2. Conceptualizing Nations,
Nationalism and States
The Nature and Evolution of
International Relations
Actors of International Relations
Analysis of IR
Power,Anarchy and Sovereignty in
the International System
Theory of IR
3. Conceptualizing Nations, Nationalism and
States
• Nationalism:
is an idea and movement that promotes the interests
of a particular nation (as in a group of people),
especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the
nation's sovereignty (self-governance) over its
homeland.
According to Heywood (2014), nationalism is the
doctrine that asserts the nation as the basic political
unit in organizing society.
4. Con,,,,
• Nationalism is the most influential force in international
affairs.
• It has caused the outbreak of revolutions and wars across
the globe.
• It is noted as a factor for the collapse of age old empires,
marker for new borders, a powerful component for the
emergence of new states and it is used to reshape and
reinforce regimes in history.
• Consequently nationalism is often cited as a source of wars,
ethnic conflict, persecution of minorities and belligerence.
While the nationalism of the nineteenth century was
perhaps viewed as a positive phenomenon that brought
people together, as in the case of Germany.
5. Con,,,,,
• According to Heywood (2014), nationalism is the
doctrine that asserts the nation as the basic political unit in
organizing society.
• Nationalism in the first part of the nineteenth century was
a liberal sentiment concerning self-determination –the
right of a people to determine its own fate.
The revolutions that took place in Britain„s North
American colonies in 1776, and in France in 1789,
provided models for other nationalists to follow.
• We the People of the United States‗ – the first words of
the Preamble to the US Constitution.
6. Con,,,,
Before revolution: in France, the king was officially the
only legitimate political actor and the people as a whole
were excluded from politics.
In addition, the power of the aristocracy and the church
remained strong. above all in the countryside where they
were the largest landowners.
After revolution: (1789), the old regime was
overthrown and with it the entire social order.
The French nation was from now on to be governed by
the people, the nation, and in accordance with the
principles of liberty, equality and brotherhood (liberté,
égalitéet, fraternité).
7. Con,,,,
• The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was one of the most
important international conferences in European history.
• After the Congress of Vienna of 1815, across Europe an
increasingly prosperous middle-class demanded inclusion in
the political system and their demands were increasingly
expressed through the language of nationalism. Example
Finns wanted an independent Finland;
Bulgarians an independent Bulgaria;
Serbs an independent Serbia, and so on.
In 1861 Italy too – long divided into separate city-states and
dominated by the Church – became a unified country and an
independent nation.
8. Con,,,
• Only with the conclusion of the WWI in 1918 that self-
determination was acknowledged as a right.
• After the WWI most people in Europe formed their own
nation-states. As a result of the nationalist revolutions,
the European international system became for the first
time truly inter-national.
• Westphalia system concerned relations between states,
world affairs in the nineteenth century increasingly
came to concern relations between nation-states.
9. Nations,
For nationalists, a nation is a collective group of people who share a
number of common social, cultural and ethnic characteristics.
In political science, a "nation" refers to a group of people who feel
bound into a single body by shared culture, values, folkways, religion
and/or language.
It is a social collective involving various criteria and characteristics that
are unique to each nation. These characteristics can include language,
tradition, ethnicity, religion, myths, beliefs, symbols and blood ties.
It can also be deemed as persons Ethnic Origin.
The idea of the nation is largely subjective and is self-selective in the
sense that each nation defines what it is to be part of that nation.
The nation, in this sense, is a social phenomenon that differentiates
different peoples in the world.
10. Con,,,,
• Nation is a collection of people bound together by
common values and traditions, often sharing the same
language, history and affiliation to a geographical area.
• nation is a group of people who have a strong sense of
unity and common consciousness.
• According to Heywood, nations are historical entities
that evolve organically out of more similar ethnic
communities and they reveal themselves in myths,
legends, and songs (2014).
11. State
is a nation or territory considered as an organized political community under
one government
• Is a political entity of the society.
