This document provides an overview of minority rights in the Middle East. It begins with introductory chapters that discuss the contemporary Middle East region, approaches to human rights, and constructions of minority identities. Subsequent chapters examine religious minorities, ethnic and national minorities, and political minorities in greater depth. Case studies of minority rights in Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon are also provided. The document aims to analyze minority rights protections and challenges in the legal frameworks and practices of various Middle Eastern countries.
1. MINORITY RIGHTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST
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Minority Rights in the
Middle East
JOSHUA CASTELLINO
and
KATHLEEN A. CAVANAUGH
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of
Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research,
scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered
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Data available
ISBN 978–0–19–967949–2
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good
faith and
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the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
1
In Memory of Lian Abu Hussein
ذل رك ى ل اي ن أ وب سح ي ن
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Table of Contents
Table of Case Law ix
Table of Legislation x
United Nations Documents xii
Table of International Organizations’ Documents xvi
Introduction 1
4. 1 Th e Contemporary Middle East 9
Introduction 9
1 Th e Territorial Ambit 11
2 Th e Crucial Peace and Security Questions 14
3 Islam, the Middle East and Human Rights Law 29
4 Constructing Minorities 47
5 Approach to Human Rights by Middle Eastern States 54
Conclusion 78
2 Minority Identities in the Middle East: Religious
Minorities 79
Introduction 79
1 Non-Muslim Religious Minorities 82
2 Islamic Minorities 127
Conclusion 140
3 Minority Identities in the Middle East: Ethno-national and
Other Minorities 141
Introduction 141
1 Trapped Minorities 142
2 Ethnic/National Minorities 165
3 Political Minorities 176
4 Majoritarian Minorities 179
Conclusion 181
4 Minority Rights in Iraq 182
Introduction 182
1 History 186
viii Table of Contents
2 Identifi cation of Minorities 203
3 Rights of Minorities 221
5. 4 Remedies 240
Conclusion 251
5 Minority Rights in Syria 255
Introduction 255
1 History 264
2 Identifi cation of Minorities 288
3 Rights of Minorities 300
4 Remedies 326
Conclusion 332
6 Minority Rights in Lebanon 334
Introduction 334
1 Th e Unwanted Past 338
2 Identifi cation of Minorities 345
3 Rights of Minorities 350
4 Remedies 362
Conclusion 374
Conclusion 376
Bibliography 383
Index 417
Table of Case Law
Alhaji lla Alkamawa v Alhaji Hassan Bello and Alhaji
Malami Yaro [1998] 6 SCNJ 127 . . . . . . . 243
MK Barakeh v. Tel Aviv Magistrate Court et. Al. , HCJ case
5754/10 [petition
withdrawn June 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Zoabi v. Th e Knesset , HCJ case 8148/10 [case pending,
6. order to show cause issued] . . . . . . . . . 147
Ka’adan v. the Israel Land Administration , HCJ case 6698/95
[PD 54(1) 258 (2000)] . . . . . . . . 149
Adalah, et. al. v. Th e National Council for Planning and
Building, et. Al. , HCJ
case 2817/06 [June 15, 2010] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
MK Zahava Galonv v. Th e Attorney General, et. al. , HCJ
case 466/07 [petition
dismissed January 11, 2012] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Adalah and others v. Th e Minister of the Interior , HCJ cases
7052/03, 7102/03
[May 14, 2006] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Table of Legislation
Arab Charter for Human Rights 1994
Arab Republic of Egypt, Constitution 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122–3
Arab Republic of Egypt, Decree No. 12025 of the Year 2004
Concerning
Certain Provisions Enforcing Law No. 154 of the Year 2004 on
Amendment of Certain
Provisions of Law No. 26 of the Year 1975 Concerning the
Egyptian Nationality
July 25, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
15. Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in
Somalia,
Report E/CN.4/2002/119, January 14, 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in
Somalia,
Report E/CN.4/2004/103, November 30, 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in
Somalia,
Report E/CN.4/2005/117, March 11, 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in
Somalia,
Report A/HRC/2/CRP.2, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in
Somalia,
Report A/HRC/7/26, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Representative of the Secretary General on Internally
Displaced Persons,
Mission to the Sudan, Report E/CN.4/2002/95/Add.1, February
5, 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Representative of the Secretary General on Internally
Displaced Persons,
Mission to the Sudan, Report E/CN.4/2003/86/Add.1, November
27, 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
16. Representative of the Secretary General on Internally
Displaced Persons,
Mission to the Sudan, Report E/CN.4/2005/8, July 24–31, 2004
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Representative of the Secretary General on Internally
Displaced Persons,
Mission to Southern Sudan, Report E/CN.4/2006/71/Add.6,
February 13, 2006 . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Representative of the Secretary General on the
Situation of Human
Rights Defenders, Mission to Israel and the Occupied
Palestinian Territories,
Report E/CN.4/2006/95/Add.3, October 4–11, 2005 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71–2
Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, Mission to
Morocco,
Report A/HRC/4/29/Add.2, February 7, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing as a Component of
the Right of an
Adequate Standard of Living, Visit to the Occupied Palestinian
Territories,
Report E/CN.4/2003/5/Add.1, January 5–10, 2002 . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing as a Component of
the Right of an
Adequate Standard of Living, Mission to Afghanistan, Report
E/CN.4/2004/48/Add.2, September 1–12, 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing as a Component of
17. the Right of an Adequate
Standard of Living, Mission to Iran, E/CN.4/2006/41/Add.2,
July 19–30, 2005 . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary
Executions, Mission to
Afghanistan, Report E/CN.4/2003/3/Add.4, October 13–23,
2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary and Arbitrary
Executions,
Mission to the Sudan, Report E/CN.4/2005/7/Add.2, June 2–12,
2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary
Executions, Mission to
Afghanistan, Report A/HRC/8/3/Add.6, May 5–15, 2008 . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Mission
to Algeria, Report E/
CN.4/2003/66/Add.1, September 16–26, 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 92
Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Mission
to Israel, Report
A/HRC/10/8/Add.2, January 20–27, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and Counter Terrorism,
Mission to Israel,
Report A/HRC/6/17/Add.4 [and A/HRC/6/17/Add.4/Corr.1],
July 3–10, 2007 . . . . . . . . 71–2
Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial
Discrimination,
18. Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Mission to Kuwait, Report
E/CN.4/1997/71/Add.2, November 17–27, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial
Discrimination,
Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Mission to Mauritania
Report
A/HRC/7/19/Add.6, January 20–24, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
xiv United Nations Documents
Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants, Mission
to Iran,
Report E/CN.4/2005/85/Add.2, February 22–29, 2004 . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food (3–12/07/2003),
Mission to the
