Biodiesel is an alternative fuel similar to conventional or 'fossil' diesel. Biodiesel can be produced from straight vegetable oil, animal oil/fats, tallow and waste cooking oil. The process used to convert these oils to Biodiesel is called transesterification. This process is described in more detail below

1. 1
BIODIESEL AS A FUEL IN IC ENGINE
A Project Report
Submitted by:
SHAHJAHAN SIDDIQUI (1608797)
In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHALOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
At
INDO GLOBAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ABHIPUR, NEW CHANDIGARH
MOHALI, PUNJAB (INDIA) -140109
(AFFILIATED TO PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR, PUNJAB
(INDIA)) APRIL,2019

2. 2
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project entitled “BIODIESEL AS A FUEL IN IC
ENGINE” Submitted for the B. Tech. (ME) degree is my original work and the project
has not formed the basis for the award of any other degree, diploma, fellowship or any o
ther similar titles.
Signature of the Student
Place:
Date:

3. 3
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled “BIODIESEL AS A FUEL IN IC ENGINE”
is the bonafide work carried out by SHAHJAHAN SIDDIQUI , a student of
B.Tech (ME) of Indo Global College of Engineering, Abhipur, New Chandigarh
(Mohali) affiliated to Punjab Technical University Jalandhar, Punjab(India) duri
ng the academic year 2019,in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award
of the degree of Bachelor of Technology (Mechanical Engineering) and that the
project has not formed the basis for the award previously of any other degree,
diploma, fellowship on any other similar title.
Signature of the guide
Place:
Date:

4. 4
ABSTRACT
Alternative fuels research has been on-going for well over many years at a number of instituti
ons. Driven by oil price and consumption, engine emissions and climate change, along with t
he lack of sustainable fossil fuels, transportation sector has generated an interest in alternative
, renewable sources of fuel for internal combustion engines. The focus has ranged from feed s
tock optimization to engine-out emissions, performance and durability. Biofuels for transporta
tion sector, including alcohols (ethanol, methanol...etc.), biodiesel, and other liquid and gaseo
us fuels such as methane and hydrogen, have the potential to displace a considerable amount o
f petroleum-based fuels around the world. First generation biofuels are produced from sugars,
starches, or vegetable oils. On the contrary, the second-generation biofuels are produced from
cellulosic materials, agricultural wastes, switch grasses and algae rather than sugar and starch.
By not using food crops, second generation biofuel production is much more sustainable and h
as a lower impact on food production. Also known as advanced biofuels, the second-generatio
n biofuels are still in the development stage.Combining higher energy yields, lower requireme
nts for fertilizer and land, and the absence of competition with food, second generation biofue
ls, when available at prices equivalent to petroleum derived products, offer a truly sustainable
alternative for transportation fuels. There are main four issues related to alternative fuels: prod
uction, transportation, storage, handling and usage. This chapter presents a review of recent lit
erature related to the alternative fuels usage and the impact of these fuels on fuel injection sys
tems, and fuel atomization and sprays for both spark-ignition and compression-ignition engin
es. Effect of these renewable fuels on both internal flow and external flow characteristics of
the fuel injector will be presented.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is based on a real time project carried out by the students of Indo Global College o
f Engineering, Abhipur.The project on “BIODIESEL AS A FUEL IN IC ENGINE” was ma
de possible with the help and assistance provided by Mr. Kulbir Singh, Assistant Professor,
Indo Global College of Engineering, Abhipur.
We express our profound gratitude to Mr. ANIL KUMAR, Head of Mechanical Engineering
Department, Indo Global College of Engineering, Abhipur.
We are delighted to work under our principal Dr. Promila Kaushal, Indo Global College of
Engineering, Abhipur.
Our sincere thanks to all the faculty members of the department and technicians for the help
during the course of the project work.
The project was taken by a team of 4 members namely Shahjahan Siddiqui (1608797), Mohd
Arif Wani (1608792), Vinit Kumar Pandey (1608799), Himanshu Kumar (1608798)