• Throughout history states have existed in many forms, from the city states of
ancient Greece to the feudal states of the medieval period to the modern
system of states in place today.
• The modern system of states originates from the Peace of Westphalia in
1648. A number of important principles or elements emerged from the
Westphalia settlement such as:
* Population
* Territory,
* Government
* Sovereignty . In the absence of even one element, a State cannot be
really a State. A state is always characterized by all these four elements.
Therefore, In common parlance, the words ‘nation’, ‘state’ and ‘nationality’
are used interchangeably and this is not correct
12. Nation state
• Is the idea of a homogenous nation governed by its own
sovereign state where each state contains one nation.
• The nation state is a state that self-identifies as deriving its
political legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a
nation as a sovereign territorial unit.
• The state is a political and geopolitical entity, while the nation
is a cultural and/or ethnic one; the term "nation state" implies
that the two coincide geographically.
• Nation -state formation took place at different times in different
parts of the world, but has become the dominant form of state
organization.
14. Nation-state
• Very few, if any, nation-states
• Iceland, Sweden, Japan, Greece are mostly culturally
homogenous with few minorities
• In today‘s world, an example of a pure nation-state is
Iceland – a small country whose population shares such a
well-documented descent that its birth records provide a
perfect laboratory for genetic research.
• Examples of stateless nations: The Kurds currently reside in
Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey, but they have not established an
internationally-recognized state based on their national
identity.
15. Understanding International Relations
• What is international relation ?
Inter-national
Inter- ♠ refers to something between and among.
♠ having to do/inter with one or more than one.
National ♠ refers to sovereign state/country.
♠ the actors are mainly states.
Inter-national refers to the interaction and communication
between countries regardless of national boundaries.
16. CON,,,
• International Relation [IR] is the study and practice of political,
social and economic relationships among the world‟s nations,
especially between and among national governments which can
be bi-lateral and multi-lateral relations.
• International relations may also refer to the interactions
between Non-Governmental Groups
Multinational Corporations (MNC
International Organizations(IO
Despite all of these other influences, the primary focus of
international relations is on the interactions between States
The main actors are Sovereign States.
17. CON,,,,
• IR is not merely a field of study at university but is an integral
aspect of our everyday lives.
• Originally, the study of international relations (a term first used
by Jeremy Bentham in 1798) was seen largely as a branch of
the study of law, philosophy or history.
• Until the 1970s the study of international relations centered
mainly on international security studies that is, questions of war
and peace.
• Today, international relations could be used to describe a range
of interactions between people, groups, firms, associations,
parties, nations or states or between these and (non)
governmental international organizations.
• IR is shaped by participants and IR can be affected by domestic
problems
18. Why International Relations ?
Sovereign States need to have IRs:-
because there is no single State that is self-sufficient and that
can exist independently without establishing relationship with
other States.
the existence of gaps in political, economic, social, security,
environmental areas at home is the characteristics of all
countries
Hence, States need to have relations among each other in the
international arena so that they can fulfill their gaps/needs by
understanding, analyzing, explaining events beyond
national boundaries.
19. con,,,
MNC, NGOs, movements , global opinion leaders , help
them play their part/ role in global community or in
international system.
Help to tackle global problems such as climate change,
terrorism, migrations/ refuge, hunger and poverty, natural
disaster, human rights etc.
NB:- domestic gaps and needs are basis of IR
20. Cont‘d……...
• Scholars and practitioners in international relations use concepts and
theories which lad to major philosophical disputes about the
fundamental nature of international relations:
The Hobbesian versus the Lockean state of nature in the 17th century.
Thomas Hobbes, writing in 1651, interpreted the state of society to be:
‗continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man,
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short‘. (Pessimistic Approach).
Whereas, John Locke took a more optimistic view and suggested that
sociability was the strongest bond between men & men were equal,
sociable and free; but they were not licentious because they were
governed by the laws of nature. (Optimistic Approach).
