Frank Hernandez, Elizabeth Murakami, PhD, and others

NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
VOLUME 33, NUMBERS 2 & 3, 2016
4
LATINA/O ASSISTANT PRINCIPALS –
VAGUE AND AMBIGUOUS ROLES IN K-12
ADMINISTRATION: FINDINGS FROM
THE NATIONAL LATINA/O LEADERSHIP
PROJECT
Frank Hernandez, PhD
Dean
The University of Texas of the Permian Basin
Elizabeth T. Murakami, PhD
Professor and Programs Director
Texas A&M – San Antonio
Sylvia Mendez-Morse, PhD
Associate Professor
Texas Tech University
Mónica Byrne-Jiménez, PhD
Associate Professor
Hofstra University
Jonathon McPhetres, MA
Doctoral Student
University of Rochester

HERNANDEZ, MURAKAMI, MENDEZ-MORSE, BYRNE-JIMENEZ,& MCPHETRES5
Abstract
The purpose of this exploratory study is to analyze the survey feedback of Latina/o
assistant principals. The survey is comprised of school demographics, careers, and
barriers faced by Latina/o school leaders. Responses included: short predetermined,
Likert-scale responses, and open-ended questions. The findings are grouped into
three distinct areas: demographic information, the type of schools where the
participants work, and the types of challenges they faced. The study ends with
implication for principal-preparation programs.
Keywords: assistant principal, Latina/os, school leadership, principal
preparation
The work of an assistant principal is simultaneously exciting,
confusing, and not without its uncertainties. Most importantly,
Latina/o assistant principals have received little attention and many
questions about their experiences remain unanswered. For example:
what types of responsibilities did other Latina/o assistant principals
have? How did they spend most of their time? Were there specific
challenges Latino assistant principals faced? And, are they ready for
the principalship? While this paper may not answer all of these
questions, this exploratory study investigates the representation of
Latina/o assistant principals in the US, including their challenges and
aspirations. This study specifically asks the following questions about
Latina/o assistant principals:
1. What are the demographics of Latina/o assistant
principals?
2. Where do Latina/o assistant principals work?
3. What types of challenges do Latina/o assistant
principals face?
This study is informed by data gathered by the National
Latina/o Leadership Project (NLLP). NLLP is an effort that is focused
on learning about the contributions that Latina/o school leaders are
making to PK-12 public school system. More specifically, the NLLP is

6 NATIONALFORUM OF EDUCATIONALADMINISTRATIONAND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
interested in finding answers to questions such as: As more Latino PK-
12 educators make their way to the leadership ranks in America’s
public schools, how will researchers document their contributions to
the American public education system? Additionally, how can we
begin to understand the complexity of the PK-12 Latino school
principal and assistant principal?
The Literature Review on the Assistant Principalship
The assistant principal position is generally the entry point for
an individual interested in the higher administrative ranks of a school
district (Ortiz, 1982; Gorton, 1987; Marshall and Hooley, 2006,
Shoho, Barnett, & Tooms, 2012). That is, most assistant principals
understand that they must occupy the position of assistant principal to
enter the principalship. Preparing to become assistant principals often
involve gaining a broad overview of school operations beyond the
classroom, if one is moving from a teacher’s position. However, their
assigned tasks can be different from their initial expectations, as the
aforementioned assistant principal described, resulting in feeling
unappreciated instead of feeling as being prepared towards the
principalship (Marshall & Hooley, 2006). Studies on the roles and the
responsibilities of the assistant principal (Black, 1980; Kelly, 1987;
Koru, 1993; Norton & Kriekard, 1987; Reed & Himmler, 1985; Smith,
1987; Spady, 1985) have generally focused on middle or secondary
schools because the position of assistant principal is justified by the
enrollment numbers in schools.
Based on their research, Marshall and Hoolley (2006) indicated
how critical the position of assistant principal is, considering that: (a)
the assistant principalship is frequently an entry-level position for
administrative careers; (b) assistant principals maintain the norms and
rules of the school culture; (c) they must frequently play the role of
mediator; and (d) they encounter daily the fundamental dilemmas of
school systems (p.2). However, the authors also remind us that the
“assistant principalship is an assessment position through which
formal and informal district and professional processes are used to