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LIST OF FIGURES
• Crude oil prices……………………………………………………………. 1
• properties of biodiesel from vegetable oil…………………………………(1.10.1) [91]
• Basic technology of biodiesel production……………...……………………1.10.1
• photographic image of magnetic stirrer with
hot plate on mechanical Lab UIT-RGPV…………….………. …………….3.1.1
• Separating funnel for biodiesel separation at UIT-RGPV.………………….3.1.2
• catalyst KOH, Reactant methanol & different samples of
blended biodiesel B10 to B100 …………………………………………….3.1.3
• Flow chart of biodiesel production from jatropha oil……………………….3.1.4
• Flow chart of Biodiesel production by different vegetable oils……………..3.1.5
• Biodiesel cycle………………………………………………………………3.1.6

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1. INTRODUCTION
The world is presently confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and
environmental degradation. Indiscriminate extraction and lavish consumption of fossil fuels
have led to reduction in underground-based carbon resources. The search for alternative fuels,
which promise a harmonious correlation with sustainable development, energy conservation,
efficiency and environmental preservation, has become highly pronounced in the present
context. The fuels of bio-origin can provide a feasible solution to this worldwide petroleum
crisis. Gasoline and diesel-driven automobiles are the major sources of greenhouse gases
(GHG) emission [1–3]. Scientists around the world have explored several alternative energy
resources, which have the potential to quench the ever-increasing energy thirst of today’s
population. Various biofuel energy resources explored include biomass, biogas [4], primary
alcohols, vegetable oils, biodiesel, etc. These alternative energy resources are largely
environment-friendly but they need to be evaluated on case-to-case basis for their advantages,
disadvantages and specific applications. Some of these fuels can be used directly while others
need to be formulated to bring the relevant properties closer to conventional fuels. Due to the
recent widespread use of petroleum fuels in various sectors, this study concentrates on
assessing the viability of using alternative fuels in the existing internal combustion
engines. The present energy scenario has stimulated active research interest in non-petroleum,
renewable, and non-polluting fuels. The world reserves of primary energy and raw materials
are, obviously, limited. According to an estimate, the reserves will last for 218 years for coal,
41 years for oil, and 63 years for natural gas, under a business-as-usual scenario [1,5,6]. The
enormous growth of world population, increased technical development, and standard of living
in the industrial nations has led to this intricate situation in the field of energy supply and
demand. The prices of crude oil keep rising and fluctuating on a daily basis. The crude oil
prices are at near record levels and are stabilizing at about US$65 per barrel now. The variations
in the energy prices over last decade are shown in Fig. 1. This necessitates developing and
commercializing fossilfuel alternatives from bio-origin. This may well be the main reason
behind the growing awareness and interest for unconventional bio energy sources and fuels in
various developing countries, which are striving hard to offset the oil monopoly.

8. 8
1.1 Biodiesel as a fuel in IC engine: -
The best way to use vegetable oil as fuel in IC engine is to convert it in to biodiesel. Biodiesel
is the name of a clean burning mono-alkyl ester-based oxygenated fuel made from natural,
renewable sources such as used or unused vegetable oils and animal fats. The resulting
biodiesel is quite similar to conventional diesel in its main characteristics. Biodiesel contains
no petroleum products, but it is compatible with conventional diesel and can be blended in any
proportion with mineral diesel to create a stable biodiesel blend. The level of blending with
petroleum diesel is referred as Bxx, where xx indicates the amount of biodiesel in the blend
(i.e. B10 blend is 10% biodiesel and 90% diesel. It can be used in CI engine with no major
modification in the engine hardware.

