Spoken English beginner materials

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SPOKEN ENGLISH – BEGINNER
LEVEL

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EnglishLabs was established in 2015 with a mission to engage 1 million Indians to impart fluency in
English and other broadly talked dialects like German and French. Since 2015, EnglishLabs has prepared
more than 2000+ candidates to talk certainly in English and other dialects. At EnglishLabs, we don't have
faith in pure textbook oriented training, hence we offer a blend of training through audio and visuals
and part of activities that will change students to acquire better command on the language.
In the course of the most recent couple of years, we have changed a considerable measure lining up with
our understudy's learning objective, however our objective has dependably remained the same – To
influence 1 million Indians To communicate Fluently!
Our Courses:
1. Language
English
German
French
2. Certified Programs
TOEFL
IELTS
3. Study in Germany

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This study material precisely deals with the basic grammar that we use in our daily communication
right from our loved ones till the senior most officials. This part will groom your language and make
you feel comfortable while communicating.
Contents inside this material –
S.NO TOPICS
PAGE
NO.
1 Vocabulary & its importance 4
2 100 Frequently used words 8
3 Idioms & Phrases 14
4 Confusing words 16
5 Commonly mispronounced words 21
6 Grammar basics 27
7 Noun 28
8 Noun forms 35
9 Verb 43
10 Regular & Irregular Verbs
49 &
73
11 Tenses 50
12 Adjectives 77
13 Adverbs 83
14 Prepositions 90
15 Conjunctions 113
16 Active & Passive Voice 116

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1 VOCABULARY AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
THIS PART IS ABOUT VOCABULARY TEACHING, BUT IT IS NECESSARY FIRST TO ESTABLISH WHAT
VOCABULARY MEANS TO FOCUS ON TEACHING IT. THIS INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER REMINDS READERS
OF THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY TO LANGUAGE LEARNING.
WHAT IS VOCABULARY? THROUGHOUT THIS CHAPTER, I HOPE TO ENGAGE YOU, THE READER,
DIRECTLY IN THINKING ABOUT ENGLISH VOCABULARY AND THE TEACHING OF IT TO STUDENTS
LEARNING ENGLISH AS A SECOND OR FOREIGN LANGUAGE. AS YOU BEGIN, PLEASE STOP AND ANSWER
THE QUESTION ASKED IN THE HEADER ABOVE.
REFLECTIVE BREAK • MY DEFINITION(S) OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY:
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
YOUR ANSWER LIKELY HAS SOMETHING TO DO WITH THE WORDS OF A LANGUAGE, WHICH IS PERHAPS
HOW MOST PEOPLE THINK OF VOCABULARY, AND THAT IS CORRECT BECAUSE VOCABULARY DOES
DEAL WITH WORDS. YET VOCABULARY IS MUCH MORE THAN JUST SINGLE WORDS, AS THIS CHAPTER
WILL DEMONSTRATE. RECENT VOCABULARY STUDIES DRAW ON AN UNDERSTANDING OF LEXIS, THE
GREEK FOR WORD, WHICH IN ENGLISH “REFERS TO ALL THE WORDS IN A LANGUAGE, THE 2 TEACHING
VOCABULARY ENTIRE VOCABULARY OF A LANGUAGE” (BARCROFT, SUNDERMAN, & SCHMITT, 2011, P.
571). SO IT WILL PROBABLY NOT SURPRISE YOU TO LEARN THAT VOCABULARY ALSO INCLUDES
LEXICAL CHUNKS, PHRASES OF TWO OR MORE WORDS, SUCH AS GOOD MORNING AND NICE TO MEET
YOU, WHICH RESEARCH SUGGESTS CHILDREN AND ADULTS LEARN AS SINGLE LEXICAL UNITS.
PHRASES LIKE THESE INVOLVE MORE THAN ONE WORD BUT HAVE A CLEAR, FORMULAIC USAGE AND
MAKE UP A SIGNIFICANT PORTION OF SPOKEN OR WRITTEN ENGLISH LANGUAGE USAGE. ALSO
CALLED FORMULAIC SEQUENCES (ALALI & SCHMITT, 2012), THEY ARE CENTRAL TO ENGLISH
VOCABULARY LEARNING AND THEREFORE WORTH TEACHERS’ ATTENTION AS THEY TEACH
VOCABULARY (LEWIS, 1993).
SO VOCABULARY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE WORDS OF A LANGUAGE, INCLUDING SINGLE ITEMS AND
PHRASES OR CHUNKS OF SEVERAL WORDS WHICH COVEY A PARTICULAR MEANING, THE WAY
INDIVIDUAL WORDS DO. VOCABULARY ADDRESSES SINGLE LEXICAL ITEMS—WORDS WITH SPECIFIC
MEANING(S)—BUT IT ALSO INCLUDES LEXICAL PHRASES OR CHUNKS.
THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY
VOCABULARY IS CENTRAL TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING BECAUSE WITHOUT SUFFICIENT
VOCABULARY STUDENTS CANNOT UNDERSTAND OTHERS OR EXPRESS THEIR OWN IDEAS. WILKINS