Occupied Palestinian Territories, Report
E/CN.4/2004/10/Add.2, July 3–12, 2003 . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Right to Freedom of Opinion and
Expression,
Mission to the Sudan Report E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.1, September
20–26, 1999 . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Right to Freedom of Opinion and
Expression,
Mission to Iran, Report E/CN.4/2004/62/Add.2, November 3–
11, 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Iraq,
19. Report E/CN.4/2001/42,
November 5–9, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Iraq,
February 11–15, 2002 . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Occupied Palestinian
Territories since 1967, Report A/HRC/10/20, February 11, 2009
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report E/CN.4/1998/66, January 1, 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report E/CN.4/1999/38/Add.1, May 17, 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report E/CN.4/2000/36, April 19, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report E/CN.4/2002/46, January 23, 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report E/CN.4/2003/42, January 6, 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
20. Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report E/CN.4/2006/111, January 11, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report A/61/469, September 20, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the
Sudan,
Report A/HRC/7/22, March 3, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane and
Degrading
Treatment or Punishment, Report A/HRC/4/33/Add.3, June 25–
29, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Traffi cking in Persons, especially
Women and Children,
Mission to Lebanon, Report E/CN.4/2006/62/Add.3, September
7–16 , 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Special Rapporteur on Traffi cking in Persons, especially
Women and Children,
Mission to Bahrain, Qatar and Oman, Report
A/HRC/4/23/Add.2, November 17, 2006 . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes
and Consequences, Mission
to Pakistan and Afghanistan, Report E/CN.4/2000/68/Add.4,
September 1–13, 1999 . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes
21. and Consequences, Mission
to the Occupied Palestinian Territories, E/CN.4/2005/72/Add.4,
June 13–18, 2004 . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes
and Consequences, Mission
to the Sudan, Report E/CN.4/2005/72/Add.5, September 28 to
October 2, 2004 . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes
and Consequences, Mission
to Iran, Report E/CN.4/2006/61/Add.3, January 29 to February
6, 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes
and Consequences, Mission
to Afghanistan, Report E/CN.4/2006/61/Add.5, July 9–16, 2005
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes
and Consequences, Mission
to Algeria, Report A/HRC/7/6/Add.2, January 21 to February 1,
2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary
Executions; Special
Rapporteur on the Right of Everyone to the Enjoyment of the
Highest Attainable
Standard of Physical and Mental Health; Representative to the
Secretary General
on Human Rights of Internally Displaced Persons and Special
Rapporteur on
22. United Nations Documents xv
Adequate Housing as a Component of the Right of an Adequate
Standard of Living, Joint visit
to Lebanon and Israel, Report A/HRC/2/7, September 10–13,
2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Special Rapporteur on the Right of Everyone to the Enjoyment
of the Highest
Attainable Standard of Physical and Mental Health, Mission to
Syria, UN.Doc.
A/HRC/17/25/Add.3, March 21, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Mission to Iran,
Report
E/CN.4/2004/3/Add.2/Corr.1, February 15–27, 2003 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances,
Mission to
Yemen, Report E/CN.4/1999/62/Add.1/Corr.1, August 17–21,
1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Working Group on the Use of Mercenaries, Mission to
Afghanistan, Report
A/HRC/15/25/Add.2, April 4–11, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
UN Commission on Human Rights, Report on the situation of
human rights
in Iraq, March 15 , 2002, E/CN.4/2002/44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Background Information
on the
23. Situation of Non-Muslim Religious Minorities in Iraq, October
1, 2005 . . . . . . . 204, 210, 217
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Surviving in the city: A
review of
UNHCR’s operation for Iraqi refugees in …
1
Routledge Handbook on Human
Rights and the Middle East and
North Africa
Uprisings’ have exploded notions that human rights are
irrelevant to
Middle Eastern and North African politics. Increasingly seen as
a
global concern, human rights are at the fulcrum of the region’s
on-
the-ground politics, transnational intellectual debates, and
global
political intersections.
24. and
North Africa:
emphasises the need to consider human rights in all their
dimensions, rather than solely focusing on the political
dimension, in order to understand the structural reasons
behind the persistence of human rights violations;
onsider human
rights—conceptual, political and transnational/international;
discusses issue areas subject to particularly intense debate—
gender, religion, sexuality, transitions and accountability;
contains contributions from perspectives that span from
global theory to grassroots reflections, emphasising the need
for academic work on human rights to seriously engage with
the thoughts and practices of those working on the ground.
2
expertise allows the book to capture the complex dynamics by
25. human rights have had, or could have, an impact on Middle
Eastern
African politics and society, as well as anyone with a concern
for
Human Rights across the globe.
Anthony Tirado Chase is a Professor in International Relations
at
Occidental College, USA. Professor Chase is a theoretician of
human
in the context of the Middle East.
3
Routledge Handbook on Human
Rights and the Middle East and
North Africa
Edited by Anthony Tirado Chase
4
27. without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be
trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without
intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue
record for this book is
available from the British Library Library of Congress
Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Chase, Anthony Tirado, editor.
Title: Routledge handbook on human rights and the Middle East
and North Africa / edited
by Anthony Tirado Chase.
Other titles: Handbook on human rights and the Middle East and
North Africa
Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY:
Routledge, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016021351 | ISBN 9781138807679
ISBN 9781315750972 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Human rights–Middle East. |
28. Human rights–Africa, North.
Classification: LCC JC599.M53 R68 2017 | DDC 323.0956–
dc23
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016021351
6
ISBN: 978-1-13880767-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-31575097-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
7
Sanders for their invaluable help in editing this volume.
8
Dedication
Dedicated to the sweet memory of Ruth Flora Tirado Chase. My
29. mother passed on the sense that nothing is worth doing unless it
is
—and all that led to its creation—is
saturated with that spirit. Death is not an end; the spirit lives on
through the acts it continues to inspire.
Front cover artist: Ganzeer
Cover art: “Of course, Harara, 2014”
Art description: A portrait of Ahmed Harara. Harara is an
Egyptian
activist who lost one eye to a bullet during the January 28, 2011
to
Hosni Mubarak’s fall from power on February 11, 2011. Harara
lost
his other eye during anti-military protests near the Ministry of
the
one of
many
protestors to lose eyes to sniper fire.