decide who should move into high positions of administration”
(Marshall & Hooley, 2006, p. ix). It is, therefore, paramount that
assistant principals develop their leadership beyond compliance and
student management issues.
To prepare new assistant principals, Mathews and Crow (2003)
highlighted the importance of socialization, especially for teachers
mentored into the principal role, and distinguish two important
socialization roles for assistant principals. One role is of student
management and maintenance of order, much like the opening
example here. The second role involves supporting the instruction of
all students. They contend “this role does not ignore the student
management role, but views it in the larger school context of
instructional support” (p. 274). Within this role, it is important to
consider whether the assistant principal is able to develop his/her
connection with students’ needs. This instructional role may also
include student achievement as dependent on race/ethnicity, poverty,
the risk of dropping out, and related family/school concerns. To this
end, studies that relate successful achievement gains among Latino
students with their principals (e.g., Jesse, Davis, & Pokorny, 2004),
can prepare Latino principals and assistant principals to improve the
academic achievement of all students. These important considerations
related to instruction allows for the preparation of assistant principals
to become outstanding leaders.
Latinas/os in the Path to the Principalship
In a broader societal context, Trueba (1999), advocated for a
Latino national voice and cultural identity, emphasizing the
importance of preparing leaders who need to possess “specific
qualities of vision, biculturalism, multiple identities, the ability to
code-switch and a profound commitment to democratic ideals of fair
participation in the political and economic arenas for all Americans”
(p. 25). In schools, the presence of principals and assistant principals
of color have the potential to repair and revitalize institutional
structures, particularly in urban settings, that have historically
oppressed students of color and their families, which resulted in

8 NATIONALFORUM OF EDUCATIONALADMINISTRATIONAND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
distrust and the estrangement of families of color toward schooling
(Diamond & Gomez, 2004, Khalifa, Jennings, Briscoe, Oleszewski,
and Abdi, 2014; Lareau & Hovart, 1999). The representation of
principals and assistant principals of color can disrupt technical-
rational claims and decisions that are defined as value-neutral (Khalifa
et al., 2014) which, in the end, positions students of color at consistent
disadvantage.
Confirming this notion is the number of research reports
referring to “helping Hispanic students succeed,” which were largely
developed before the 2000’s (e.g., Baltimore, 1995; Richardson &
Skinner, 1992), which defined students of color as minorities (an
example of technical rational thought), and mainly reflect how these
students persisted to succeed, without acknowledging the researcher or
the principal bias when recommending remedial or support programs
for these students. In addition, little can be learned about the impact of
race and ethnicity as affecting or influencing principals, since studies
focusing on school leaders’ race and ethnicity were not as
representative, especially in relation to leadership effectiveness. One
reason for this exclusion of cultural diversity within the principalship
was that most published research on principals either avoided the
discussion of race and ethnicity altogether or essentialized race and
ethnicity to focus on technical-rational issues.
Issues related to barriers, career paths, and mobility for
principals have been documented in the literature, often using female
participants (Armendariz-Housen, 1995; Byrd, 1999; Carr, 1996;
Fleming, 1991; Galloway, 1986; Madrid, 1985; Hernandez, 2012;
Orta-Camilleri, 1999; Ortiz, 1982; Peery, 1998). These studies focus
on the personal and social challenges of being Latina and working as
administrators in mainly male-dominated organizations. Additional
studies focused on the importance of mentoring, role models, and
sponsorship for Latina school leaders (Davila, 2002; Hernandez, 2004;
Regules, 1997). These studies highlight the care and the commitment
that Latina principals experience in their work, and illuminate the need
for advisement, in some circumstances, for Latinas/os interested in the
administrative ranks.
The fact is that students of color will continue to show low