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1.10.1 Transesterification: -
Biodiesel is formed from vegetable oil by Transesterification method. Biodiesel is
biodegradable, non-toxic and essentially free from sulphur; it is renewable and can be produced
from agriculture and plant resources. Biodiesel is biodegradable, non-toxic and essentially free
from sulphur; it is renewable and can be produced from agriculture and plant resources.
Transesterification is the reaction of a fat or oil with an alcohol to form esters and glycerol.
Alcohol combines with the triglycerides to form glycerol and esters. A catalyst is usually used
to improve the reaction rate and yield. Since the reaction is reversible, excess alcohol is
required to shift the equilibrium to the product side. Among the alcohols that can be used in
the Transesterification process are methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol [92].
Alkali-catalysed Transesterification is much faster than acid-catalysed Transesterification and
is most often used commercially. The process of transesterification brings about drastic change
in viscosity of vegetable oil. The biodiesel thus produced by this process is totally miscible
with mineral diesel in any proportion. Biodiesel viscosity comes very close to that of mineral
diesel hence no problems in the existing fuel handling system. Flash point of the biodiesel gets
lowered after esterification and the cetane number gets improved. Even lower concentrations
of biodiesel act as cetane number improver for biodiesel blend. Calorific value of biodiesel is
also found to be very close to mineral diesel. Some typical observations from the engine tests
suggested that the thermal efficiency of the engine generally improves, cooling losses and
exhaust gas temperature increase, smoke opacity generally gets lower for biodiesel blends.
Possible reason may be additional lubricity properties of the biodiesel; hence reduced frictional
losses (FHP). The energy thus saved increases thermal efficiency, cooling losses and exhaust
losses from the engine. The thermal efficiency starts reducing after a certain concentration of
biodiesel. Flash point, density, pour point, cetane number, calorific value of biodiesel comes
in very close range to that of mineral diesel [97,98].
Diesel engine can perform satisfactory for long run on biodiesel without any hardware
modifications. Twenty percent biodiesel is the optimum concentration for biodiesel blend with
improved performance. Increase in exhaust temperature however lead to increased NOx
emissions from the engine. While short-term tests are almost positive, long-term use of neat
vegetable oils or their blend with diesel leads to various engine problems such as, injector
coking, ring sticking, injector deposits etc. [99,100]. High viscosity, low volatility and a
tendency for polymerization in the cylinder are root causes of many problems associated with
direct use of these oils as fuels. The process of transesterification yields vegetable oil ester,
which has shown promises as alternative diesel fuel as a result of improved viscosity and
volatility. Several researchers investigate the different vegetable oil esters and find esters
comparable to mineral diesel [96-101]. The yield of biodiesel in the process of
transesterification is affected by several process parameters/variables.
1.10.2 The most important variables affecting the yield of biodiesel from transesterification
are:-
_ Reaction temperature.
_ Molar ratio of alcohol and oil.
_ Catalyst.
_ Reaction time.
_ Presence of moisture and free fatty acids (FFA).

10. 10
1.10.2 The effect of reaction temperature:-
The rate of reaction is strongly influenced by the reaction temperature. However, given enough
time, the reaction will proceed to near completion even at room temperature. Generally, the
reaction is conducted close to the boiling point of methanol (60–70˚C) at atmospheric pressure.
The maximum yield of esters occurs at temperatures ranging from 60 to 80 ˚C at a molar ratio
(alcohol to oil) of 6:1 [91-93]. Several researchers have studied the effect of temperature on
conversion of oils and fats into biodiesel. Freedman et al. [96] studied the transesterification of
refined soybean oil with methanol (6:1), 1% NaOH catalyst, at three different temperatures 60,
45 and 32 1C. After 0.1 h, ester yields were 94%, 87% and 64% for 60, 45 and 32˚C,
respectively. After 1 h, ester formation was identical for 60 and 45 1C reaction temperature
runs and only slightly lower for 32 1C. It shows that temperature clearly influenced the reaction
rate and yield of esters and transesterification can proceed satisfactorily at ambient
temperatures, if given enough time, in the case of alkaline catalyst.
1.2 The effect of molar ratio:-
Another important variable affecting the yield of ester is the molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable
oil. The stoichiometry of the transesterification reaction requires 3mole of alcohol per mole of
triglyceride to yield 3 mole of fatty esters and 1 mole of glycerol. To shift the transesterification
reaction to the right, it is necessary to use either a large excess of alcohol or remove one of the
products from the reaction mixture continuously. The second option is preferred wherever
feasible, since in this way, the reaction can be driven towards completion. When 100% excess
methanol is used, the reaction rate is at its highest. A molar ratio of 6:1 is normally used in
industrial processes to obtain methyl ester yields higher than 98% by weight. Freedman et al.
[96] studied the effect of molar ratio (from 1:1 to 6:1) on ester conversion with vegetable oils.
Soybean, sunflower, peanut and cottonseed oils behaved similarly and achieved highest
conversions (93–98%) at a 6:1 molar ratio. Ratios greater than 6:1 do not increase yield (already
98–99%), however, these interfere with separation of glycerol.
1.3 The effect of catalyst:-
Catalysts are classified as alkali, acid, or enzymes. Alkali-catalyzed transesterification is much
faster
than acid-catalyzed reaction. However, if a vegetable oil has high free fatty acid and water
content, acid catalyzed transesterification reaction is suitable. Partly due to faster esterification
and partly because alkaline catalysts are less corrosive to industrial equipment than acidic
catalysts, most commercial transesterification reactions are conducted with alkaline catalysts.
Sodium methoxide was found to be more effective than sodium hydroxide. Sodium alkoxides
are among the most efficient catalysts used for this purpose, although NaOH, due to its low
cost, has attracted its wide use in largescale transesterification. The alkaline catalyst
concentrations in the range of 0.5–1% by weight yield 94–99% conversion of vegetable oils
into esters. Further increase in catalyst concentration does not increase the conversion and it
adds to extra costs because it is necessary to remove the catalyst from the reaction products at
the end [91,96,97]. Methanol can quickly react with triglycerides and NaOH is easily dissolved
in it. The reaction can be catalyzed by alkalis, acids, or enzymes. The alkalis include NaOH,
KOH, carbonates and corresponding sodium and potassium alkoxides such as sodium
methoxide, sodium ethoxide, sodium propoxide and sodium butoxide. Sulfuric acid, sulfonic