-repeated Egyptian
30. Designed in Cairo, Egypt, 2013.
9
Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Dedication
CONTENTS
Editor biography
List of contributors
PART I Frameworks
SECTION I Introduction and overview
1 Human rights and the Middle East and
North Africa: indivisibility, social rights,
Anthony Tirado Chase
31. SECTION II A conceptual framework: political,
economic, and cultural rights in the Middle East
and North Africa
2 Political legitimacy, contingency, and
rights in the Middle East and North Africa
Hussein Banai
3 Economic rights in the Middle East and
North Africa
Zehra F. Kabasakal Arat
kindle:embed:0006?mime=image/jpg
10
4 Cultural rights in the Middle East and
North Africa: art, revolution, and
repression
Mark LeVine
SECTION III A political framework: intersecting
human rights and governance crises in the
Middle East and North Africa
32. 5 Genocide in the contemporary Middle
East: a historical and comparative regional
perspective
Martin Shaw
the Arab World: a framework for
understanding Radical Islamism
Nader Hashemi
in Turkey: one step forward, two steps
Turan Kayaoglu
since the Green Movement
Shadi Mokhtari and Neda Nazmi
9 Narrating law: Israel and the Occupied
Territories
Kathleen Cavanaugh
33. of international humanitarian law
Stephen Zunes
SECTION IV A transnational and international
framework: human rights beyond borders
11
11 Rival transnational advocacy networks
and Middle East politics at the U.N.
Human Rights Council
Laura K. Landolt
12 Redefining rights: Organization of
values in the U.N. human rights system
Ann Mayer
Mahmood Monshipouri
34. 14 Rights, refugees, and the case of Syria:
what do human rights offer?
Kathleen Hamill
PART II Issues
SECTION V Gender and human rights in the
Middle East and North Africa
15 Colliding rights and wrongs: intimate
labor, health, human rights, and the state
in the Gulf
Pardis Mahdavi
policy and human rights in Iran
Homa Hoodfar
17 Women’s rights in the Middle East:
constitutions and consequences
Anicée Van Engeland
1
human rights
35. Micheline Ishay
12
SECTION VI Religion and human rights in the
Middle East and North Africa
19 Shari`ah and human rights
Khaled Abou El Fadl
20 Islam, the principle of subjectivity, and
individual human rights
Barbara Ann Rieffer-Flanagan
rejection, reconciliation, or
reconceptualization?
Marie Juul Petersen
22 Rhetoric versus reality: American
foreign policy and religious freedom in
the Middle East
Barbara Ann Rieffer-Flanagan
36. SECTION VII Transitions and accountability in
the Middle East and North Africa
23 Core transitional justice debates in the
Middle East and beyond
Eric Wiebelhaus-Brahm
24 Courts as a tool in transitions: lessons
from the special tribunal for Lebanon
Chandra Lekha Sriram
25 Lessons on transitioning from
authoritarianism: pitfalls and promise
from Tunisia’s experience
Rim El Gantri
cultural rights in Morocco
Osire Glacier
13
PART III Conclusions: global theory and grassroots
37. reflections
SECTION VIII Conclusions from a global
viewpoint: theoretical justifications and
contestations around human rights
27 International human rights at 70: has
the Enlightenment project run aground?
David P. Forsythe
28 On the local relevance of human rights
Koen de Feyter
29 Israel/Palestine, human rights and
domination
Nicola Perugini and Neve Gordon
Alison Brysk
31 Making human rights ‘universals’ from
the ground up?
Lisa S. Alfredson
38. SECTION IX Conclusions from a grassroots
viewpoint: reflections on dynamics around
struggles for human rights in the Middle East
and North Africa
32 Reflections on three decades of human
rights work in the Arab region
Fateh Azzam
33 Egypt 2011–15: how can a democratic
revolution fail to improve human rights
conditions?
Amr Hamzawy
14
34 Reflections on human rights before and
Bahey eldin Hassan
35 Human rights, law and politics: a
reflection on human rights work in the
39. Middle East and North Africa
Lynn Welchman
Index
15
Editor Biography
Anthony Tirado Chase is a Professor in International Relations
at
Occidental College, USA. Professor Chase is a theoretician of
human
recent
article is “Human Rights Contestations: Sexual Orientation and
Gender Identity” in International Journal of Human Rights
(April,
2016). His previous books are Human Rights, Revolution, and
Reform
in the Muslim World (2012) and Human Rights in the Arab
World:
Independent Voices (co-edited with Amr Hamzawy, 2006).
40. 16
Contributors
Dr. Khaled Abou El Fadl is the Omar and Azmeralda Alfi
Distinguished Professor in Islamic Law at the University of
fourteen
books on various topics in Islam and Islamic law, including his
most
recent work Reasoning with God: Reclaiming Shari`ah in the
Modern
Lisa S. Alfredson is an Assistant Professor at the University of
She
is the author of the book, Creating Human Rights (University of
Pennsylvania Press, 2008), as well as numerous policy reports
for
international human rights organizations.
Zehra F. Kabasakal Arat is Professor of Political Science at the
University of Connecticut. Exploring both theoretical and
empirical
41. questions of human rights, with an emphasis on women’s rights
and
their interpretation/application in Islamic and Turkish contexts,
she
published numerous books and articles on human rights and
their
relation to democracy, development and globalization.
Fateh Azzam is the Director of the Asfari Institute for Civil
Society
and Citizenship, and Senior Policy Fellow at the Issam Fares
Institute
for Public Policy and International Relations, both at the
American
University in Beirut. He previously served as the Middle East
Regional Representative of the U.N. High Commissioner for
Human
Rights, Director of Forced Migration and Refugee Studies at the
17
American University in Cairo, Human Rights Program Officer
at the
Ford Foundation in Lagos and Cairo, and Director of the
42. Palestinian
organization Al-Haq. He led the process of establishing the
Arab
Human Rights Fund.
Hussein Banai is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Studies at Indiana University.
Aliso
University of California, Santa Barbara. She is the author and
editor
of ten volumes on international human rights.
Kathleen Cavanaugh is socio-
Lecturer
in the Faculty of Law, Irish Centre for Human Rights, National
University of Ireland, Galway.
Koen De Feyter is Professor of International Law at the
Group on Law and Development of the University of Antwerp,
Belgium.
Rim El Gantri is a transitional justice expert who is currently
head
43. of office at the International Center for Transitional Justice,
Nepal.
She led the ICTJ Tunisia program for about five years. Notable
among her published writings is “Tunisia in Transition: One
Year
Truth and Dignity Commission.”
Distinguished Professor of Political Science Emeritus, at the
University of Nebraska-Lincoln. He taught various aspects of
International Relations for forty-two years, with special
human rights and humanitarian affairs.
18
International Studies at Bishop’s University. She is the author
of
Universal Rights, Systemic Violations and Cultural Relativism
in
Morocco (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013); and Political
Women
44. in Morocco, Then and Now (Trenton: Africa World Press,
2013).
