 Gaur 800 kg
500 gm Ground nut cake, 3 kg Wheat bran, 1 kg horse
gram or any other pulses, green fodder 15 kg, 2 kg
leguminous fodder.
9 Giraffe 800 kg
Wheat bran 3.5 kg, Bengal gram 0.75 kg/animal,
crushed maize 0.5 kg; 45 kg Leguminous fodder, 15 kg
Banana, 2 kg apple, 200 gm sweet lime, carrot 2 kg, 2
kg onion, 1kg cabbage, sweet potato 250 gm, jaggery
50 gm, common salt 50 gm.
10 Wild Pig 100 kg
Mash (concentrate feed) 1000 gm; Green fodder 1250
gm; Potato/sweet potato 500 gm; vegetables 500 gm.
11
Indian
Rhinoceros
1600-2200 kg
2-3 kg balanced concentrate; 110-150 kg green fodder.
Fruits and vegetables are not encouraged. Food may be
offered in different feeding stations. Food should not be
given on the ground as sand colic reported due to this
practice.

8. 8
12
Asian
Elephant
3.5-4 Ton
165-225 kg green fodder and 5-6 kg balanced
concentrate. In addition, browses are to be added about
30-40 kg
13
Crested
Indian
Porcupine
100 gm banana,150 gm leafy vegetables, 100 gm
soaked Bengal gram, 200 gm carrot, 200 gm tuber is
adequate and to be at least twice a day.
14
Rhesus
macaque
5.3 – 7.3 kg
Vegetables 400 gm, fruits 200 gm, cooked or processed
cereals or soaked or germinated pulses, tuber 200gm,
browses should be added to the diet. Food should be
provided 3 times a day.
15
Bonnet
macaque
3.5 – 4.5 kg -do-
16
Pig–tailed
macaque
6.2 – 14.5 kg
100-1200 gm fresh food to given containing 100 gm
processed cereals and 50 gm of the soaked gram, rest
hard fruits and bowses to be thrice a day. Forages to be
fed ad libitum. Feeding soybean flakes, peanuts and
gram may not be necessary.
17
Stump-tailed
macaque
9.9 – 10.2 kg -do-
18
Lion-tailed
macaque
6-10 kg
700-800 gm fresh food is required by L.T.M. to be fed
3-4 times a day containing cooked cereals and soaked
pulse 50 gm each in the morning followed by some
seeds and insects in the noon and 200 gm leafy
vegetables in afternoon and finally 225 gm vegetables,
200 gm fruits and 50 gm other products i.e., egg etc.
19
Common
Langur
12.5 – 17.5 kg
50 gm bread, 50 gm tuber, 100 gm apple, 100 gm
pears/guava, 50 gm sprouted pulse, 100 gm soaked
gram, 300 gm mixed vegetables, 200 gm leafy
vegetables with browses to fed ad libitum.
20
Assamese
macaque
5 – 10 kg Diet schedule same as Rhesus macaque.
21
Capped
Langur
10 – 11 kg
250 gm bottle guard, 200 gm cucumber, 100 gm apple,
200 gm other vegetables, 100 gm soaked gram, 200 gm
banana, 200 gm gold mohur leaves, 100 gm spinach
and 200 gm china rose is adequate with browses ad
libitum.

9. 9
22
Golden
Langur
9.5 – 12 kg
100 gm apple/pears/guava, 100 gm citrous fruits, 100
gm tubers, 100 gm beans, 100 gm cabbage, 200 gm
other vegetables, 200 gm leafy vegetables, 300 gm
browses, 100 gm soaked gram and 50 gm bread would
be adequate.
23 Slow Loris 1.1 – 1.6 kg
50 gm banana, 50 gm citrous fruits, 50 gm
apple/pomegranate/ pears/guava, 25 gm bread, 25 gm
grape, 25 gm chiku, 50 gm cucumber, 25 gm carrot, and
30 gm egg may be fed. In addition, 5% of insects
should be included in the total diet.
24
Hoolock
Gibbon
6.1 – 6.9 kg
150 gm banana, 100 gm soaked gram, 50 gm apple, 100
gm pomegranate/ pears/ guava, 100 gm cabbage, 100
gm beans, 50 gm leafy vegetables, 100 gm tuber, 50 gm
egg and browses ad lib.
25 Jackal 8 – 11 kg 750 gm to 1 kg of beef with bone/day except on Fridays
26 Tiger 140 – 221 kg 6-8 kg of beef with bone/ day except on Fridays
27 Lion 110 – 190 kg 5 -6.750 kg beef with bone/ day except on Fridays
28 Leopard 29 – 70 kg 2 – 2.5 kg beef with bone/ day except on Fridays
29
Clouded
Leopard
11 – 20 kg Dressed chicken 1.3 – 1.5 kg /day except on Fridays
30 Leopard cat 0.55 – 3.6 kg 250 gm of meat/day except on Fridays
31
Common
Palm Civet
3.1 kg
100 gm meat/day except on Fridays and 200 gm
banana/day
32 Otter 7 – 12 kg 1.0 – 1.5 kg Fish/day
33
Himalayan
Black Bear
65 – 150 kg
400 gm cereals, 200 gm pulses, 1200 gm high protein
calcium vegetables, 45 gm jaggery, 1 kg milk, 15 gm
honey per day may be with the mineral mixture.
34 Binturong 13 – 20 kg
250 gm soaked gram, 350 gm banana, 100 gm apple, 75
gm orange, 35 gm egg, 400 gm bottle guard per day
35 Pea Fowl 2.75 – 6 kg
100 gm green leafy vegetables, 50 gm coloured
vegetables, 5 gm garlic, 50 gm onion, 25 gm boiled
egg, 100 gm poultry mash and 100 gm grain is
adequate per day
36 Pelican 10 kg 1 – 1.5 kg Fish/day