11. 11
acids and hydrochloric acid are usually used as acid catalysts. Lipases also can be used as
biocatalysts.
1.4 The effect of reaction time:-
The conversion rate increases with reaction time. Freedman et al. [96] trans esterified peanut,
cottonseed, sunflower and soybean oils under the condition of methanol to oil ratio of 6:1, 0.5%
sodium methoxide catalyst and 60˚C. An approximate yield of 80% was observed after 1 min
for soybean and sunflower oils. After 1 h, the conversions were almost the same for all four
oils (93–98%). Ma and Hanna [92] studied the effect of reaction time on transesterification of
beef tallow with methanol. The reaction was very slow during the first minute due to the mixing
and dispersion of methanol into beef tallow. From 1 to 5 min, the reaction proceeded very fast.
The apparent yield of beef tallow methyl esters surged from 1% to 38%.
1.5 The effect of moisture and FFA:-
For an alkali-catalyzed transesterification, the glycerides and alcohol must be substantially
anhydrous because water makes the reaction partially change to saponification, which produces
soap. The soap lowers the yield of esters and renders the separation of ester and glycerol and
water washing difficult. The glycerol is then removed by gravity separation and remaining ester
is mixed with hot water for separation of catalyst. Moisture can be removed using silica gel.
Ester formation eliminates almost all the problems associated with vegetable oils.
Saponification reaction also takes place simultaneously along with transesterification process
but soap formation is not a major problem if presence of water is less than 1% [92-98]. Starting
materials used for alkali-catalyzed transesterification of triglycerides must meet certain
specifications. The glyceride should have an acid value less than 1 and all reactants should be
substantially anhydrous. If the acid value was greater than 1, more NaOH is required to
neutralize the FFA. Freedman et al. found that ester yields were significantly reduced if the
reactants did not meet these requirements. Sodium hydroxide or sodium methoxide reacted
with moisture and carbon dioxide in the air, which diminished their effectiveness [96]. The
effects of FFA and water on transesterification of beef tallow with methanol were investigated
by Ma and Hanna [92]. The results showed that the water content of beef tallow should be kept
below 0.06% w/w and free fatty acid content of beef tallow should be kept below 0.5%, w/w
in order to get the best conversion. Water content was a more critical variable in the
transesterification process than FFA [92].

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Properties Biodiesel from vegetable oils
Peanut Soyabean palm sun flower linseed
Kinematic viscosity at 37.8˚C 4.9 4.5 5.7 4.6 3.59
Cetane number 54 45 62 49 52
Lower heatingvalue(MJ/L) 33.6 33.5 33.5 33.5 35.3
Cloud point 5 1 13 1
Pour point - ˗7 - ˗ -15
Flash point 176 178 164 183 172
Density (gm/ml) 0.883 0.885 0.88 0.86 0.874
Carbon residue (wt%) 1.74 ˗ ˗ ˗ 1.83
Table (1.10.1) [91] properties of biodiesel from vegetable oil
Basic technology of biodiesel production:-
Figure 1.10.1 Basic technology of biodiesel production