21. Historical Evolution of the International System
International system is a dominant set of ideas, power structure,
economic patterns, and rules that shape the domestic politics in a
particular and international relations of more countries in more
places in a particular historical era.
one way or the other, historical development of IRs is related to the
creation of modern States.
The history of IRs is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia
of 1648, where the modern state system was developed.
Before Westphalia, the European medieval organization of political
authorities were based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order,
governments were not secular.
On October 24th 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia was signed, marking
the end of the Thirty Years' War between Catholic and Protestant
believers/followers.
22. CON,,,
• The war began in 1618, when the Austrians tried to
impose Roman Catholicism on their Protestant subjects.
The purpose of Westphalia Peace Treaty
was basically to:-
- end-up the 30 year religious war
- reduce religious authority and legitimacy.
Westphalia treaty contributed much for
the formation of:-
- sovereign states ( given to the king not to the
states or the people)
- secular nation-states in Europe
23. CON,,,
• This was the First World War. After the war, the League of
Nations was established in 1919 to prevent future war and to
maintain international peace and security.
• But the League of Nations failed to achieve its objectives.
This was manifested by its failure to take action against fascist
Italy when it invaded Ethiopia in 1935.
• The Second World War (1939-1945) totally weakened
European powers, both victorious and loser states. This had
led to the emergence of two superpowers, the United
States and the Soviet Union.
• The cold war (They deeply divided in their political philosophy
and had conflicting political and economical goals).
• The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet empire
and its communist ideology.
• The post-Cold War era is still new and its pattern of
cooperation is not entirely clear.
24. 1.3.Actors in International Relations
The participants in international relations, often called
actors, have a great influence on the relationships between
nations and on world affairs.
The major participants include:
The state (nations themselves, the leaders of those nations)
Sub-state actors (groups or organizations within a nation),
Transnational actors (organizations operating in more than
one country), and international organizations.
25. Cont’d……
• The State Actors
In Political Science, the term State has a specific meaning as an
assemblage of people occupying a definite territory under an
effectively organized government and subject to no control.
All states have their own capitals, armies, foreign ministries, flags and
national anthems.
International politics come to be defined in terms of interactions
between states in an international system of states where these are
‘sovereign’ entities, territorially bound, and independent ultimately of
any external authority.
26. Con,,,
Nations vary in size and power
The great powers include the United States, Great Britain,
Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), France, China, Germany,
and Japan.
These powers are the most important actors in international
relations.
Leaders (The most important individual actor within a nation is
the top leader of that country, i.e. The president/The Prime
Minister).
27. Cont’d…..
• Non/Sub-State Actors
Are groups and individuals within that nation that influence its
international relationships.
These domestic actors, include particular industries with distinct
interests in foreign policy (such as the automobile or tobacco industry)
and ethnic constituencies with ties to foreign countries, as well as
labor unions, cities, and regions.
These groups can influence a nation‘s foreign policy in several ways,
such as by lobbying political leaders, donating money to political
candidates or parties, or swaying public opinion on certain issues.
Non-state actors are fundamental agents in helping to achieve both
national and international development goals
28. con,,,,
• Transnational relations are usually defined as regular cross-
border interactions in which non-state actors play a significant
role.
• Of particular importance for international relations (IR) are
transnational actors that wield considerable influence on
politics across borders, such as
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
Multinational corporations (MNCs)
inter governmental organization (IGOs)
29. Non-state actors
• Transnational Actors
• Non-state actors are also called transnational actors
Are Organizations/firms which are operating in more than one
country.
Transnational actors include
A. Multinational corporations
It is usually a large corporation incorporated in one country
which produces or sells goods or services in various
countries.
30. Con,,
• Importing and exporting goods and services
• Making significant investments in a foreign country
• Buying and selling licenses in foreign markets
• Engaging in contract manufacturing — permitting a local
manufacturer in a foreign country to produce its products
• Opening manufacturing facilities or assembly operations in
foreign countries
• For example Multinational corporations are large companies
with operations in several countries across the world. For
example, Apple, Coca-Cola, (Google) and Microsoft.