Neve Gordon is a Professor of Politics at Ben-Gurion University
in
Israel and is the author of Israel’s Occupation (California:
University
of California Press, 2008) and co-author of The Human Right to
Dominate (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
Kathleen Hamill is an independent human rights lawyer and
for Health
and
of
Professor.
Amr Hamzawy is a Professor at both American University in
Cairo,
and Cairo University. Dr. Hamzawy is a former member of both
the
Egyptian People’s Assembly and the Egyptian National Council
for
Human Rights, as well as author of, A Margin for Democracy in
45. Egypt – The Story of An Unsuccessful Transition (in Arabic),
among
other books.
Nader Hashemi is an Associate Professor of Middle East and
Islamic
Politics and the Director of the Center for Middle East Studies
at the
Studies.
Bahey eldin Hassan is the Director of the Cairo Institute for
Human
Rights Studies. He has authored and edited many books,
and articles on human rights in the Arab region.
Homa Hoodfar is Professor of Anthropology at Concordia
19
intersection of political economy, gender and development and
women’s movements and electoral politics in the Middle East.
46. University
of Denver. She is the author and editor of numerous books,
including
Internationalism and Its Betrayal, The Nationalism Reader, The
History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Era of
Globalization, and The Human Rights Reader.
Turan Kayaoglu is a Professor of International Relations at the
Washington, Tacoma. He is the Editor-in-Chief of Muslim
World
Journal of Human Rights.
Laura K. Landolt is Associate Professor of Political Science at
Oakland University. She examines relationships between state
power
and human rights advocacy.
Mark LeVine is Professor of Modern Middle Eastern History at
University of California, Irvine, and a Distinguished Visiting
Professor at Lund University’s Center for Middle Eastern
Studies. He
47. University of Beirut to study the evolution of human rights
discourses in the Arab world.
Pardis Mahdavi, PhD, is Associate Professor at Pomona College
and
include
rights, youth culture, transnational feminism and public health
in
ures.
Ann Elizabeth Mayer is an Emeritus Associate Professor of
Legal
University
20
contemporary Middle East and North Africa and international
Human Rights was published in 2012.
48. focuses
on the local and international politics of human rights in the
Middle
East.
Francisco State University and University of California,
Berkeley. He
is editor, most recently, of Information Politics, Protests, and
Human
Rights in the Digital Age (New York: Cambridge University
Press,
2016) and Inside the Islamic Republic: Social Change in Post-
Khomeini Iran, (London: Hurst & Company, forthcoming).
Neda Nazmi is an expert in Iranian politics and civil society
development. She holds Masters degrees from American
University
and Allameh Tabataba`i University, and a BA in Political
Science
from Tehran University.
49. Nicola Perugini is Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow at Brown
University
and co-author of The Human Right to Dominate (New York:
Oxford
University Press, 2015).
Marie Juul Petersen is a sociologist of religion with a PhD from
Copenhagen University. She works at the Danish Institute for
Barbara Rieffer-Flanagan is a Professor of Political Science at
on
the intersection of religion, politics and human rights.
21
Martin Shaw is a sociologist of global politics, war and
genocide. He
Institut Barcelona d`Estudis
Internacionals, Professorial Fellow in International Relations
and
Human Rights at the University of Roehampton, London, and
Emeritus Professor of the University of Sussex.
50. and peace
Lebanon. She is Professor of International Law and
International
Relations and Director of the Centre on Human Rights in
Conflict at
the University of East London.
Bassam Tibi, born in Damascus, was Professor of International
Relations until his retirement in 2009 from the University of
universities including Harvard, Princeton, Yale and the latest,
Cornell University, where he acted as A. D. White Professor
between
2006 and 2010.
for
Socio-Legal Studies and a Lecturer in law and religious studies
at
Cardiff University.
e Middle East and
North
51. Africa at SOAS, University of London. Prior to becoming an
academic she worked with non-governmental organizations
(NGOs)
in the Arab human rights movement, mostly in Palestine but
also
elsewhere in the Middle East and North Africa, an engagement
she
has sought to maintain since joining SOAS.
Eric Wiebelhaus-Brahm is Assistant Professor of Political
Science
interests
include transitional justice, human rights, post-conflict
reconstruction, and democratization.
22
Stephen Zunes is a Professor of Politics and coordinator of
Middle
focus
includes human rights, U.S. foreign policy, strategic nonviolent
52. action, and Middle Eastern/North African politics.
23
Part I
Frameworks
24
Section I
Introduction and overview
25
1
Human Rights and the Middle East
and North Africa
Indivisibility, social rights, and structural
Anthony Tirado Chase
53. 26
Introduction
In conceptualizing this Handbook, I have sought to highlight
original
to
goal
in doing so is simple: to capture in ways that cannot be done in
human rights have had or could have an impact on MENA
politics.
intellectual conversations are high a
popular
uprisings inflected by human rights principles have been
violently
repressed everywhere from Iran, across the Arab world, and in
Turkey. In their place, long dominant authoritarianisms are
ms vary among secular, ethnic,
and/or Islamist justifications, but share a common foundation in
54. authoritarianisms show a resilience and ability to morph into
progressively more brutal systems of power that leave many
with
the sense that there is no alternative.
-
colonial inheritance of despotic power structures, current
realities of
failed governance that have exacerbated divisions al ong many
fault
lines, and extra-regional forces that consistently reinforce anti-
-interest.”
Nonetheless, it is also worth remembering that human rights
have
long been part of informing subterranean articulations of
alternatives to dominant forms of culture, economics, politics,
and
quite visibly—
rebellion, and social resistance—during the popular uprisings
that
55. 27
swept the region from 2009 to 2013. But, now that the hope
represented by those uprisings seems a distant memory, there
has
been a return by many in academic and policy-making circles to
status quo thinking that assumes the MENA is solely defined by
secular military rule or anti-pluralist Islamisms? Syrian-style
“stability” or fiefdoms ruled by
misleading
ones. Lazily taking them as a frame effaces other possibilities,
serving the purposes of elites invested in their perpetuation with
devastating results for the region’s peoples, societies, and
states, as
well as the broader regional and global order.
Most specific to this Handbook’s purposes, those frames have
limited thought about even the possibility of alternatives to the
56. have, nonetheless, persisted in
many
parts,
nine sections, and thirty-
in
particular, have become interwoven with discourses that reject
false
-
inflected discourses have sought, instead, to somehow make
space in
the MENA’s political, economic, cultural, and social structures
for
pluralisms of different sorts. I will conclude this introductory
ter
domain, with particular reference to sexual orientation and
gender
identity-related (SOGI) rights. I argue that connecting social
resistances to human rights is not just important in isolation; it
is
connected to sustaining interconnected resistances in the
cultural,
57. economic, and political rights’ spheres.