achievement, and disengagement when schools do not support their
success. In 2011-2012, the National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES), reports that approximately 90,000 principals worked in US
public schools. Of those only 7 percent are identified as Hispanic
(Bitterman, Goldring, & Gray, 2013). When compared to 11.4 million
Pre-K through 12th grade Latino children attending US public schools
in 2010 (NCES 2012), this number appears to be questionably low.
Becoming an assistant principal, therefore, may involve what
Matthews and Crow (2003) defined as a reality shock state. This may
occur not only when separating from the old reference group of
teachers and entering into a new leadership role, but also when
building their professional identity—through an interpretation of the
realities of the new role, developing competence, loyalty, and
authority, with a focus on their most important responsibility—
promoting the success of students. In their new job as an assistant
principal, Latina/o assistant principals can inform us about their role as
influencing school demographics, while building their career path, and
while developing their leadership identity, considering their personal
experiences as students of color themselves.
Methods
Since few studies examine Latino school leaders specifically,
or Latino assistant principals, an exploratory approach seemed
appropriate for learning more about Latino assistant principals. This
study was designed to clarify unanswered questions about Latino
school leaders as well as create initial theories about Latino school
leaders and their work environment. Additionally, this exploratory
study will also provide pertinent research data to help form new
concepts about Latino school leaders and leadership. To capture this
new data, a survey was designed and distributed to a national sample
of Latino leaders.
In order to provide a national picture of Latino school leaders,
our article focuses on selected categories that inform an understanding
of the representation and work of Latino assistant principals.

10 NATIONALFORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ANDSUPERVISION JOURNAL
Reporting the entire findings here would be too lengthy. As such,
questions about Latino assistant principals included: What are the
demographics of Latina/o assistant principals? Where do Latina/o
assistant principals work? What types of challenges do Latina/o
assistant principals face?
Survey Design and Instrumentation
With the assistance of the Research Institute of Studies in
Education (RISE) 1, the research team developed the NLLP survey
using Survey Monkey Software. The purpose of the survey was to
gather basic demographic data from Latino leaders regarding their
schools, work, educational, and leadership experiences.
Design. The survey was divided into three broad categories:
school demographics, career path, and leadership identity. The survey
included 48 questions. Questions were either multiple-choice (for
example: where is your school located: rural, suburban, or urban
setting), Likert-scale (for example: 1 equaled “not at all” where 5
equaled “to a large extent”), or open-ended, short essay format.
Participants
Utilizing a secure network in RISE 94 Latino assistant
principals completed the NLLP survey via email. To obtain
participants’ email addresses, the research team and RISE worked with
state departments of education, Latina/o education groups, and other
organizations that have conducted work on school leaders. Each email
address collected was assigned a random identification number to
which no personally identifiable information was attached.
1 RISE is located in the department of Educational Leadership & Policy Studies at
Iowa State University.

Data Analysis
Soon after the survey was closed, the data were placed into an
Excel spreadsheet. Data were then sorted to address each section of the
survey. The researchers analyzed the data using a descriptive statistical
approach so that the basic features of the data could be studied. While
we make some conclusions based on the overall findings, these
conclusions are based on what the data tell us, rather than implying
cause and effect.
Findings
Demographics of the Latina/o Assistant Principals
Participants used in the final analysis were 59 Latinas (63%)
and 35 (37%) Latinos. While the survey used the label “Latina/o” in
its title and throughout the survey questions, the survey asked the
participants to describe their own racial and ethnic background. In
general, the researchers used a wide representation of racial and ethnic
labels so that the participants had numerous choices to self-identify
(see Table 1). Table one shows the majority of assistant principals
self-identified as Cuban; the second largest group self-identify as
Mexican and Hispanic; and the third-largest group self-identified as
Puerto Rican. Surprisingly, only six of the participants identified as
Latino. Those participants that marked “other” self-identified as
Dominican, Colombian, and Spaniard.
Table 1
Self-Identified Racial/Ethnic Background
Male Female All
Latino 3 3 6
Mexican 5 12 17
Hispanic 7 10 17
Cuban 14 22 36
Puerto Rican 4 10 14
Other 2 2 4