31. B.Non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
Private organizations, some of considerable size and resources
it is voluntary group of individuals or organizations, usually not affiliated with any
government, that is formed to provide services or to advocate a public policy.
Although some NGOs are for-profit corporations, the vast majority are nonprofit
organizations.
Eg. Amnesty international is NGO,with its headquarter in the united kingdom
Its focused human rights
The organization says it has more than eight million members and supporters
around the world .
C.Inter-governmental organizations (IGOs) like; EU
Membership in international organizations (established by treaty) promoting regulatory
cooperation.
Examples include the United Nations, the World Bank, or the European Union.
The main purposes of IGOs were to create a mechanism for
the world‘s inhabitants to work more successfully together in the areas of peace
and security, and
also to deal with economic and social questions.
32. Examples of IGO
IGO FUNCTION
United Nations (UN)
Maintain international peace and
security. Develop friendly relations
among nations. Achieve international
cooperation in solving international
problems. Function as a centre for
harmonizing the actions of nations
World Bank
This International Financial Institution
works on reducing poverty. It helps
developing countries by giving loans.
The Group of Eight (G8)
The Group of 8 is made up of the world‘s
leading industrial countries (Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA
and Russia).
The head of the G8 countries meet each
year to discuss global issues such as
world poverty and security.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO)
Military alliance. A system of collective
defense where its member states agree to
mutual defense in response to an attack by
any external party
34. 1.4. Levels ofAnalysis in International Relations
A. The individual level
• International relations can be analyzed from the perspective of
individuals. Here we would look at the behaviors, motivations, beliefs
and orientation of the individual in affecting a particular international
phenomenon.
• For example, a Prime Minister, encountering the leader of
another state to negotiate an important financial
agreement, the head of a large corporation adopting a policy
to rescue their business
• Focusing on the individual level and, say, particular actions
of specific personalities in the public realm–be they
politicians, diplomats or bankers
35. The group level/ sub state
A group-level analysis focusing on foreign policy
would look at the role of lobbying groups, special
interest groups and the way they influence national
decision-making on an issue.
• Group -level analysis would be more interested in the
actions of groups of individuals
• A group-level analysis could be interested in
activist/pressure groups
36. C. The state level / domestic level
Also known as ‘state-centrism’.
The nature of the international system is influenced by
the behavior of states.
The State level of analysis focuses on states.
One of the most pronounced observations about the states is
that democratic states do not fight among themselves but
will fight non-democratic states and if it is only Just war
The state acts as the arena in which state officials, politicians
and decision-makers operate.
37. D. System level /International /Global
Its top down approach
• Conceive the global system as the structure or context
within which states cooperate, compete and confront each
other over issues of national interest.
• System level analysis examines state behavior by looking at
the international system.
• Its “top-down” approach to study international relations
example issues of Interdependence, (Globalization),
North-South gap, international organization etc.
38. Con,,,
• Focus the distribution of power amongst states (uni-
polarity, bi-polarity, multi-polarity).
• Global circumstances are seen to pursue State interests
in cooperative or competitive ways.
39. The Structure of International System
International Relations scholars maintain that political power
is usually distributed into three main types of systems
namely:
i. Uni-polar system
ii. Bipolar system and
iii. Multipolar system.
40. Con,,,
• These three different systems reflect the number of powerful
states competing for power and their hierarchical relationship
oIn a uni-polar international system there is one state with the greatest
political, economic, cultural and military power and hence the ability to
totally control other states.
o Uni-polar systems possess only one great power and face no
competition in the world.
o E.g. US hegemony
oOn the other hand, in both bipolar and multipolar systems there is no
one single state with a preponderant power and hence ability to control
other states
41. Bi-polarity
Bipolarity is a distribution of power in which two states have the
majority of economic, military, and cultural influence
internationally or regionally.