In that light, the goal in this Handbook of coming to terms with
human rights’ potential impacts is ambitious, but more realisti c
than
make
sense of how rights have been part of varieties of resistances
against
28
dominant power structures—local, domestic, regional, and
international—and, beyond that, what the variables are that will
determine if they may do so more successfully in the future.
29
indivisibility, intersections,
multidisciplinarity, and beyond
rs
58. who in diverse ways—
other
and, indeed, in disagreement with my own views—are at the
edge in thought about what human rights are, how they can be
the
MENA condition whether human rights will or will not have an
disciplines as well as regional and thematic expertise. Part I of
the
on,
further situate the reader within frameworks for thinking about
human rights in the MENA. Section II gives a conceptual
framework
inclusive of different categories of human rights—from social
rights
to political, economic, and cultural rights. Section III gives a
political
framework inclusive of key countries, sub-regions, and the U.S.
as an
omnipresent external hegemon. Section IV gives a transnational
59. and
international framework that makes clear the intersecting levels
in
global politics throu
play
out, and how powerful states increasingly contest human rights
at
all of these levels. Part II’s sections focus the reader on issue
areas
that have been subject to particularly intense debate. Section V
explore
rights’
relevance in the MENA. Section VI gives different points of
view on
the intersections of religion and human rights in the
predominantly
Muslim MENA. Section VII takes on transitions and
accountability
demands
30
60. institutions.
Part III contains two concluding sections that end the Handbook
in a particularly distinctive manner. Section VIII’s Conclusions
from
a global viewpoint: theoretical justifications and contestations
around human rights calls on human rights theoreticians with a
global perspective to shed light on human rights in the MENA.
MENA is not an insular region disconnected from global
currents,
including those in academic circles. To the contrary, academic
conversations about human rights’ history, relation to the state,
and
their contradictory dynamics in many parts of the world can and
should info
these
rights that see them as having progressively grown out of
Enlightenment thought and post-WWII history. A top down
61. diffusion of human rights from a singular foundation—
philosophical
or historical—is increasingly seen as less important to human
rights’
rights have been malleable enough to be seized and repurposed
as
useful tools to grassroots struggles in many different contexts
around
the globe.
conceptualization of Section IX’sConclusions from a grassroots
viewpoint: reflections on dynamics around struggles for human
-practitioners who reflect on their decades of work
on
human rights in the region. It is a key premise of this Handbook
that
academic work on human rights in the MENA should more
seriously
is
62. general
and, most egregiously, on human rights in the MENA. Lynn
31
with the observation that academics need to be open to being
‘surprised’ —that is to having their …
H u m a n R i g h ts i n t h e
M i d d l e E a s t
This page intentionally left blank
H u m a n R i g h ts i n t h e
M i d d l e E a s t
F r a m e w o r k s, G o a l s,
a n d S t r at e g i e s
E d i t e d b y
M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
64. aspects—Islam. 3. Islam and politics—Middle East. I.
Monshipouri,
Mahmood, 1952–
JC599.M53H85 2011
323.0956—dc23
2011020954
A catalogue record of the book is available from the British
Library.
Design by MPS Limited, A Macmillan Company
First edition: December 2011
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 978-1-349-29882-2 ISBN 978-1-137-00198-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9781137001986
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2011 978-0-230-
12061-7
C o n t e n ts
List of Tables vii
Acknowledgments viii
Introduction 1
Part I Introduction I: Problems with
the Current Frameworks 23
65. 1 Framing the Human Rights Discourse: The Role
of Natural Localism and the Power of Paradigm 27
Lawrence Davidson
2 Islam and Human Rights: Ideals and Practices 41
Manochehr Dorraj
3 Human Rights through the Lens of
Islamic Legal Thought 57
Halim Rane
4 Islamophobia, Defamation of Religions,
and International Human Rights 73
Turan Kayaoğlu
Part II Introduction II: Common Goals and Case Studies 91
5 Human Rights and the Kurdish Question
in the Middle East 95
Nader Entessar
6 The Janus Nature of Human Rights in Iran:
Understanding Progress and Setbacks on Human
Rights Protections since the Revolution 111
Barbara Ann Rieffer-Flanagan
7 From Omission to Reluctant Recognition: Political
Parties’ Approach to Women’s Rights in Turkey 129
Zehra F. Kabasakal Arat
66. 8 Minorities and Marginalized Communities in
the Middle East: The Case for Inclusion 153
Mahmood Monshipouri and Jonathon Whooley
9 Lessons from Movements for Rights Regarding
Sexual Orientation in the Arab World 171
Anthony Tirado Chase
Part III Introduction III: Strategies 189
10 A Prospect of Democratic Uprisings in the
Arab World 193
Bahey eldin Hassan
11 Counterterrorism, Nation- building, and
Human Rights in the Middle East: Complementary
or Competing Interests? 211
Mahmood Monshipouri and Shadi Mokhtari
12 Migrant Workers and Their Rights in
the United Arab Emirates 227
Mahmood Monshipouri and Ali Assareh
13 Health and Human Rights in Palestine:
The Siege and Invasion of Gaza and the Role of the
Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions Movement 245
Jess Ghannam
67. List of Contributors 263
Index 267
vi C o n t e n t s
Ta b l e s
4.1 Voting Patterns at the HRC and UNGA 78
7.1 The list of political parties and programs
included in the study 132
8.1 Selected minority groups 155
12.1 Population of the United Arab Emirates 230
13.1 PHCR summary of deaths and injuries in Gaza
during 23-day IOF offensive by province 250
A c k n ow l e d g m e n ts
This volume, which grew out of a conference on the Middle
East and
Islamic Studies, held on the campus of San Francisco State
University,
October 16–17, 2009, intends to enhance the global parameters
of
human rights by illustrating ways in which the protections
against
violence, torture, and discrimination, extrajudicial killings, as
well as
freedom from hunger in the region—and for that matter, the rest
of the
68. world—must be upheld in the name of human dignity, welfare,
security,
and social justice.
Of particular relevance to this project is the question of whether
a
commitment to the full range of human rights is even feasible
given
the cultural diversity, unequal economic circumstances, and
socio-
economic priorities of the expanding globalized world. It is
equally
important to ascertain the appropriateness and desirability of
applying
the international human rights framework in the Middle East.
More-
over, we hope the debates offered in this volume will shed light
on
the international human rights project originating from the
Middle
Eastern countries by helping to defi ne political and human
rights dis-
courses in a way that transcends traditional and conventional
thinking.