Participants ranged in age from 30 to 68 years old. Latina
assistant principals were slightly older, overall, at an average age of
43. Participant-reported yearly salaries ranged from $45,000 to
$105,000 (M = $78,238); the average pay for Latinos was $77,532,
while the average for Latinas was $78,419. Although the Latinas had
a higher average pay than the Latinos, the Latinas’ pay ranged from
$45,000 to $103,000. The range for Latinos’ pay was $63,000 to
$105,000. The low rate of $45,000 for the Latina assistant principals
corresponded to an individual who had acquired six years of teaching
experience and a master’s degree. In contrast, the $63,000—which
was the lowest for Latino principals—corresponded to an individual
who had acquired 16 years of teaching experience and an educational
specialist degree. Finally, the participants reported on their highest
level of education. The data revealed that Latinas were more likely to
have a master’s and specialist degrees than their male counterparts and
indeed outnumbered their male counterparts 2 to 1 in having doctorate
degrees.
Of the 94 Latina/o assistant principals, 68 (72%) worked in
regular elementary and secondary schools. Twenty-three percent of the
participants worked in a school that had a specific focus, such as
magnets with specialty areas like math and science, the gifted and
talented, the performing arts, and language immersion. Only three
principals (all males) stated that they were working in rural schools,
whereas 27 or 28% of the respondents reported working in suburban
schools. The majority of the participants—64 or 68%—reported
working in urban schools. Twice as many Latinas worked in urban and
suburban schools than did their male counterparts. The assistant
principals managed schools with enrollments ranging from 130 to
4,500 students. Latinos averaged a larger school size (M = 1,608)
than did Latinas (M = 1,130).
As part of a description of the school in which they worked,
participants were asked to examine student groups (White, African
American, Latina/o, low-income, and special education) and comment
on that group’s success in passing district and state performance
standards. Specifically, the assistant principals were asked whether
student groups satisfied “all,” “most,” “some,” or “no” performance

standards in their school (see Table 2).
Table 2
Student-Achievement Data
Satisfied
All
Standards
Satisfied
Most
Standards
Satisfied
Some
Standards
Satisfied
No
Standards
White
Students 59 (63%) 18 (19%) 16 (17%) 1 (01%)
African
American
Students
7 (07%) 41 (44%) 44 (47%) 2 (02%)
Latina/o
Students 7 (07%) 49 (52%) 38 (40%) 0 (0%)
Low-
income
Students
6 (06%) 43 (46%) 43 (46%) 2 (02%)
Special-
education
Students
5 (05%) 16 (17%) 61 (65%) 12 (13%)
English-
language
Learners
3 (03%) 31 (33%) 55 (59%) 5 (05%)
* The numbers and percentages in Table 2 correspond to the Latina/o
assistant principals who reported on student achievement
At first glance, the achievement data reveals a gap between
White students and those students who identify as African American,
Latina/o, low-income, special education, or English-language learners.
As illustrated in Table 2, special education and English-language
learners performed at the lowest level of all of the students whose
achievement data was reported. Additionally, the data indicate that the
most substantive gap appears to occur between White students and

special-education students. For example, 77 or 82% of the assistant
principals reported that White students who attended the school in
which a given Latina/o assistant principal worked satisfied all or most
of the district and state standards. In contrast, only 21 or 22% of
special-education students satisfied all or most of the district and state
standards.
The Latina/o principals also commented on specific student
behaviors that were present in their schools. For example, of the 94
assistant principals, 49% reported that bullying occurred often or very
often in their schools. The other two-highest student behaviors that
occurred often or very often within the assistant principals’ schools
were fighting (23%) and gang-related activity (18%). Student
behaviors related to theft, vandalism, racial tension, possession of
weapons, and student disrespect toward teachers were reported as
issues that rarely or never occurred in the participants’ schools. The
Latina/o assistant principals were also asked to comment on other
concerns that may or may not be present in their schools. The
participants reported student tardiness (73%), student absenteeism
(78%), lack of parent-involvement (71%), and student unpreparedness
in school (68%) as moderate and serious concerns. The data reveal that
the participants perceived issues such as drop-outs (76%),
alcohol/illegal drugs (83%), and pregnancy (92%) as minor or non-
existent concerns.
Challenges that are Experienced by Latina/o Assistant Principals
The Latina/o assistant principals were also asked to complete
short-essay questions related to the challenges that they would face
most often in their work. This section of the current article reviews the
essay responses from those Latina/o assistant principals. The
researcher analyzed each response, and after a close examination of all
the challenges that the participants listed, it was evident that these
challenges fell into one of three categories: (a) school management,
(b) family/parental, and (c) personal matters and morale. After
analyzing the challenges related to school management, sub-categories
were found that included (a) building a cohesive relationship with the