The term is often applied to the period of the cold war between the
United States and the Soviet Union.
In the Cold War, most Western and capitalist states fallen under the
influence of the United States(USA) while most Communist states
fallen under the influence of the United Socialist States of Russia
(USSR)
The problem with bipolar system is that it is vulnerable for zero-sum
game politics (win-los game) because when one superpower gains
the other would inevitably lose
o Some predict the return of a bipolar pattern with a new up-
coming of Russian to compete with America
42. Multi-polarity
o Multi-polarity is a distribution of power in which at least three great powers
have nearly equal amounts of military, cultural, and economic influence.
o Multipolar system usually reflects various equally powerful states competing
for power.
o In such system, it is possible to bring change without gaining or losing power.
A stronger hypothesis predicts the emergence of a multipolar pattern of a
balance-of-power competition where the US – China – Japan –Russia – the
European Union would constitute 5 poles/centers of global power.
o One of the great difficulties of evaluating the balance of power in the
21st century is that power resources are unevenly distributed among
the great powers.
43. Power,Anarchy and Sovereignty in the International System
Power
Power is the currency of international politics. As money is for
economics, power is for international relations (politics).
In the international system, power determines the relative influence of
actors and it shapes the structure of the international system.
Power can be defined in terms of both relations and material
(capability) aspects.
Power means the capacity to influence other countries
Eg, USA
44. Anarchy
Anarchy is a situation where there is absence of authority
(government) be it in national or international/global level systems.
Within a country ‗anarchy‘ refers to a breakdown of law and order,
but in relations between states it refers to a system where power is
decentralized and there are no shared institutions with the right to
enforce common rules.
An anarchical world is a world where everyone looks after
themselves and no one looks after the system as a whole.
anarchy is perceived as a ―lack of central government to enforce
rules‖ and protect states
lack of a ‗world government‘ to the continued occurrence of
violence among states
states are the only relevant actors in international politics and as
there is no central authority to regulate or govern nation-states
45. Sovereignty
In legal jurisprudence, Sovereignty is understood as full right and power of a given people
and governing body to live and govern itself without any interference from outside
means supreme, absolute and ultimate authority over a polity by a people.
Sovereignty is another basic concept in international relations and it can be
defined as an expression of:
i. A state‘s ultimate authority within its territorial entity (internal
sovereignty) and,
ii. The state‘s involvement in the international community (external
sovereignty).
In short, sovereignty denotes double claim of states from the international
system, i.e., autonomy in foreign policy and independence/freedom in its
domestic affairs.
46. Theories of International Relations
• Idealism/Liberalism
• In IR was referred to as a ‗utopian‗ theory and is still
recognized as such to some degree today.
• Focus on the creation of a peaceful world by
integration
• states, nongovernmental organizations, and
intergovernmental organizations as key actors IOs
(UN, WTO, ICC) NGOs.
• Interdependent global society with international
institutions facilitating cooperation.
47. Con,,,,
• Its proponents view human beings as innately good and
believe peace and harmony between nations is not only
achievable, but desirable.
• Immanuel Kant developed the idea in the late eighteenth
century that states that shared liberal values should have
no reason for going to war against one another.
48. Con,,,
• His ideas have resonated and continue to be developed
by modern liberals, most notably in the democratic
peace theory, which posits that democracies do not go
to war with each other.
• liberal internationalism dominated the field between
1919- 1930.
49. Con,,,
• liberal internationalism have two pillars.
1.democracy and
2.free trade, required the establishment of
international relations which would promote
collectivist aspirations in place of the conflictual
relations which formed the basis of balance-of-
power thinking.
50. Con,,
• The creation of the League of Nations after the end of
the First World War was the culmination of the liberal
ideal of international relations.
• However, when the League collapsed due to the
outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.
• its failure became difficult for liberals to comprehend,
as events seemed to contradict their theories.