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(1972) WROTE THAT “. . . WHILE WITHOUT GRAMMAR VERY LITTLE CAN BE CONVEYED, WITHOUT
VOCABULARY NOTHING CAN BE CONVEYED” (PP. 111–112). THIS POINT REFLECTS MY EXPERIENCE
WITH DIFFERENT LANGUAGES; EVEN WITHOUT GRAMMAR, WITH SOME USEFUL WORDS AND
EXPRESSIONS, I CAN OFTEN MANAGE TO COMMUNICATE. LEWIS (1993) WENT FURTHER TO ARGUE,
“LEXIS IS THE CORE OR HEART OF LANGUAGE” (P. 89). PARTICULARLY AS STUDENTS DEVELOP
GREATER FLUENCY AND EXPRESSION IN ENGLISH, IT IS SIGNIFICANT FOR THEM TO ACQUIRE MORE
PRODUCTIVE VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND TO DEVELOP THEIR OWN PERSONAL VOCABULARY
LEARNING STRATEGIES.
STUDENTS OFTEN INSTINCTIVELY RECOGNIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY TO THEIR
LANGUAGE LEARNING. AS SCHMITT (2010) NOTED, “LEARNERS CARRY AROUND DICTIONARIES AND
NOT GRAMMAR CHAPTERS” (P. 4). TEACHING VOCABULARY HELPS STUDENTS UNDERSTAND AND
COMMUNICATE WITH OTHERS IN ENGLISH. VOLTAIRE PURPORTEDLY SAID, “LANGUAGE IS VERY
DIFFICULT TO PUT INTO WORDS.” I BELIEVE ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDENTS GENERALLY WOULD
CONCUR, YET LEARNING VOCABULARY ALSO HELPS STUDENTS MASTER ENGLISH FOR
THEIR PURPOSES.
ASPECTS OF VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE
THE CONCEPT OF A WORD CAN BE DEFINED IN VARIOUS WAYS, BUT THREE SIGNIFICANT ASPECTS
TEACHERS NEED TO BE AWARE OF AND FOCUS ON ARE FORM, MEANING, AND USE. ACCORDING TO
NATION (2001), THE FORM OF A WORD INVOLVES ITS PRONUNCIATION (SPOKEN FORM), SPELLING
(WRITTEN FORM), AND ANY WORD PARTS THAT MAKE UP THIS PARTICULAR ITEM (SUCH AS A PREFIX,
ROOT, AND SUFFIX). AN EXAMPLE FOR WORD PARTS CAN BEEN SEEN WITH THE WORD
UNCOMMUNICATIVE, WHERE THE PREFIX UN- MEANS NEGATIVE OR OPPOSITE, COMMUNICATE IS THE
ROOT WORD, AND -IVE IS A SUFFIX DENOTING THAT SOMEONE OR SOMETHING IS ABLE TO DO
SOMETHING. HERE, THEY ALL GO TOGETHER TO REFER TO SOMEONE OR SOMETHING THAT IS NOT
ABLE TO COMMUNICATE, HENCE UNCOMMUNICATIVE.
NATION (2001) STATED THAT MEANING ENCOMPASSES THE WAY THAT FORM AND MEANING WORK
TOGETHER, IN OTHER WORDS, THE CONCEPT AND WHAT ITEMS IT REFERS TO, AND THE ASSOCIATIONS
THAT COME TO MIND WHEN PEOPLE THINK ABOUT A SPECIFIC WORD OR EXPRESSION. USE, NATION
NOTED, INVOLVES THE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE WORD OR PHRASE, COLLOCATIONS THAT
NORMALLY GO WITH IT, AND FINALLY ANY CONSTRAINTS ON ITS USE, IN TERMS OF FREQUENCY,
LEVEL, AND SO FORTH. FOR FORM, MEANING, AND USE, NATION (2001) DECLARED THERE IS BOTH A
RECEPTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE DIMENSION, SO KNOWING THESE THREE ASPECTS FOR EACH WORD OR
PHRASE ACTUALLY INVOLVES 18 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL KNOWLEDGE, AS SUMMARIZED IN
TABLE 1. WHEN TEACHERS TEACH VOCABULARY TO BUILD STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF WORDS AND
PHRASES, HELPING THEM LEARN ANY AND ALL OF THESE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS ASSISTS THEM IN
ENHANCING THEIR ENGLISH VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND USE. AFTER YOU HAVE LOOKED
THROUGH TABLE 1, PLEASE DO THE REFLECTIVE BREAK, WHICH IS TO CONSIDER YOUR STUDENTS’

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PARTICULAR STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES WITH ENGLISH IN TERMS OF THESE THREE ASPECTS OF
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE.
REFLECTIVE BREAK • MY IMPRESSION OF MY STUDENTS’ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES WITH
ENGLISH VOCABULARY:
STRENGTHS WEAKNESS
EACH PERSON’S RESPONSE HERE WILL VARY BECAUSE VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE IS VERY PERSONAL.
SOME TEACHERS ARE GOOD AT THE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS OF PARTICULAR WORDS OR PHRASES,
FOR EXAMPLE, AND OTHERS HAVE A STRONG KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH WORD PARTS. I ENCOURAGE
YOU TO BEGIN WITH YOUR STUDENTS’ STRENGTHS, BECAUSE EVERY PERSON HAS SOME VOCABULARY
KNOWLEDGE THAT IS RELEVANT TO ENGLISH, EVEN IF IT DERIVES FROM HIS OR HER OWN NATIVE
LANGUAGE. AIM TO BUILD ON LEARNERS’ STRENGTHS AND ALSO RECOGNIZE VARIOUS WEAKNESSES.
FOR EXAMPLE, MANY STUDENTS READ IN ENGLISH AND THUS MAY BE ADEPT AT RECOGNIZING
MEANING IN TERMS OF CONCEPTS AND REFERENTS, BUT IF THEY HAVE NOT HEARD THE WORDS AND
PHRASES THEY ARE READING, THEN THEY MAY BE WEAK AT RECOGNIZING THEM WHEN THEY HEAR
THEM SPOKEN OR WEAK AT PRONOUNCING THEM WHEN THEY READ SOMETHING OUT LOUD.
SOMETIMES STUDENTS LEARNING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL) ARE WEAKER AT
RECOGNIZING PARTICULAR CONSTRAINTS ON VOCABULARY USAGE, SUCH AS THE FACT THAT ONLY
YOUNG PEOPLE USE A PARTICULAR WORD OR EXPRESSION, WHICH MIGHT BE COLLOQUIAL AND NOT
USUALLY DEEMED APPROPRIATE IN MORE FORMAL CONTEXTS SUCH AS SPEECHES. YET IF TEACHERS
ARE AWARE OF THEIR STUDENTS’ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN ENGLISH VOCABULARY, THEN
THEY HAVE A PLACE TO START TO EXPAND STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE AND STRENGTHEN
WEAKER AREAS.
PERHAPS AS YOU REFLECT ON THE INFORMATION IN TABLE 1 YOU FIND THE TASK OF TEACHING
ENGLISH VOCABULARY A LITTLE DAUNTING. IF SO, YOU ARE NOT ALONE! THERE IS MUCH THAT
TEACHERS AND STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN TO UNDERSTAND AND USE WORDS AND PHRASES
CORRECTLY IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS. THIS CHAPTER DOES NOT CLAIM TO COVER IT ALL BUT
INSTEAD AIMS TO HELP YOU UNDERSTAND IMPORTANT ISSUES FROM RECENT VOCABULARY
RESEARCH AND THEORY SO THAT YOU MAY APPROACH TEACHING VOCABULARY IN A PRINCIPLED,
THOUGHTFUL WAY. IT WILL ALSO HELP YOU REFLECT ON VOCABULARY TEACHING IN YOUR
PARTICULAR CONTEXT AND WAYS THAT YOU MIGHT IMPROVE YOUR VOCABULARY TEACHING.
DEVELOPING A LOVE FOR VOCABULARY LEARNING