school principal; (b) working with classroom teachers and other school
staff; and (c) understanding curriculum issues and managing time (see
Table 3).
Table 3
School Management Challenges
Sub Category A
 Working with other administrators who do not hold the same or a
similar vision
 Need to adjust to a new principal who has less experience than the
assistant principle
 Need to understand the principal’s vision and mission for the school
 Dealing with a principal who impedes the assistant principal’s efforts
to develop students’ maximum potential
 Micromanaging principals
Sub Category B
 Mentoring new teachers
 Dealing with pre-service teachers who do not come prepared for the
realities of the job
 Dealing with absent and tardy staff that do not follow policies
 Dealing with union contractual issues
 Changing staff perceptions about behavior, learning, and teaching
practices
 Handling legal issues with personnel
Sub Category C
 Addressing the number of students dropping out of school
 Overcrowded schools
 Being responsible for testing, curriculum, discipline, special ed.,
ESOL
 Promoting student academic growth and, specifically, selecting the
correct curriculum that will enhance academic growth
 Making time to visit classrooms (7)*
 Excessive paperwork (8)*
* Represents how many participants listed the designated entry as a
challenge

The data suggests that Latina/o assistant principals perceived
challenges impeding their ability to build a cohesive relationship with
the school principal. That is, some of the participants did not see
themselves as participating in a team with the school’s principal, and,
as one assistant principal indicated, the school’s principal impeded his
or her efforts to meet student needs. These challenges were
exacerbated because most assistant principals, and their work
responsibilities, are generally decided by the school principal.
The data reveals (strictly from a headcount) that the Latina/o
assistant principals identified both excessive paperwork and
insufficient classroom-visit time as their biggest challenges. For
assistant principals who aspired to the school principal role (The
authors further discuss aspirations later in the study), managerial
responsibilities such as paper work could impede these respondents’
development of becoming an instructional leader. For example,
Greenfield (1985) suggests that researchers should re-conceptualize
the assistant principal role, which should “include a major
organizational responsibility for identifying and solving problems of
instructional practice and program articulation, and for guiding and
supporting the efforts of teachers to grapple with and solve those
problems” (p. 88).
Another significant category of challenges that Latina/o
assistant principals faced in their work (according to the number of
responses) stemmed from the roles that the families played in the
academic and social life of their school-age children. Overwhelmingly,
the Latina/o assistant principals listed promoting parental involvement
as a challenge to student learning. It is evident here that these assistant
principals understood the importance of parental involvement and the
influence it can have on a student’s education (see Table 4 for
family/parental challenges).

Table 4
Family/Parental Challenges
 Promoting parental involvement that assists with student
learning (10)*
 Communicating with parents and having them accept
responsibility
 Promoting parents’ understanding of the importance of
education and getting them involved in school events
 Dealing with parents who, despite knowing little about
education, tell school administrators what to do and how to do
it
 Addressing students’ lack of respect toward their parents
 Addressing the lack of parental support in instruction and
discipline
 Addressing parents’ insufficient responsibility for students’
attendance
 Encouraging parents to work with teachers and administrators
as a team
 Providing guidance to parents to become better parents
 Dealing with a lack of support from parents because they work
two or more jobs
 Dealing with students who are left to raise themselves and their
siblings
 Increasing parental involvement among Hispanic families
 Dealing with parents and their inability to work with the
school—the goal being to improve the behavior or attitudes of
the parents’ children
 Dealing with difficulties in interactions with younger parents
 Dealing with high rates of student mobility
challenge
The participants described the challenges in ways that
highlighted how the challenges were directly linked to student