13. 13
CHAPTER-2
PRODUCTION OF BIOFUELS: BIODIESEL & BIOGAS
2.1 Production of the Biodiesel:-
Biodiesel is fatty acid alkyl ester. It can be produced by transesterification process of different
types of vegetable oils, animal fats and waste oils. It has similar composition and properties as
that of petroleum diesel. The Biodiesel used in this experiment is produced from the palm oil.
The palm oil is obtained from the palm tree. The phenomenon of replacement of an alcohol by
a different alcohol from an ester is known as transesterification, the process of
transesterification is also known as alcoholysis. By the help of this process we reduce down
the viscosity of triglycerides. The general equation of transesterification is
RCOOR’ + R” OH ↔ RCOOR” + R'OH
In the above reaction if methanol is used, it is termed methanolysis. The Biodiesel can be
produced from Biodiesel is produced by the transesterification or alcoholysis.
Raw palm oil must be treated before transesterification process. Raw oil having less than 5%
free fatty acid need not require pretreatment. The alkali catalyst added to the palm oil with
greater than 5% free fatty acid, alkali catalyst form soap and water after reacting with palm oil.
Transesterification is reversible reaction, a catalyst either strong acid or base is required to
accelerate the reaction. In this study the transesterification reaction is conducted in the presence
of base catalyst. The mechanism of alkali-catalyzed transesterification is described below. The
first step is the attack of the alkoxides ion to the carbonyl carbon of the triglyceride molecule,
which results in the formation of tetrahedral intermediate product. In the second step, this
intermediate product reacts with an alcohol and produces the alkoxides ion. The same
mechanism is applied to diglyceride and monoglyceride.

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3.1.1 Experimental setup of Biodiesel production:-
3.1.2 The experimental setup for production of Biodiesel palm oil consist of reactor has a
capacity of 1 liters is shown in the figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1.1 photographic image of magnetic stirrer with hot plate on mechanical Lab UIT-
RGPV

15. 15
Figure 3.1.2 Separating funnel for biodiesel separation at UIT-RGPV
Figure 3.1.3 catalyst KOH, Reactant methanol & different samples of blended biodiesel B10
to B100
3.1.2 Materials Required for biodiesel production:-
• Feedstock: palm oil,
• Base Catalyst: KOH 1% w/w of palm oil,
• Reactant: Methanol to palm oil-molar ratio is 13%
• Reactor
• Electric power and timer
• Hot plate with magnetic stirrer
• Separating funnel
• stands

16. 16
2.1.3 Pretreatment:-
In pretreatment process, palm oil is filtered first to remove solid matter in it and then preheated
at 110℃ for 30 min to remove moisture content because presence of moisture in palm oil
creates condition of saponification during the reaction. After the demoisturisation of oil we
removed wax, unsaponicable matter, Carbon residue, and fiber; these are present in palm oil in
small quantity.
2.1.4 Esterification:-
Palm oil contains 6% to 20% free fatty acids by weight we obtained the methyl ester palm oil
with methyl alcohol in the presence of catalyst KOH. A two stage process is used for the trans
esterification of palm oil. First stage (acid catalyzed) is the reduction of the free fatty acid from
the palm oil by esterification with methanol (99% pure) and acid catalyst sulphuric acid (98%)
in 1-hour time at 57℃ in a closed reactor. The palm oil is first heated to 50℃ and 0.5% by
weight sulphuric acid is added to it then methyl alcohol near about 13% by weight is added.
Methyl alcohol is added in excess amount to speed up the esterification reaction. This reaction
proceeded with stirring at 700rpm and temperature was controlled in between 55℃ to 57℃ for
90 minutes with regular analysis of free fatty acids after every 25 to 30 minutes. The reaction
was stopped when free fatty acids were reduced up to 1%. Formation of the water is the major
hindrance to acid catalyzed esterification for free fatty acids. Water can prevent the conversion
of free fatty acids to esters. After dewatering the esterified oil was fed to the transesterification
process.
2.1.5 Transesterification:-
Base catalyzed reaction: Mixing of alcohol and catalyst:-
The catalyst used was potassium hydroxide (NaOH) 1% of the weight of the palm oil. It is
dissolved in the 13% of distilled methanol (CH3OH) by using a standard agitator at 700rpm
for 20 minutes. The alcohol-catalyst solution was prepared just prior to the reaction to maintain
the catalytic activeness and avoid the moisture absorbance. After completion it is slowly
charged into preheated esterified oil.
Transesterification Reaction:- The system was closed to avoid the loss of the alcohol and
avoid moisture by adding the methoxide to the palm oil. To speed up the reaction the
temperature of the reaction was maintained at 60-65℃ (i.e. near to the boiling point of methyl
alcohol). The recommended time for the reaction is 70 minutes. The stirring speed was
maintained at 560 to 700rpm. Excess alcohol is normally utilized to ensure the maximum
conversion of fats into its esters. The reaction mixture was taken after each 20 minutes for
analysis of free fatty acids. After the confirmation of completion of formation of the methyl
ester, the heating was stopped and the product was cooled and transferred to separating funnel.
3.1.6 Settling and Separation:-
After the completion of the reaction, it is leaved alone for 8 to 10 hours and allowed to settle
down in the separating funnel. At this stage two major products obtained they are glycerin and
biodiesel. Each product has a substantial amount of the excess methanol that was used in the
reaction. The glycerin phase is much denser than the biodiesel phase therefore glycerin was
settled down while biodiesel was floated up. These two products were separated by gravity.
Glycerin was simply drawn off from the bottom of the settling vessel.