Thus, in addition to inquiries about how international human
rights
norms have shaped the consciousness and behavior of actors in
the
region, we are interested in exploring the ways in which Muslim
actors
themselves have potentially contributed to the promotion of
interna-
tional human rights norms.
A culmination of many years of work on human rights in the
Middle
69. East and North Africa, this book represents a joint effort by
many schol-
ars from different disciplines—history, political science,
international law,
religious studies, public health, and international relations —and
various
parts of the world, including Australia, Egypt, Iran, Turkey,
England,
the Palestine, and the United States. I owe a debt of gratitude to
all
contributors to this volume who submitted several drafts of their
proj-
ects and endured through the lengthy process of review. Special
thanks
are also due to Jonathon Whooley and Ali Assareh whose
assistance
was an equally valuable part of completing this volume. Some
of the
most insightful remarks that we received were provided by
anonymous
external reviewers. We gratefully acknowledge their invaluable
assistance
and support at various stages of this book. Finally, we express
our deep
gratitude to the Middle East and Islamic Studies Center of the
San
Francisco State University that made it possible to bring about
this
human rights workshop.
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s ix
70. 4I n t r o d u c t i o n
M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
There is unfortunately little prospect of eliminating all
obstacles to
protecting human rights in the twenty- fi rst century. Applying
universal
human rights standards across the globe is a diffi cult and
daunting task.
Many problems and challenges lie ahead. One of the most
formidable
tasks facing the international human rights community is to
establish
whether a commitment to the full range of human rights is even
feasible
given the cultural diversity, unequal economic circumstances,
and socio-
economic priorities of the expanding globalized world. A
related focus of
this volume will be on the extent to which the dynamics
surrounding the
human rights challenges in the Middle East conform to or
diverge from
such dynamics in other parts of the world. Since the protection
of all
human rights requires perfection regardless of region, two
sensible ques-
tions to ask regarding the Middle East are: (a) To what extent
progress
or improvement can realistically be made on the status quo? and
(b) To
what extent are the apparent or real features of such uniqueness
a func-
tion of contemporary manifestations of Orientalism and
71. Islamophobia?
Another line of inquiry we would like to pursue in this volume
is
to ascertain the appropriateness and desirability of applying the
inter-
national human rights framework in the Middle East. What does
the
international human rights framework offer Middle Eastern
countries?
In what ways does it foster local efforts to improve human
rights in the
Middle East and in what ways does its baggage of imperialism,
neoimperi-
alisms, power relations, and appropriations of human rights
discourses by
governments pursuing their own geopolitical interests damage
such local
and authentic efforts? This fi rst inquiry inherently leads to a
second: Is an
Islamic social, political, and legal framework compatible with
the notion of
human rights? In addressing these two main questions, we hope
to take on
2 M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
the task of examining the human rights project, proposing ways
to apply
universal norms across diverse nations and cultures in the
region.
Additionally, we hope the debates offered in this volume will
highlight
72. potential contributions to the international human rights project
origi-
nating from the Middle Eastern countries. Thus, in addition to
inqui-
ries about how international human rights norms have impacted
the
consciousness and behavior of actors in the region, we are
interested in
learning about how Muslim actors—scholars, activists, lawyers,
journal-
ists, cultural elite, and policymakers—have, and potentially can
contribute
to the development of international human rights norms. There
is a good
deal of discussion about the barriers of transcending the
application of
Western human rights standards. They may have been Western
in origin,
but they have been globally endorsed, which suggests that
human rights
norms responded to dangers to human dignity found in all states
and
regions. We need to engage such discussions in order to
substantiate or
disprove the reasoning and rationale underlying it all.
Finally, given the state of contemporary international affairs,
few discus-
sions of human rights in the Middle East can transpire without
at least some
reference to the relationship between the Middle Eastern
countries and the
West, particularly the United States, its policies, geopolitical
considerations,
and human rights practices and discourses. We hope that
contributors to
73. this volume will help to illuminate the complexities of this
relationship and
the impact of its discourses and counterdiscourses on human
rights, in a
way that transcends traditional and conventional scholarship.
There can be no doubt that the increasing global attention to
legal
matters and human rights has fostered the idea of holding states
to higher
moral and legal standards, causing more dissonance than
consensus
among states on matters of interpretation and enforcement. With
some
exceptions, states have nevertheless cooperated with the
International
Criminal Tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, both
of which
have issued powerful indictments against war criminals. The
International
Criminal Court (ICC) has come closer to becoming an
operational insti-
tution. This is evident by the way in which the ICC’s Prosecutor
Luis
Moreno Ocampo has pushed for the arrest of Sudanese President
Omar
Hassan al- Bashir, the most senior fi gure and the fi rst sitting
head of state,
charged and pursued by the court. There are new developments
in crimi-
nal justice and international criminal law. While many obstacles
remain
en route to protecting human rights globally, it is important to
continue
efforts aimed at doing so. Human rights continue to fi gure in
high- level
74. foreign policy, as in the 2011 US- China summit. Similarly,
human rights
continue to fi gure in many regional and national developments,
as can be
seen in Ivory Coast, Honduras, and other cases.
These positive trends have marked a new era in defense of
human
rights, but the larger question of transnational norms
development
I n t r o d u c t i o n 3
and transsovereign law enforcement still remain unanswered.
Several issues
typify practical and normative diffi culties facing states,
including sovereignty,
military and humanitarian intervention, globalization, universal
jurisdiction
(national courts can prosecute serious human rights violations
committed
anywhere in the world), and international justice. It is in this
context that we
turn to the Middle East as a region that has been resistant to the
enforcement
of universal standards of human rights. It is imperative to
explore the possi-
bilities for compatibility—or their absence—between universal
human rights
norms and the tremendous diversity of cultural traditions, local
and national
identities, as well as socioeconomic and political conditions.
Without taking
into account the entire array of factors contributing to human
75. rights viola-
tions or improvements, it is not possible to identify variables
and policies that
affect human rights practices in the region. The Middle Eastern
region has
no robust regional regime for real human rights protections,
whereas some
other regions, such as Latin America and Europe, do.
This book represents a joint effort by many scholars from
different
disciplines (history, political science, international law,
religious studies,
psychiatry and health sciences, and international relations) and
various
parts of the world (Australia, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, Palestine,
England,
and the United States) to explore the contemporary roots of
human
rights violations in the Middle East. The volume’s main focus is
to pro-
vide a systematic analysis of looking beyond the abuses of
human rights
in the Middle East with a view toward (1) problematizing
traditional
doctrinal thinking and concepts in the region; (2) ascertaining
histori-
cal roots of human rights abuses in the Middle East, and (3)
developing
strategies for improving human rights conditions of the vast
majority of
people more generally and those of minorities and marginal
communities
more particularly. To constructively address and deal with
human rights
conditions, we will fi rst attempt a thematic analysis to frame
76. the debate
by measuring and mapping out the nature of human rights and
dignity.