10. 10
37
Indian Pied
Hornbill
1 kg 50 gm banana, 100 gm rice/roti, 20 gm sattu, besan
38
Great
Hornbill
3.4 kg
150 gm banana, 300 gm apple, 300 gm seasonal fruits,
300 gm minch meat, 60 gm cooked rice/roti, 60 gm
sattu with 1.5 gm calcium Carbonate would be
adequate.
39 Python 30 -52 kg
1.25 – 1.5 kg chicken/2 weeks
2 – 2.25 kg chicken/rabbit per 3 weeks
MODEL COMPOSITION OF COMMONLY USED FEEDSTUFFS IN INDIAN ZOO/ WILD
ANIMALS
Feedstuffs
DM
(%)
CP
(%)
GE
(kcal/kg)
Ca
(%)
P
(%)
Fe
(ppm)
Zn
(ppm)
Cu
(ppm)
Fat
(%)
Cereal grains
Maize 90.42 8.45 4000 0.05 0.28 54.3 - - -
Bajra 92.04 11.42 3685 0.09 0.49 - - - -
Roti 61.14 12.47 4080 0.12 0.98 65 15 29
Oat 89.40 9.9 4040 0.09 0.38 55 22 11
Rice 92.40 8.4 4120 0.08 0.32 68 18 9
Barley 91.43 11.23 4000 0.12 0.58 50 7 40
Jowar 91.42 11.43 4004 0.14 0.54 28 11 32
Bread 58.22 12.34 4210 0.12 0.41 67 21 9
Ragi 25.11 14.03 4010 0.12 0.85 65 15 29
Sattu 62.58 32.45 3900 0.12 0.27 - - -
Legumes
Gram 51.84 26.54 3900 0.49 0.38 77 12 55
Soaked gram 51.24 26.25 3910 0.55 0.37 78 51 12
Peanut 58.14 19.80 5510 0.39 0.27 75 68 11
Horse gram 91.25 26.25 4150 0.38 0.49 38 48 12
Black gram 90.45 27.45 4140 0.31 0.62 70 68 14

11. 11
Green gram 48.48 24.23 3900 0.18 0.47 58 15 69
Sprouted
green gram
39.14 28.14 3740 0.45 0.51 68 12 55
Soaked
Bengal gram
51.84 27.54 3990 0.49 0.38 77 12 55
Moth beans 92.42 29.97 3890 0.34 0.39 - - -
Ground nuts 78.99 29.44 5410 0.42 0.24 72 12 69
Roughage
A. Sacculant
Jowar fodder 27.48 8.21 3750 0.59 0.14 180 8 16
Ficus fodder 29.38 11.03 3680 1.18 0.17 230 6 18
Lucerne 22.05 20.21 3680 1.48 0.28 175 9 38
B. Dry roughage
paddy straw 86.54 3.91 3790 0.37 0.10 90 6 14
Cereal by-products
Wheat bran 90.11 13.25 4080 0.58 0.85 40 11 43
Gram husk 91.22 13.43 4010 0.32 0.52 40 13 4
Vegetables
Palak 11.40 14.20 3540 0.89 0.22 220 29 8
Brinjil 17.40 18.8 3340 0.26 0.18 55 26 8
Spinach 5.81 16.45 3780 0.83 0.21 383 22 8
Beans 32.45 17.57 3980 0.82 0.31 83.20 32 14.10
Peas 27.48 28.88 3950 0.21 0.31 80 52 11
Sweet potato 28.45 3.85 4062 0.44 0.16 31.60 120 11.80
Cabbage 6.78 18.15 2340 0.58 0.29 115 8 35
Tomato 5.98 14.18 3770 0.45 0.22 175 9 38
Potato 26.85 6.45 4010 0.06 0.21 70 18 11
Pumpkin 12.75 6.64 2451 0.23 0.22 22.7 23.8 4.3