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BECAUSE IT IS A CHANGING, GROWING REALITY, ENGLISH VOCABULARY IS CHALLENGING. AS UR
(2012) APTLY STATED, UNLIKE GRAMMAR, “LEXICAL ITEMS . . . ARE AN OPEN SET, CONSTANTLY BEING
ADDED TO (AND LOST, AS ARCHAIC WORDS GRADUALLY GO OUT OF USE)” (P. 3). PERHAPS THIS
SITUATION IS MOST EVIDENT WITH COMPUTER-RELATED VOCABULARY, SUCH AS THE INTERNET, E-
MAIL, AND 6 TEACHING VOCABULARY WEB BROWSER, WHICH WAS NOT COMMONLY USED EVEN 15
YEARS AGO. NOW, THOUGH, EVERYONE SEEMS TO KNOW THESE ITEMS AND HOW IMPORTANT SUCH
REALITIES ARE TO THEIR LIVES AND WORK. ENGLISH VOCABULARY’S EXPANSION IS EXCITING, BUT IT
ALSO MEANS THAT TEACHERS AND STUDENTS ALIKE NEED TO BE IN THE HABIT OF LEARNING
VOCABULARY.
PEOPLE CAN EXPAND THEIR ENGLISH VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE IN MANY DIFFERENT WAYS. AS A
NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKER, I HAVE BEEN LEARNING VOCABULARY FOR MANY YEARS, BUT I AM STILL A
LEARNER BECAUSE ENGLISH VOCABULARY CHANGES AND GROWS. OCCASIONALLY, I COME ACROSS
AN UNKNOWN WORD OR PHRASE (OR A NEW USAGE FOR ONE I ALREADY KNOW) IN SOMETHING IN
PRINT OR ONLINE, OR THAT I HEAR ON THE RADIO OR TELEVISION. I WILL STOP TO CONSIDER WHAT
IT MIGHT MEAN IN THAT PARTICULAR CONTEXT, AND MAKE A GUESS. IF I HAVE A DICTIONARY CLOSE
BY, I WILL CHECK IT FOR THE WORD OR PHRASE, OR IF I AM AT MY COMPUTER I WILL CHECK AN
ONLINE DICTIONARY. WORDS AND PHRASES FASCINATE ME, AND IF NEW ONES SEEM USEFUL, THEN
THESE VOCABULARY ITEMS ARE ONES I MAY LATER USE IN MY OWN SPEECH OR WRITING—EVEN IF IT
IS TO COMMENT ON THIS NEW VOCABULARY ITEM! WHATEVER THEIR PERSONALITY AND LEARNING
STYLE, BOTH TEACHERS AND STUDENTS CAN DEVELOP A GROWING LOVE FOR ENGLISH VOCABULARY
LEARNING AND NATURALLY SHARE A PASSION FOR WORDS AND PHRASES IN ANY LANGUAGE.
REFLECTIVE BREAK • WHAT ASPECTS OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY CURRENTLY INTEREST YOU? • WHAT
TWO OR THREE STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES DO YOU MODEL AND
TEACH?
ONE RESOURCE THAT TEACHERS MAY EXPLORE TO MODEL AND TEACH ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES
IS THE WEB SITE, HTTP://FREERICE.COM/, WHICH CALLS ITSELF “THE WORLD’S ONLY VOCABULARY
GAME THAT FEEDS THE HUNGRY.” THROUGH THE WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME (WFP), THIS SITE
ALLOWS THOSE WITH INTERNET ACCESS TO CHECK THEIR VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE USING
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS.
FOR EVERY CORRECT ANSWER 10 GRAINS OF RICE ARE DONATED THROUGH THE WFP TO HELP FEED
THE HUNGRY. YOUR STUDENTS CAN EVEN PRACTICE LISTENING TO TARGET WORDS BY CLICKING ON
AN ICON
VOCABULARY AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN LANGUAGE LEARNING WHICH CAN HELP WITH HEARING AND
REPEATING THE SPOKEN FORM. YOU MIGHT CHAPTERMARK THIS SITE AND SHARE IT WITH YOUR
STUDENTS.
CONCLUSION