Here we will turn to the issues of group rights and localism that
give
meaning and value to human existence, diversity of
perspectives, limits
to the defamation of religion, and ways to reconcile Islam and
the global
normative consensus on human rights. Our analysis will also
examine the
diffi culties as well as challenges one encounters in pri vileging
Islam as
either the savior of human rights or the main source of its
violations.
In the second section, our focus will then shift to comparative
his-
torical studies to demonstrate the underlying human rights
abuses in
the region. In this section, we set out to examine the Kurdish
question,
sexual orientation and gender identity, the case study of Iran in
the post-
revolutionary period, and the extent to which women’s rights
have been
incorporated into the programs of political parties in Turkey.
These
studies will scrutinize the status and acceptance of human rights
condi-
tions in the region. More broadly, this section attempts to
illustrate that
4 M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
77. Islam per se does not determine developments; that w omen’s
rights and
political rights, inter alia, depend on more than just a nation’s
dominant
religion; and that it does make a difference that Turkey is offi
cially secular
even with an Islamic party in power.
This volume’s fi nal section identifi es strategies of promoting
human
rights through nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and
mechanisms
to include minorities—both economically and politically—in
national
affairs. Also in this section, we argue that in the post-9/11 era,
some
Islamic movements have distanced themselves from condemning
human
rights and repositioned themselves toward embracing important
parts
of the internationally recognized human rights. Such a shift has
enhanced
the internal logical consistency and legitimacy of the human
rights notion
throughout the region. Human rights NGOs will need to work
with
states and civil society not only on whether their goals are
desirable but
chiefl y on whether they are feasible and sustainable in the long
run. To
do so, it is necessary to engage Islamic networks, scholars, and
activists,
who—through study of and interaction with society—have
gained a bet-
ter understanding of local conditions, that is, the socioeconomic
78. status
of women, children, and the elderly. This cooperation toward
achieving
common goals is the key to fi nding the most effective
strategies to obtain
a wider acceptance of human rights standards in the region. To
this end,
both Islam, as a religion, and Islamic law (Shari’a), as a legal
system, can
be positively employed for the promotion of human rights in the
Middle
East. Thus a pragmatic version of Islam can affect developments
if it is
carefully related or adjusted to the facts of the region.
The fi ndings and implications resulting from this volume will
have
theoretical as well as policy application. We hope to
demonstrate the rele-
vance of area studies to the study of contemporary international
affairs.
The similarities, differences, and interactions between Middle
Eastern
countries and the West must be fully explored to prevent
potential con-
fl icts in the future. Still, this volume, which grew out of a
conference
on the Middle East and Islamic Studies, held on the campus of
San
Francisco State University, October 16–17, 2009, intends to
analyze
the global parameters of human rights by illustrating ways in
which the
protections against violence, torture, and discrimination,
extrajudicial
killings, as well as freedom from hunger in the region—and for
79. that mat-
ter, the rest of the world—must be upheld in the name of human
dignity,
welfare, security, and social justice.
Human Rights in the Middle
East: An Overview
The spread of democratic values and fundamental freedoms
across the
globe in the past quarter century has turned the attention of
experts
I n t r o d u c t i o n 5
to the Muslim world’s internal struggles in achieving universal
human
rights standards. Whether impediments to observing modern
notions
of human rights in the Muslim world are inherent to Islam or
linked
to the social, structural, and cultural factors is an issue that has
sparked
intense debate over the nature of democratic change in these
societies.
More broadly, the struggle for human rights has revived an old
rivalry
within the Muslim world between secular rationalists and
Islamists. In
today’s globalizing world, religious heterogeneity, emerging
norms, and
multiple loyalties have become so intricately entangled that it
makes
eminent sense, therefore, to talk about values and religious
80. pluralism.
Can embracing religious pluralism provide the best hope for
effective
adjustment to global change and the information age? Is value
pluralism a
necessary condition for making progress toward achieving
social justice in
the international community? What role does the human rights
discourse
play in nudging along the debate between Western and non-
Western
worlds, and who should be held to account for the persistence of
human
rights abuses in the Middle East? These are critical and complex
issues
that should be addressed.
In Iran, Barbara Ann Rieffer- Flanagan points out, there is
some basis
for hope in the future: There is limited progress on second
generation
rights (socioeconomic and cultural rights) and the political
elites are
increasingly using the language of international human rights. A
prag-
matic Islam that seeks a dynamic interpretation of Islamic law
(Shari’a)
can be an effective alternative to the sacred and textual rigidity
of ortho-
dox Islam. On balance, human rights prospects in the Middle
East are
uncertain if not entirely bleak. But beyond the Middle East,
experiences
of Muslims in Turkey, Indonesia, and India have been positively
linked to
human rights and democracy at least in certain periods.
81. Deciding between competing narratives regarding the
relationship—
or even the conversation—between religion and human rights
has not
been an easy affair. This can also be comparatively
demonstrated, by
examining the role of Catholicism and human rights both in the
Western
world and Latin America, Hinduism and human rights in India,
Con-
fucianism and Buddhism and human rights in East Asia—to cite
a few
examples. It is worth noting that some ostensibly Christian
nations have
produced admirable records of human rights and democracy,
while oth-
ers have produced fascism and other forms of totalitarianism.
The same
nation with the same religious heritage has sometimes produced
both.
Put very simply, the linkage between religion and human rights
needs
further nuanced and subtle analysis.
The Catholic Church has faced a myriad of criticisms regarding
its
complicity in corrupt regimes, gender bias in the nonordination
of
women and the regulation of reproductive freedom, unfair
treatment
of its own employees and members, and, perhaps most crucial ly,
the
82. 6 M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
exploitation of dependent and unemancipated persons receiving
its ser-
vices.1 Over time, however, the infl uence of the Church’s basic
theologi-
cal message and legal forms and policies has arguably helped
account for
the realization of human rights as a feature of Western legal
institutions.
The key point to note is that the richness and complexity of
Catholicism’s
role in advancing human rights point to both successes and
failures.2 The
Vatican has both identifi ed with some human rights and also
endorsed
those violating rights, depending on which rights, eras, and
issues one
is addressing. One Pope was all for democracy in Poland, and
another
helped cover up child abuse in Ireland and elsewhere.