12. 12
Onion 12.45 16.48 4050 0.48 0.24 - - -
Green chilly 10.14 18.40 3084 0.20 0.41 65 25 5
Bottle guard 5.23 4.11 3450 0.43 0.24 85 32 12
Green pea 21.45 21.84 3910 0.29 0.23 88 - -
Tapioca 38.10 3.14 3870 0.13 0.11 25 8 21
Fruits
Banana 24.18 5.62 3950 0.11 0.24 25 18 7
Orange 12.48 5.80 3680 0.15 0.12 17 18 8
Apple 15.87 5.01 3570 0.05 0.11 110 34 8
Grape 7.60 7.11 4050 0.04 0.38 38 18 11
Papaya 10.74 5.92 3810 0.27 0.08 0 33 12
Carrot 8.94 5.23 3900 0.43 0.17 150 5 14
Sweet lime 6.10 5.04 4010 0.19 0.22 28 11 25
Chickoo 22.81 3.88 3990 0.14 0.18 48 17 8
Mosambi 11.88 4.97 3870 0.18 0.21 22 21 9
Pomegranate 23.14 5.43 3890 0.11 0.22 18 22 11
Pineapple 14.15 5.78 3940 0.12 0.08 35 11 35
Cucumber 6.42 5.88 3740 0.31 0.19 74 11 25
Jackfruit shoot 29.45 17.85 3845 0.48 0.22 150 14 8.1
Singhada 8.49 8.14 3440 0.18 0.14 68 9 34
Amla 18.8 2.66 3100 0.27 0.12 20 - -
Musk milan 12.45 6.18 3950 0.30 0.19 110 9 29
Guava 14.34 7.82 3680 0.16 0.24 68 11 27
Berry 16.66 2.33 3650 0.21 0.11 16 19 7
Grasses
Paragrass 18.43 7.74 3720 0.98 0.16 170 5 -
Mixed grass 23.45 9.12 3680 0.38 0.17 220 17 7
Hybrid napier 31.85 7.85 3650 0.75 0.18 - - -

13. 13
Dal grass 21.45 7.41 3575 0.38 0.18 312 18 9
Star grass 24.42 8.81 3770 0.43 0.26 340 46 11
Reed grass 9.47 5.76 3410 0.42 0.08 230 6 22
Tree leaves
Ficus 35.29 14.43 3575 0.84 0.39 180 8 34 -
Gular 22.14 11.75 3790 1.27 0.19 - - - -
Peepal 25.43 11.15 3680 1.14 0.22 270 19 11 -
Oak 23.45 9.85 3680 0.95 0.21 215 10 22 -
Okra 14.15 15.98 3680 0.42 0.24 145 10 32 -
Cake
G N cake 90.45 40.45 4810 0.51 0.28 11 52 42 -
Animal protein feeds
Milk 12.28 26.40 5480 1.04 0.98 4 35 5 -
Egg 26.40 49.24 6120 0.21 0.76 69 12 49 -
Meat 39.84 64.47 5030 1.75 1.18 - - - 27.20
Chicken 27.30 12.30 4240 2,85 1.43 38 5 48 78.14
Beef 42.11 67.49 5140 3.22 1.94 112 178 15 27.14
Liver 32.58 68.45 4700 0.04 0.76 - - -
Miscellaneous feeds
China rose 24.85 18.57 3890 1.10 0.28 470 35 9 -
Lettuce 5.81 25.90 3810 1.07 0.58 - - - -
Amaranthus 14.45 21.45 3880 1.21 0.44 - - - -
Plantain 17.14 8,28 3480 0.08 0.12 330 12 17 -
Colocassia 26.1 11.14 3590 0.18 0.54 55 8 33 -
Bamboo 41.31 7.1 4080 0.74 0.32 182 29 12 -
Sugarcane 39.45 3.88 3840 0.44 0.17 110 19 8 -
Concentrate mixtures
Deer mash 90.45 23.45 4250 0.76 0.81 65 12 68

14. 14
Compoundcattle
feed
90.11 19.25 4050 0.78 0.95 75 12 70
Poultry mash 90.00 22.27 4014 0.79 0.79 61 12 49
MODEL COMPOSITION OF CONCENTRATE MIXTURE FOR CAPTIVE RUMINANTS
Ingredients CM1 CM2 CM3 CM4 NZP NKBP
Maize 47 30 - 25 13 -
Barley - - - - 16 -
Oat - - - - 8 -
Wheat - 17 - - - -
Bajra - - 25 - - -
Jowar - - 22 - - -
Ragi - - 47 20 - 20
Wheat bran 35 - 34 - 22 10
Rice bran - 25 - 25 - 24
Groundnut cake - 15 - 15 - 19
Gram chuni - 10 - 12 - -
Soyabean meal 15 - 16 - - -
Horse gram - - - - 12 25
Turmeric powder - - - - 1 -
Mineral mixture 2 2 2 2 1 1
Common salt 1 1 1 1 1 1
Calculated nutrient content
CP (%) 16.35 16.71 16.34 16.20 18.26 20.13
TDN (%) 70.75 70.43 70.76 68.55 66.41 65.94
CM1, concentrate formulation1; CM2, concentrate formulation 2; CM3, concentrate formulation; CM4,
concentrate formulation; NZP, concentrate mixture of national zoological park, Delhi; NKZP,
concentrate mixture of Nandankanan biological park, Bhubaneswar; CP, crude protein; TDN, Total
digestible nutrients.