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ENGLISH VOCABULARY IS COMPLEX, WITH THREE MAIN ASPECTS RELATED TO FORM, MEANING, AND
USE, AS WELL AS LAYERS OF MEANING CONNECTED TO THE ROOTS OF INDIVIDUAL WORDS (NATION &
MEARA, 2010). TEACHING VOCABULARY IS NOT JUST ABOUT WORDS; IT INVOLVES LEXICAL PHRASES
AND KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY AND HOW TO GO ABOUT LEARNING AND TEACHING IT,
WHICH THE NEXT CHAPTER EXPLORES.
REFLECTIVE BREAK • WHAT IS SOMETHING IMPORTANT YOU LEARNED ABOUT VOCABULARY FROM
THIS CHAPTER?
100 Basic English Words You Should Know
1. account – an arrangement with a bank to keep your money there and allow you to take it out when
you need to.
2. air – the mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth and that we breathe.
3. amount – a collection or mass, especially of something that cannot be counted.
4. animal – something that lives and moves, but is not a human, bird, insect or fish.
5. answer – the receipt and response to a letter, question or phone call.
6. approval – the feeling of having a positive opinion of someone or something.
7. art – the activity of making objects, drawings, music, paintings, sculptures etc that are beautiful or that
express feelings.
8. attack – to try to hurt or defeat (mainly referred to physical violence but can also be used to describe
verbal or emotional outbursts).
9. attention – notice, thought or interest.
10. back – (adverb) in return, into, towards a previous place or condition, or an earlier time; (noun) the
part of your body that is opposite to the front, from your shoulder to your bottom.
11. base – the bottom part of an object, on which it rests, or the lowest part of something.

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12. behavior – the way that someone behaves.
13. belief – the feeling of being certain that something exists or is true, something that you believe.
14. birth – the time when a young baby, or young animal comes out of its mother’s body.
15. blood – the red liquid that is sent around the body by the heart.
16. blow – to move and make currents of air, or to make a sound by forcing air out of your mouth.
17. body – the whole physical structure that forms a person or animal.
18. bread – a food made from flour, water and usually yeast, mixed together and baked.
19. breath – the air that goes into and out of your lungs.
20. brother – a man or boy with the same parents as another person.
21. building – a structure with walls and a roof, such as a house or a factory.
22. burn – to be hurt, damaged or destroyed by fire or extreme heat, or to cause this to happen.
23. business – the activity of buying and selling goods and services.
24. butter – a pale yellow food containing a lot of fat that is made from cream, usually spread on bread
or used in cooking.
25. care – the process of protecting someone or something, and providing what they need.
26. cause – the reason why something, especially something bad, happens.
27. chance – an occasion that allows something to be done.
28. change – to exchange one thing for another thing, or to make or become different.

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29. cloth – a type of woven material, usually used in cleaning to remove dirt, dust or liquid.
30. color/colour – red, blue, green, yellow, red, orange etc.
31. comfort – a pleasant feeling of being relaxed and free from pain.
32. company – an organization that sells goods or services in order to make money.
33. comparison – the act of comparing two or more people or things.
34. competition – a situation in which someone is trying to win something or be more successful than
someone else.
35. connection – the state of being related to someone or something.
36. cook – (verb) when you prepare food to be eaten by heating it until it is ready, or (noun) a person
who prepares and cooks food.
37. country – an area of land that has its own government, army etc.
38. cover – to put or spread something over something, or to lie on the surface of something.
39. credit – praise, approval or honour.
40. cry – to produce tears as the result of a strong emotion, such as sadness, fear, happiness or pain.
41. current – of the present time.
42. damage – to harm or spoil something.
43. danger – the possibility of harm or death to someone.
44. daughter – your female child.
45. day – a period of 24 hours.

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46. death – the end of life.
47. decision – a choice that you make about something after thinking about all the possible options.
48. detail – a single piece of information or fact about something.
49. development – the process in which someone or something grows or changes and becomes more
advanced.
50. direction – the position towards which someone or something moves or faces.
51. discovery – the process of finding information, a place or an object, especially for the first time.
52. discussion – the activity in which people talk about something and tell each other their ideas or
opinions.
53. disease – an illness of people, animals or plants caused by infection or a lack of health.
54. distance – the amount of space between two places.
55. doubt – (a feeling of) not being certain about something, especially how good or true it is.
56. drink – (noun) liquid that is taken into the body through the mouth, or (verb) to take liquid into the
body through the mouth.
57. driving – the ability to drive a car, the activity of driving, or the way someone drives.
58. dust – dry dirt in the form of powder that covers surfaces inside a building, or very small dry pieces
of soil etc.
59. earth – our planet, the third in order from the sun, between Venus and Mars, the world on which we
live. Also another term for soil on the ground.
60. education – the process of teaching or learning in a school or college, or the knowledge that you get
from this.
61. effect – the result of a particular influence.

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62. end – the part of a place or thing that is the furthest away from the start, or the final part of
something such as a period of time, activity or story.
63. error – a mistake.
64. example – a way of helping someone to understand something by showing them how it is used.
65. experience – (the process of getting) knowledge or skill from doing, seeing or feeling things, or
something that happens to you which affects how you feel.
66. expert – a person with a high level of knowledge or skill relating to a particular subject or activity.
67. fact – something that is known to have happened or to exist, especially something for which proof
exists.
68. fall – to suddenly go down onto the ground or towards the ground without intending to, or by
accident.
69. family – a group of people who are related to each other such as a mother, father and their children.
70. father – a male parent.
71. fear – an unpleasant emotion or thought that you have when you are worried or frightened by
something dangerous, painful or bad that is happening or may happen.
72. feeling – the fact of feeling something physical, or an emotion.
73. fire – the state of burning that produces flames that send out heat and light, and might produce
smoke.
74. flight – a journey in an aircraft.
75. flower – the part of a plant that is often brightly coloured and has a pleasant smell.
76. food – something that people and animals eat or plants absorb, to keep them alive.
77. friend – a person who you know well and like a lot, but who is usually not a member of your family.

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78. front – the part of a person’s body, building or object that faces forward, or is most often seen or
used.
79. fruit – the soft part containing seeds that is produced by a plant. Many types of fruit are sweet and
can be eaten.
80. glass – a hard transparent material used to make windows bottles and other objects.
81. look – to direct your eyes in order to see.
82. loss – the fact that you no longer have something, or have less of something.
83. love – to like another adult very much and be romantically and sexually attracted to them, or to have
strong feelings of liking a friend or person in your family in a non-sexual way.
84. machine – a piece of equipment with several moving parts that uses power to do a particular type of
work.
85. man – an adult male human being.
86. market – the people who might want to buy something, or a part of the world where something is
sold, or the business or trade in a particular product.
87. mass – (adjective) having an effect on or involving a large number of people, or forming a large
amount. (noun) a large amount of something that has no particular shape or arrangement.
88. meal – an occasion when food is eaten, or the food that is eaten on such an occasion.
89. measure – to discover the exact size or amount of something, or to be of a particular size.
90. meat – the flesh of an animal when it is used for food.
91. meeting – an occasion when people come together intentionally, usually in a formal/business sense.
92. memory – the ability to remember information, experiences and people.
93. middle – the central point, position or part.