learning. The respondents, rather than simply blame parents for their
school-age children’s academic problems, understood well the
importance of promoting and encouraging parental involvement. The
respondents’ statements appear to represent a shift away from a deficit
perspective to a more positive one, drawing attention to parents’
significant child-education roles and to student outcomes.
The literature on assistant principals rarely mentions working
with parents as one of the responsibilities of these leaders, nor does it
list parent involvement as one of their biggest challenges. Not
surprising is that Latina/o assistant principals would identify the vital
relationship between family and education. The value of family has
been documented as one of the cultural-specific values spanning
multiple Spanish-speaking groups (Ferdman & Gallegos, 2001;
Hernandez, 2005; Marin & Marin, 1991; Hernandez, 2008; C. Suárez-
Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 1995; M. M. Suárez-Orozco & Páez, 2002;
Valencia, 2002; Valenzuela, 1999). Familialism, also known as
familismo (Marin & Marin, 1999), involves a person’s strong
connection to immediate and extended family members and serves to
protect family members and to provide them with emotional support
when needed.
Finally, the Latina/o assistant principals reported challenges
that were simultaneously personal and vocational. For example, many
of the listed challenges under the “personal” category affected the
morale of the given assistant principal. Several of the participants
listed “lack of support systems” and “pleasing all stakeholders” as
challenges (see Table 5).

Table 5
Personal/Morale Challenges
 Long hours away from family
 Insufficient hours in the day
 Work to be done within short periods of time
 Lack of support systems
 Excessive number of meetings
 Absence of decision-making power
 Pleasing all stakeholders
 Balancing work and personal life
 Time management (8)*
challenge
These types of challenges could and did affect the morale and
self-confidence of the Latina/o assistant principals. Similarly, the
participants listed “time away from family” and “balancing work and
personal life” as personal challenges resulting from school-
administrator work. Although present across multiple groups of the
NLLP surveyed assistant principals, rarely are these types of family-
related challenges addressed in the literature. As with the challenges
that the surveyed assistant principals listed for parent involvement,
several participants reported that two major challenges were excessive
paperwork and insufficient time in the workday regarding students and
academic issues.
Discussion
This data represents new information about Latina/o school
administrators, particularly those who serve as assistant principals.
While Latinas have often struggled to enter the administrative ranks,
and have often needed sponsors or mentors who would encourage
them in this direction, this report indicates that Latinas are, in fact,
increasing in number as administrators. Perhaps this trend is due to the

opportunities to which women, in general, have access today in
comparison with the past. Fiore, Curtin, and Hammer (1997) in their
report on school administrators suggest that more minorities are
entering the school administrative ranks. Not only are more Latinas
entering administration but, as the current report shows, they exhibit
more confidence in navigating toward administrative work
(Hernandez, 2008).
The current report also highlights the importance of labels used
to describe Spanish-speaking individuals. Labels have played and
continue to play a role in the lives of Spanish speakers. The Latina/o
assistant principals differed from one another regarding their
preference for a personal racial and ethnic identity. The largest group
preferred to be called “Cubans.” This preference rested on the
geographical location attributable to those individuals who took the
NLLP survey. RISE distributed NLLP surveys to Latina/o assistant
principals working in the Southeast United States, including the state
of Florida. Many people of Cuban ancestry live in Florida, a
demographic fact that could account for the many Cuban assistant
principals who have participated in the aforementioned surveys.
Another explanation for the assistant principals’ answers to identity-
related questions on the NLLP survey is that national origin is
becoming more important to Spanish speakers living in the United
States. According to Stepick and Stepick (2002) “not only are Cubans
the most economically successful Latinos in the United States, but for
forty years they have evinced an extraordinary solidarity based upon
an identity as intransigent anticommunist Cuban patriots” (p. 75).
Most of the Latina/o assistant principals worked in regular
elementary and secondary schools and magnet schools. Further, 68%
of the assistant principals worked in urban schools with diverse
students. The diversity in question includes student traits such as race,
economic status, and first language. The schools in which the Latina/o
assistant principals worked also enrolled large numbers of students.
The composition of the schools in which these leaders were working is
consistent with Ortiz’s (1982) findings in her hallmark study of career
patterns for women and individuals of color. Ortiz found that most
school administrators of color worked in schools with a high