17. 17
Alcohol Removal:- After the separation of the biodiesel and glycerin phases, the excess
alcohol from each phase was removed by distillation process. In either case, the alcohol is
recovered using distillation equipment and is reused. Care must be taken to ensure no water
should accumulate in the recovered alcohol stream.
Methyl Ester Wash:- After the separation of glycerin and the removal of alcohol, the crude
biodiesel was purified by washing it gently with warm water to remove residual catalyst or
soaps. The biodiesel was washed by air bubbling method up to the clear water was drained out.
This shows the impurities present in biodiesel was removed completely.
Drying of the Biodiesel:- The water present in the biodiesel was removed which results in a
clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity similar to petro diesel. In some systems the biodiesel
is distilled in an additional step to remove small amounts of colour bodies to produce a
colourless biodiesel.

18. 18
Figure 3.1.4 Flow chart of biodiesel production from jatropha oil

19. 19
Figure 3.1.5 Flow chart of Biodiesel production by different vegetable oils

20. 20
Figure 3.1.6 Biodiesel cycle

21. 21
ADVANTAGES
• Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and essentially free of sulfur and
aromatics.
• It can be used in most diesel engines, especially newer ones, and emits less air pollutants
and greenhouse gases other than nitrogen oxides.
• It’s safer to handle and has virtually the same energy efficiency as petroleum diesel. In
addition it has lubricity benefits that fossil fuels do not.
• Biodiesel blends as low as B2 have been found to significantly reduce the amount of
toxic carbon-based emissions.
• With the soaring price of petroleum-based products, Biodiesel is becoming an
increasingly affordable option relative to petroleum diesel.
• The use of Biodiesel helps reduce dependence on finite fossil fuel reserves. As an
alternative energy source it is relatively easy to process and available – with machines
like the BioCube™ – to all communities from rural communities in developing nations,
to urban in developed countries.
• Scientific research confirms that Biodiesel exhaust has a less harmful impact on human
health than petroleum diesel fuel. Biodiesel emissions have decreased levels of
hydrocarbons and nitrited compounds that have been identified as potential cancer
causing compounds.

22. 22
Conclusion
The results of this study indicated that biodiesel is a more environmental-friendly option than
petroleum diesel based on the reductions in CO and NOx in the tailpipe emissions. This comes
at the cost of performance, though biodiesel has lower energy content than petroleum diesel.
Biodiesel A (the 80% beef, pork and sheep tallow and 20% waste cooking oil methyl ester)
was found to have lower exhaust emissions across the board compared with Biodiesel B (70%
chicken tallow and 30% waste cooking oil methyl ester). Without knowing more about the
exact fuel properties of these two fuels, such as ultimate analysis, it was difficult to draw any
definitive conclusions about why emissions were higher for biodiesels. It is recommended that
a follow-up study should be completed to further investigate the fuel properties of Biodiesels
A and B in order to determine how the differences in chemical properties affect performance
and emissions. Once these fuel properties data are obtained, it could be inputted into an
appropriate engine simulation programme to analyse theoretical emissions data. If the model
was found to be accurate enough, these theoretical data could be compared against the practical
data found in this study, which would provide more insight into the performance and emissions
of biodiesel fuels.

23. 23
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