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94. milk – the white liquid produced by cows, goats, sheep, and used by humans as a drink or for
making butter and cheese.
95. mind – the part of a person that makes it possible for him or her to think, feel emotions and
understand things.
96. mine – the one(s) belonging to or connected with me (the speaker).
97. minute – one of the 60 parts that an hour is divided into, consisting of 60 seconds.
98. mist – thin fog produced by very small drops of water collecting in the air just above an area of
ground or water.
99. money – coins or notes that are used to buy things, or the amount of these that one person has.
100. month – a period of about 4 weeks, especially one of the 12 periods into which a year is divided.
SIMPLE IDIOMS OF OUR EVERYDAY LIFE
English Expression 1. as easy as pie means “very easy” (same as “a piece of cake”)
Example: He said it is a difficult problem, but I don’t agree. It seems as easy as pie to me!
English Expression 2. be sick and tired of means “I hate” (also “can’t stand”)
Example: I’m sick and tired of doing nothing but work. Let’s go out tonight and have fun.
English Expression 3. bend over backwards means “try very hard” (maybe too much!)
Example: He bent over backwards to please his new wife, but she never seemed satisfied.
English Expression 4. bite off more than one can chew means “take responsibility for more than one
can manage”
Example: John is so far behind in his studies. Besides classes, he plays sports and works at a part-time
job. It seems he has bitten off more than he can chew.
English Expression 5. broke means “to have no money”
Example: I have to borrow some money from my Dad. Right now, I’m broke.
English Expression 6. change one’s mind means “decide to do something different from what had been
decided earlier”
Example: I was planning to work late tonight, but I changed my mind. I’ll do extra work on the weekend
instead.
English Expression 7. Cut it out! means “stop doing something bad”
Example: That noise is really annoying. Cut it out!
English Expression 8. drop someone a line means “send a letter or email to someone”
Example: It was good to meet you and I hope we can see each other again. Drop me a line when you
have time.

15. 15
English Expression 9. figure something out means “come to understand a problem”
Example: I don’t understand how to do this problem. Take a look at it. Maybe you can figure it out.
English Expression 10. fill in for someone means “do their work while they are away”
Example: While I was away from the store, my brother filled in for me.
English Expression 11. in ages means “for a very long time”
Example: Have you seen Joe recently? I haven’t seen him in ages.
Expression 12. give someone a hand means “help”
Example: I want to move this desk to the next room. Can you give me a hand?
English Expression 13. hit the hay means “go to bed” (also “hit the sack”)
Example: It’s after 12 o’clock. I think it’s time to hit the hay.
English Expression 14. in the black means “the business is making money, it is profitable”
Example: Our business is really improving. We’ve been in the black all year.
English Expression 15. in the red means “the business is losing money, it is unprofitable”
Example: Business is really going poorly these days. We’ve been in the red for the past three months.
English Expression 16. in the nick of time means “not too late, but very close!”
Example: I got to the drugstore just in the nick of time. It’s a good thing, because I really need this
medicine!
English Expression 17. keep one’s chin up means “remain brave and keep on trying”
Example: I know things have been difficult for you recently, but keep your chin up. It will get better
soon.
English Expression 18. know something like the back of your hand means “know something very,
very well”
Example: If you get lost, just ask me for directions. I know this part of town like the back of my hand
English Expression 19. once in a while means “sometimes, not very often”
Example: Have you been to the new movie theater? No, only see movies once in a while. I usually stay
home and watch TV.
English Expression 20. sharp means “exactly at a that time”
Example: I’ll meet you at 9 o’clock sharp. If you’re late, we’ll be in trouble!
English Expression 21. sleep on it means “think about something before making a decision”
Example: That sounds like a good deal, but I’d like to sleep on it before I give you my final decision.
English Expression 22. take it easy means “relax”
Example: I don’t have any special plans for the summer. I think I’ll just take it easy.
English Expression 23. to get the ball rolling means “start something, especially something big”
Example: We need to get this project started as soon as possible. I’m hoping you will help me get the ball
rolling.
English Expression 24. up to the minute means “the most recent information”
Example: I wish I knew more about what is happening in the capital city. We need more up to the
minute news.
English Expression 25. twenty-four/seven means “every minute of every day, all the time”
Example: You can access our web site 24/7. It’s very convenient!
English Expression 26. Let the cat out of the bag means “To reveal a secret or a surprise, usually by
accident.”
Example: “We were going to have a surprise birthday for dad, but my silly brother let the cat out of the
bag the day before.”

16. 16
English Expression 27. Not my cup of tea means “If something is not your cup of tea, you do not like it
or you are not interested in it.”
Example: “Some people love playing cricket, but it’s not my cup of tea.”
English Expression 28. Under the weather means “To feel ill/unwell.”
Example: “I’ve been feeling a little under the weather today. I had to wait outside in the rain for 2 hours
last night and I think I may have caught a cold.”
English Expression 29. Play it by ear means “To decide what to do in a situation as it develops, instead
of planning ahead or keeping to previously arranged plans.”
Example: “I don’t have time to prepare for my meeting tomorrow. I’m just going to have to play it by ear
and see what happens.”
English Expression 30. Bite the bullet means “To make yourself do something difficult or unpleasant
that you have been avoiding doing.”
Example: “I can’t believe I haven't found a new job yet. I'm going to have to bite the bullet and sell my
car so I can pay my rent!”
CONFUSING WORDS
Address
Address-noun (HOME DETAILS)
The number of the house, name of the road, and name of the town where a person lives or works, and
where letters can be sent:
her business/home address
a change of address
Examples
Any further correspondence should be sent to my new address.
Please send the articles to the address given above.
Her new address is 12 Warwickshire Mansions.
He hasn't written to me recently - perhaps he's lost my address.
Please print your name and address in block capitals.
Address noun (SPEECH)
A formal speech:
Example
She gave an address to the Royal Academy.
Address verb (SPEAK TO)
Formal to speak or write to someone:
Examples
He addressed a few introductory remarks to the audience.
He likes to be addressed as "Sir" or "Mr Partridge".