concentration of students of color, poor students, and students whose
first language was not English. This finding is also consistent with a
corresponding finding relative to the teaching ranks. According to
Monsivais (1990), 67% of Latina/o teachers worked in high-poverty
and overcrowded schools.
Examining this consistent placement of Latina/o school leaders
in these schools becomes problematic for several reasons. First, the
potential to pigeonhole Latino school leaders in particular work
settings can result in the assumption that they are only sufficiently
qualified to work with and lead other minorities. In fact, at the national
level, principals of color have often worked in culturally,
linguistically, and economically diverse schools (Ortiz, 1982). Second,
the Latina/o assistant principals were quite consistently working in
particular types of settings: namely, some of the very toughest schools
with some of the very neediest students, and schools exhibiting
substantive gaps in achievement among student groups. Although
Latino leaders have successfully faced these challenges of educating
culturally, linguistically, and economically diverse students (see
Hernandez, 2007), this placement can also use assistant principals’
skills in narrow ways and can, therefore, negatively influence the
assistant principals’ promotion beyond the school level.
Finally, the current study’s findings when combined with the
admittedly rather small amount of assistant principal literature, and
even smaller amount for Latino assistant principals can help us
identify four overarching theories pertaining to the role of the assistant
principal: (a) The roles of the assistant principal are constantly
changing, are fragmented, and are dependent on the school principals.
The ambiguity that results from this ill-defined position can weaken
the relationship between the principal and assistant principal. (b)
Overall, the assistant principal position does not involve instructional-
leadership practices; that is, most assistant principals are not directly
interacting with school issues related to curriculum, instruction, and
assessment. In cases where assistant principals are involved in these
instruction areas, activities related to school discipline and
management generally take priority over all other responsibilities.
(c) As a result of tenet (b), most assistant principals are gaining neither

the skills nor the training that would prepare them for the principalship
or for instructional leadership. (d) As a result of tenet (c), assistant
principals are trying to re-conceptualize their own position,
particularly in the area of discipline and family involvement, so that
students stay in school and are supported at home.
Implications for Principal-Preparation Programs
These findings provide insights into the demographics, work,
and challenges of Latina/o assistant principals. In addition, the
findings point to a larger problem in principal-preparation programs.
That is, the assistant principalship and its ambiguous roles are rarely
addressed in leadership programs. In order to prepare people in the
field of education for the assistant principal role, leadership programs
must consider the following. First, leadership programs rarely, if at all,
discuss the role of the assistant principal in their preparation programs.
Yet, most of the students in principal-preparation programs will enter
the administrative ranks through the assistant principalship. Preparing
these leaders to work within a system that has no clear job description
for the assistant principalship is imperative because most roles
undertaken by assistant principals are vague and ambiguous and
involve issues related to discipline, to school management, and to the
bureaucratic nature of schools. Assistant principals often work with
students who either struggle or are on the fringes of schools, and find
their work assignments at the discretion of the school’s principal. With
this in mind, preparation programs should consider making the
assistant principalship a component of preparation for all school
leaders.
There is still much more to learn about the assistant principal
position in general and Latina/o assistant principals specifically. These
findings help us better understand the unique position occupied by
Latina/o assistant principals in K-12 schools and that can help us
improve our work in principal-preparation programs.

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Authors
Frank Hernandez, PhD is Dean of the College of Education at The
University of Texas of the Permian Basin. He has been studying
Latino school leaders for 12 years and has published widely on this
topic.
Elizabeth T. Murakami, PhD is a Professor and Programs Director in
Educational Leadership at Texas A&M University-San Antonio. Her
research focuses on school leadership, social justice, identity, and
gender/ race.
Sylvia Mendez-Morse, PhD is an Associate Professor in the College
of Education at Texas Tech. She has 39 years of experience as an
educator and/or leader at campus, district, and higher education levels.
She is an Associate Professor at Texas Tech University.
Mónica Byrne-Jiménez, PhD is an Associate Professor in
Educational Leadership & Policy Studies at Hofstra University. Her
research focuses on Latina/o identity and leadership, the role of faculty
diversity on doctoral student experiences, and leadership
development.
Jonathon McPhetres, Doctoral Student at the University of Rochester
was a Research Associate in the College of Education at The
University of Texas of the Permian Basin. He recently completed his
master’s degree in psychology.

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