Similarly, it is important to understand the ways in which Hindu
traditions both strengthen and weaken the struggle for human
rights in
South Asia today. Opposition to caste discrimination in the
Hindu world
has a long history. Yet many Indians tend to attribute the
persisting dis-
crimination against untouchables (Dalits) to Hinduism. As it is
the case
in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, Hinduism has always
contained both
conservative and reformist, even radical variants.3 In
contemporary India,
as Jack Donnelly notes, “Hinduism functions as both a support
83. for and
an impediment to the exercise and enjoyment of internationally
recog-
nized human rights.”4 The universalist elements of Hinduism—
a single
dharma governing an integrated, divinely infused reality and
regulating
a universal struggle toward liberation—have provided in both
principle
and practice an impetus toward shoring up local support for
fundamental
human rights.5 Some experts on Islamic law have shown the
compet-
ing trends in Islamic interpretation, similar to varieties of
thought in
Christianity, Southern Baptist and Congregationalist
interpretations of
Christianity.6
Likewise, Confucian tradition, with its strong communitarian
strands
and frameworks, has become a topic of much discussion in
recent years.
Many observers have argued that Confucianism can be properly
inter-
preted to become compatible with modern human rights with
respect
to their content, if not legal regulation. Even though
Confucianism has
historically been based on a hierarchical foundation, especially
in the con-
text of patriarchal social and cultural traditions, classical
Confucians took
the view that all people have the capacity to become fl
ourishing moral
persons in the community, if not exemplary sages.7 Like all
84. traditions,
Confucianism has been open to change and development in
response
to both internal social problems and external pressures.
Currently, there
exists a strong movement of New Confucians who tend to
progres-
sively reinterpret the tradition in robust engagement with the
West.8
As a dynamic tradition, Confucianism can be reinterpreted to
provide a
minimum of social guarantees for human rights in the form of
support-
ive public policies and political reforms, including
constitutionalism and
democracy. Contemporary Japan and South Korea provide
particularly
I n t r o d u c t i o n 7
apt examples for adjusting Confucian- infl uenced societies to
modern
human rights standards.9
Isl am and Human Rights
While focusing largely on the Muslim world, this book has
examined both
internal and external factors infl uencing the state and progress
of human
rights in the Middle East. The central theme underlying this
volume’s
arguments is that religious factors seem extraneous to an
understanding
85. of human rights issues in the Muslim world. All religions have
developed
in patriarchal settings: They are largely expressed in patriarchal
terms, and
they are heavily infl uenced by patriarchal values. It is therefore
wrong to
examine the ambiguities and contradictions in Islamic sacred
texts, instead
of addressing social and structural causes of economic and
political decay.
The contributions by Manochehr Dorraj, Turan Kayaoglu, and
Halim
Rene have demonstrated that renewed emphasis on the
relationship
between religion and human rights has increasingly become an
essential
element of law, politics, and society in contemporary Muslim
world. By
way of contrast, the chapter by Lawrence Davidson has noted
that, histori-
cally, all rights have local origins and have been shaped by
local cultural
traditions. Others, such as Anthony Chase, have argued that
sexual and
gender rights continue to challenge traditionally narrow notions
of what
constitutes a protected status against discrimination. Chase
underscores
the point that respect for rights based on a singular identity
risks forgoing
the emergence of fl uid, multiple, and evolving identities of
Muslims.
Although the issue of how to implement human rights remains
unre-
solved, the gap between the Muslim and Western worlds over
86. the issue of
what constitutes human rights has been narrowed. The dispute
between
the two worlds over human rights is not a confl ict in dialectics
but one
of perspective. In the post-9/11 era, Islamists and secular human
rights
forces have inherited overlapping priorities in areas such as the
use of
security prisons and courts, electoral rights, and freedom of
expression,
leading the way for bridging the religious- secular divide that
had vexingly
beleaguered human rights conditions in the Middle East.
Over the centuries, Muslim countries have been subject to
political
machinations and manipulation by great powers, driven both by
rivalry
and collusion. In the Middle East, for example, the Western
world has
gained more access to the region’s oil resources by working
with dictators
rather than democratic regimes accountable to their people. The
U.S.
strategic ties with the governments of Egypt, Saudi Arabia,
Turkey, and
Pakistan have always been based on purely instrumental
grounds, refl ect-
ing geopolitical impulses. The persistence of geopolitical
concerns,
especially in the aftermath of the U.S. occupation of Iraq, has
rendered
87. 8 M a h m o o d M o n s h i p o u r i
the work of human rights groups and organizations immensely
diffi cult
in countries such as Egypt.
Security considerations have dramatically narrowed the space
for
human rights claims and activities in the name of the global
campaign
dubbed the “war on terror.” The chapter by Monshipouri and
Mokhtari
demonstrates the fl aws of the so- called war on terror strategy
undertaken
by the Bush administration. Beyond the exigencies of
“humanitarian
intervention,” and “the responsibility to protect,” they point
out, moral
and ethical justifi cations for military intervention under the
rubric of
security, stability, and nation- building have fallen by the
wayside. It
may very well be the case that investing in nation- building and
peace-
building is an effective way to combat terrorism, but postconfl
ict societies
encounter a bewildering array of socioeconomic and political
diffi culties
for which the military occupation cannot provide reliable
panacea, and in
fact may be the overt cause of many of these issues.
Exploring the root causes of human rights abuses in the Middle
East
and North Africa, Bahey eldin Hassan argues, the dominant role
of the
88. executive branch—and the security apparatuses at the heart of
it—has led
to a chronic failure to build a nation of rights and law s.
Institutions and
mechanisms that are meant to protect the individual and society
from
autocracy are used to legitimize and institutionalize a
systematic assault
on the liberties and rights of the individual and society, all the
while
methodically weakening civil society, which was created in
some countries
such as Egypt, Syria, and Iraq during the periods of relative
liberalism in
the fi rst half of the twentieth century. In these countries, the
constitution,
legislative process, courts, parliament, and religious
establishments have
often been used as means of conferring legitimacy on
methodical assaults
on the rights of individuals and society.
The 2011 uprisings in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and the
rest of
the Middle East and North Africa illustrate the fact that the
spread
of modernity and modernizing forces in a society is indeed a
key contrib-
uting factor to the implementation of reform. These forces are
likely to
push a country toward a gradual democratic transition, a
possibility that,
as Hassan notes, seems more likely in Tunisia than Egypt given
that
Tunisia is the most modernized and urbanized country in the
region.
89. In Egypt, by contrast, modern forces are weak. The military
establishment
has been the main prop of the regime since 1952 and has vested
interest in
maintaining certain power relations and institutional
arrangements.
The Internal Forces of Change
Three groups have lately been the subjects of an intense human
rights
debate in …