17. 17
Address verb (DEAL WITH)
To give attention to or deal with a matter or problem:
Example
The issue of funding is yet to be addressed.
Address verb (WRITE DETAILS)
To write a name or address on an envelope or parcel:
Examples
The parcel was wrongly addressed.
So why did you open a letter that was addressed to me?
Beside/Besides:
Beside
The word beside is a preposition. It means close to or next to.
Examples
Stand here beside me.
Place the dishes beside the sink.
Besides
The preposition besides means in addition to or apart from. As an adverb, it means furthermore or and
another thing.
Examples
What other types of music do you like besides classical?
Besides being a great statesman, Sir Winston Churchill was a great writer.
He has two languages at his command besides English.
It's time for Tom to make a new friend besides Mary.
As a linking adverb, we usually put a comma before and after besides in writing:
Examples
I don’t think going for a walk is a good idea. It’s quite cold, and, besides, it’s getting late and we don’t
want to be out in the dark.
I have no time for that, and besides, I don't have any money.
Enquiry/Inquiry (homophones) Nouns
Inquiry (Inquire-Verb)
The word inquiry is being used in relation to a formal inquest (i.e., an investigation):
Examples
The judge has suspended the inquiry into the police shooting of the escaped mental patient.
(Here, inquiry means inquest or investigation.)

18. 18
Who will be leading the inquiry into the accident?
The inquiry found evidence of serious misapplication of funds.
There is to be an official inquiry into the incident.
A new team of detectives were called in to conduct a fresh inquiry.
Enquiry (Enquire-Verb)
Enquiry is used to denote the act of questioning.
Examples
I would like to enquire about the toilet facilities in the hotel.
(Here, to enquire means to ask.)
A commission of enquiry was set up to investigate the root causes of the social disturbance.
Further enquiry by the Department of Trade and Industry in 2004 cleared Morgan of any charges.
Figuratively/Literally
Figuratively-Adverb
Figuratively refers to metaphoric speech, not realistic or exact:
Examples
To say, "Horace died laughing," is to speak figuratively.
I could figuratively eat an entire cow right now.
Literally-Adverb (Literal-Adjective)
Literally refers to realistic or exact speech:
Examples
If Horace literally died laughing, he must be buried (but it was not such a bad way to go).
I made a literal translation of this essay.
I told him to go jump off a cliff; I hope he didn’t take me literally.
Hard/Hardly
Hard
Hard is both an adjective and an adverb. When it is an adverb, it means ‘needing or using a lot of
physical or mental effort’. It goes after the main verb:
Examples
I studied hard for my exams but didn’t do very well.
We have worked hard all day.
The comparative and superlative forms are harder and hardest:
Examples
He didn’t get into the team this year. He’ll just have to try harder next time.
Not: He’ll just have to try more hard next time.
Right, children, who has worked hardest today?

19. 19
Hardly is an adverb
Hardly has a negative meaning. It normally means ‘almost not at all’ or ‘only just’. We can use it in mid
position, or before an adjective or a noun:
Examples
He wore a big hat that covered his head and you could hardly see his face. (you could only see a small
part of his face)
Kyle could hardly keep his eyes open at the lecture by Rhoda James.
Its/It’s
Its (possessive pronoun) - of, belonging to, made by, or done by it
The dog will only eat its food when I am also eating.
It’s (contraction) of it + is
It’s a very strange dog.
Let/Let’s
Let: permission
We use let to talk about permission. Let is followed by an object and an infinitive without to:
Examples
She let me look at the photos.
Not: She let me to look …
She’d live on pizzas if we let her.
Warning:
We don’t use let in the passive with this meaning:
Examples
They didn’t let us take photographs inside the theatre. (or We weren’t allowed to take photographs …)
Not: We weren’t let (to) take photographs
Let’s
Let us is the first person plural imperative, which we only use in very formal situations.
Let’s is the short form, which we often use to make suggestions which include ourselves:
Examples
It’s midday. Let’s stop now and have some lunch, shall we?
Not: Lets stop now …
Okay. We’re all ready. Let’s go.
We also use let me (the first person singular imperative) to give a direct, more formal suggestion or offer:
Examples
Let me move these books out of your way.
Let me take a look at the photo frame.

20. 20
We use let for third person imperatives and for impersonal imperatives:
Examples
Let them walk home on their own. (third person)
Let there be no doubt about it. (impersonal)
Negative form of let’s: let’s
Examples
Let’s not argue about money. We can share the costs.
Let’s not go to shopping today. We shall go next week.
We can use the full forms let us and let us not in very formal situations such as political documents and
speeches, and religious and other ceremonies:
Examples
Let us remember all those who have died in this terrible conflict.
We must forgive, but let us not forget, what happened on that day ten years ago.
Let meaning ‘rent’ (verb)
We use let with a direct object meaning ‘rent something to someone’:
They’ve let their house for the whole summer.
A rented property (as a noun):
This is a holiday let.
There are a few lets on this estate.
Resume
Resume-verb formal
If an activity resumes, or if you resume it, it starts again after a pause:
Examples
Normal services will be resumed in the spring.
He stopped to take a sip of water and then resumed speaking.
The talks are due to resume today.
If you resume a place or position that you have left for a period of time, you return to it:
Examples
To resume your post/job
Please resume your seats, as the performance will continue in two minutes.
The company expects to resume production of the vehicle again after a two-month hiatus.
Normal service resumes in ten minutes.
The meeting will resume after lunch.
After a short break for rain, the match resumed with both players seeking to attack.