51. Con,,
• Liberals also argue that international law offers a mechanism
by which cooperation among states is made possible.
• International law refers to the body of customary and
conventional rules which are binding on civilized states in their
intercourse with each other.
• In playing this role, international law performs two different
functions. One is to provide mechanisms for cross-border
interactions, and the other is to shape the values and goals
these interactions are pursuing.
• The first set of functions are called the ‗‗operating system‗‗ of
international law, and the second set of functions are the
‗‗normative system.
53. Realism
• Realist believe the realist policy an unrealistic in the real world.
• Realism as a school of thought center on the view that the
international system is ‗anarchic‗, in the sense that it is devoid
of an all-encompassing authority.
• Where domestic society is ruled by a single system of
government, the international system of states lacks such a basis
and renders inter-national law non-binding and ultimately
ineffectual in the regulation of relations between states.
• Conflict is hence an inevitable and continual feature of inter-
national relations.
54. Con,,
• international politics, like all politics, is a struggle for
power‗
• It dominated international relations, in1950s and 1960s
• Realists do not typically believe that human beings are
inherently good, or have the potential for good, as liberals
do.
• realists, people are selfish and behave according to their
own needs without necessarily taking into account the
needs of others
• Realists believe conflict is unavoidable and perpetual and
so war is common and inherent to humankind.
• Based on self-interest ( World War II as the vindication of
their theory)
56. Con,,,
• Both are different
• The realist lens magnifies instances of war and conflict
and then uses those to paint a certain picture of the world
• Liberals share an optimistic view of IR, believing that
world order can be improved, with peace and progress
gradually replacing war.
• Conversely, realists tend to dismiss optimism as a form of
misplaced idealism and instead they arrive at a more
pessimistic view.
• What is common is both consider the state to be the
dominant actor in IR, although liberalism does add a role
for non-state actors such as international organizations.
57.
58.
59. Structuralism/Marxism
• It was during the 1960s , by carl Marx
• Marxism is an ideology that argues that a capitalist
society is divided into two contradictory classes – the
business class (the bourgeoisie) and the working class
(the proletariat).
• The proletariats are at the mercy of the bourgeoisie
who control their wages and therefore their standard
of living.
• Marx hoped for an eventual end to the class society
and overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the proletariat.
60. Con,,,
• This third perspective or paradigm which emerged as a
critique of both realism and pluralism concentrated on
the inequalities that exist within the international system,
inequalities of wealth between the rich ‗North‗ or the
‗First World‗ and the poor ‗South‗ or the ‗Third World .
• Inspired by the writings of Marx and Lenin,
focused on dependency, exploitation and the
international division of labor which relegated the vast
majority of the global population to the extremes of poverty,
often with the complicities of elite groups within these
societies.
• Major writers in the structuralist perspective emerged from
Latin America, Africa and the Middle East,
61. Constructivism
oConstructivists highlight the importance of values and
shared interests between individuals who interact on the
global stage
o the core of constructivism, is that the essence of
international relations exists in the interactions between
people , After all, states do not interact; it is agents of those
states, such as politicians and diplomats, who interact.
oAccording to this theory, nations are not all alike,
they have differences. This is because of the
construction of:-
- Political culture of each nation shapes its nature and
direction of foreign policy
- Form of government and domestic political trends of a
nation shape foreign policy
62. Critical Theories
• Critical approaches refer to a wide spectrum of
theories that have been established in response to
mainstream approaches in the field, mainly liberalism
and realism.
• They oppose commonly held assumptions in the field
of IR that have been central since its establishment.
• Critical theory analyze the relationship between a
theory and real practice
• The idealism says that human natures is good than the
critical theory asks that don‘t believe in this idea
• Without critical analyzing it by going out to check that
whether human nature is really good or not
63. CON,,,
They also provide a voice to individuals who have
frequently been marginalized, particularly women and those
from the Global South.
Proponents of this theory focus on the need for human
emancipation from States