21. 21
Résumé-noun
A short statement of the important details of something:
Examples
She gave us a brief résumé of the project so far.
(CV) A short written description of your education, qualifications, previous jobs, and sometimes also
your personal interests, that you send to an employer when you are trying to get a job:
Example
She sent her résumé to 50 companies, but didn't even get an interview.
Commonly Mispronounced Words
Words followed by a double asterisk (**) denote that the word is
among the most mispronounced in the English language.
abject (AB jekt)
accessories (ak SESS o reez)
absolutely (AB so lute lee)
accidentally (ak si DEN tal e)
abstemious (ab STEE mee us)
acclimate (AK kla mate)**
absurd (ab SERD)
address (a DRESS; both noun and verb)**
accede (ak SEED)
admirable (AD ma rabl)**
accept (ak SEPT)
adult (a DULT; NOT ADD ult)
accession (ak SESH un)
aerial (AIR ree al)
ally (verb: al Lie; noun: AL lie)
applicable (AP plik a bl)**
architect (AR ki tekt)
arctic (ARK tik)
area (AIR ee a)
attack (a TAKT)
attitude (AT i tyud)
attorney (a TER nee)**
autopsy (AU top see)**
avenue (AV a nyu)
aviation (ay vi AY shun)
battery (BAT er e; NOT BAT tree)
being (pronounce the g)

22. 22
beneficent (be NEFF i sent)
bicycle (BY sik il)
biography (by OG ra fee)
breadth (bredth; pronounce the d)
casualty (CAZH ul tee)
champion (CHAM pee un)
chastisement (chass TYZE ment)
chauffeur (SHOW ferr)**
chestnut (CHESS nut)
chocolate (CHOCK o lut)
clique (klik)**
comment (COM ment)
compromise (COM pro myze)
concave (con CAYV)
concentrate (CON sen trayt)
concierge (con se AIRZH)**
condolence (con DOE lens)
conversant (con VER sunt)**
convex (con VEX)
corps (kor)
creek (kreek; NOT krik)
cruel (KROO el)
data (DAT tah)
deaf (def)
decade (DECK ayd)
decisive (dee SY siv)
defect (DE fekt)
deficit (DEF i sit)
demonstrable (de MON strabl)
depot (DEE po)
depths (pronounce the th)
dessert (de ZERT)
detour (DEE toor)
diamond (DY a mund)**
distribute (dis TRIB yute)
divide (di VYD)
doing (DOO ing; pronounce the g)
drowned (drownd; one syllable,
NOT drown ded)
duly (DYU lee)
duty (DYU tee)
edition (eh DISH un)
educate (EDD yu kate)
elm (as written; NOT el um)

23. 23
envelop (verb: en VELL up)
envelope (noun: EN va lope)
epitome (ee PITT o mee)
equitable (EK wi ta bl)**
era (IHR a)
err (urr; rhymes with fur)**
etiquette (ETT i kett)
every (EV a ree)
exigency (EKS i jen see)
exponent (ek SPO nent)
exquisite (eks KWI zit)**
extant (EKS tent)
extraordinary (eks TROR di ner ee)
fact (pronounce the t)
family (FAM a lee)
fasten (FASS en)
favorite (FAY vor it)
figure (FIG yur)
film (as written; NOT fill um)
finance (verb: fi NANS; noun:
FI nans)**
financial (fin NAN shul)
financier (fin nan SEER)
forehead (FOR id)
forte (FOR tay)
formidable (FOR mi da bl)**
fragmentary (FRAG men ter ee)
Commonly
Mispronounced
Words
Words followed by a double asterisk (**) denote that the word is
among the most mispronounced in the English language.
friendship (FRIEND ship; pronounce
the d)
genuine (JENN yu inn)
gingham (GHING um)
glisten (GLISS en)
gondola (GONN do la)
government (GUV ern ment; pronounce
both n’s)
grievous (GREE vuss)
guardian (GAR dee un)
hasten (HAYSS en)
height (hyt; does NOT end in th)

24. 24
heinous (HAY nuss)**
herculean (her kyu LEE un)
heroism (HER o izm)
homeopathy (ho mee o PAth ee)
horizon (ho RYZ un)
hostile (HOSS til)**
hundred (as written; NOT hunnerd)
idea (eye DEA a)
ignoramus (ig no RAY muss)
immediate (imm EE dee ut)
impious (im PEYE uss)
incognito (in cog NEE toe)
incomparable (in COM pa ra bl)
indictment (in DYT ment)
industry (IN dus tree)**
inexorable (in EKS o ra bl)
inexplicable (in eks PLIK a bl)
infamous (IN fa muss)
inquiry (in KWY ree)**
Iowa (EYE o wah)
irrevocable (ir REV o ka bl)**
Italian (itt AL yun)
italics (ih TAL iks)
judiciary (joo DISH a ree)
just (as written; NOT jest)
knew (nyu)
lapel (la PEL)
large (larg; no d sound)
latent (LAY tent)
length (pronounce the g; NOT lenth)
library (LI bra ree; NOT ly' bay ree)
lieu (loo)
lightning (LYT ning; NOT lyt en ning)
long-lived (long livd; also -leyed)
longevity (lon JEV i tee)
luxury (LUK shur ee; NOT lug shur ee)**
lyceum (ly SEE um)
manufacture (man u FAKT yur)
maturity (ma TYR rit tee)
memorable (MEM uh ra bl)
mischievous (MISS cha vuss)**
municipal (myu NISS i pul)
museum (myu ZEE um)
new (nyu)

25. 25
oblique (o BLEEK)
office (OFF fiss; NOT aw fuss)
often (OFF en; no t )
on (as written; NOT awn)
ordeal (or DEEL)
osteopath (OSS tee o path)
osteopathy (oss tee OPP a thee)
overalls (as written; NOT over halls)
parade (pa RAYD; NOT prayd)
partner (as written; NOT pard ner)
patron (PAY trun)
pecan (pe KON)
pecuniary (pee KYU nee er ee)**
peremptory (per EMP ter ee)
piano (pee AN o)
picture (PIK tyur)
pique (peek)
plumber (PLUM er)
positively (POZ it tiv lee)
possess (po ZESS)
precedence (PRE sah dens)**
preface (PREF iss)
preferable (PREF er a bl)
prescription (pre SCRIP shun)
presentation (prez en TAY shun)
radiator (RAY dee ay tor)
radio (RAY dee o)
rambling (as written; NOT ram bo ling)
realm (relm; NOT rell um)
recognize (REK og nyz)
recourse (REE cors)
refutable (re FYUT a bl)
reputable (REP yut a bl)
research (RE serch)
resources (REE sors ez)
respite (RES pit)
revocable (REV o ka bl)**
robust (ro BUST)**
romance (ro MANS)
Roosevelt (RO za velt; NEVER roose
a velt)**
route (root)
Commonly
Mispronounced

26. 26
Words
Words followed by a double asterisk (**) denote that the word is
among the most mispronounced in the English language.
sagacious (sa GAY shuss)
schism (SI zem)
simultaneous (sy mul TAY nee uss)
short-lived (short lyvd)**
slippery (SLIP er ree; NOT slip ree)
solace (SOL uss)**
solder (SOD er)
sphere (sfeer)**
status (STAY tuss)*
strictly (STRICT lee; NOT strick li)
subpoena (sup PEE nah)
subtle (SUT tl)
suit (soote)
superfluous (soo PER floo uss)
surprise (ser PRYZ)
telegrapher (tell EGG ra fer)
temperament (TEM per a ment;
NOT tem per ment)**
tenet (TEN ett)
theater (THEE a ter)**
tract (tract; NOT track)**
trembling (TREM bling; NOT trem
bo ling)
tremendous (tre MEN dus)
tribune (TRIB yun)
tube (tyub)
Tuesday (TYUZ day)**
tumult (TYU mult)
umbrella (um BREL lah; NOT um ba
rel lah)**
usurp (yu SERP)
water (WA ter)**
Utica (YU tik a)
what (hwot; NOT wot)**
vagary (VA gar ee)**
wheel (hweel; NOT weel)**
vehement (VEE a ment)**
whether (HWETH er)**
vehicle (VEE ih kel)**
white (hwyt)**
verbose (ver BOWSS)

27. 27
wrestle (RES el)
was (wahz)
GRAMMAR BASICS
SENTENCE
A group of words that expresses a statement, question, command, or wish. Sentences usually contain a
subject and verb. In written English, the first word of a sentence is capitalized and the sentence ends
with a period, question mark, or exclamation point.
Examples:
• She can sing melodiously.
• The cat caught the mouse.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
A sentence can be divided into two halves: subject and predicate. The subject is the "doer" in a sentence,
or what the sentence is about. A simple predicate is simply the main verb.
Examples:
• Carlo | wrote a letter to his uncle.
• My neighbour's dog | barked all night.
• Our electricity | went out during the storm.
CLAUSES and PHRASES:
A clause is defined as a group of related words that contains a subject and predicate (verb).
Examples:
• he came.
• since she laughs at diffident men
• I despise individuals of low character
• when the saints go marching in
• because she smiled at him.
A phrase is defined as a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb.
Examples:
• on the table.
• leaving behind the dog
• smashing into a fence
• before the first test

28. 28
• after the devastation
NOUN:
Noun is a word which names a person, a place or a thing.
Examples: Chair, table, book, cup, computer, picture, (names of things)
New York, Paris, Canada, Toronto, school, hospital, cinema, garden, (names of places)
John, Newton, R.H Stephen, Einstein, man, boy, doctor (names of persons)
Countable Nouns
A noun which can be counted is called countable noun. They have a singular and a plural form. The
singular form can use the determiner "a" or "an".
Pen is countable noun because we can count it and can say one pen, two pens, three pens or more pens.
Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable nouns.
Examples:
• She has three dogs.
• I own a house.
• I would like two books please.
• How many friends do you have?
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable noun refers to substances which cannot be counted.
For example, water is an uncountable noun because we cannot count it. We cannot say, one water or two
water. Such substances which cannot be counted in terms of numbers are called uncountable noun.
Examples: Water, milk, bread, honey, rain, furniture, news, information, pleasure, honesty, courage, weather,
music, preparation, warmth, wheat, advice,businessare examples of uncountable nouns.
• Would you like some cheese?
• Coffee keeps me awake at night.
• We should always have hope.
• She does not speak much Spanish.
• Do you see any traffic on the road?
Changing Uncountable nouns into countable nouns
We can change uncountable noun into countable noun if we specify a unit or measuring standard for
it. For example “water” is an uncountable noun but we can make it countable by saying one glass of
water or two glass of water etc. In this example we selected a unit that is glass. We can also say one litre
of water or one cup of water etc. By selecting such units or measuring standards we can change
uncountable noun in to countable which can be counted in terms of numbers.

29. 29
Examples
Uncountable – countable
Bread – a piece of bread.
Wheat – a grain of wheat.
Milk – a glass of milk
Information – a piece of information
Four types of nouns
1. Common noun
A common noun is a noun that refers to people or things in general, e.g. boy, country, bridge, city, birth,
day, happiness.
2. Proper noun
A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place, or thing, e.g. Steven, Africa, London,
Monday. In written English, proper nouns begin with capital letters.
3. Collective nouns
Collective nouns refer to groups of people or things, e.g. audience, family, government, team, jury. In
American English, most collective nouns are treated as singular, with a singular verb:
• The whole family was at the table.
In British English, the preceding sentence would be correct, but it would also be correct to treat the
collective noun as a plural, with a plural verb:
• The whole family were at the table.
4. Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a type of noun that refers to something with which a person cannot physically
interact.
Common Abstract Nouns
Emotions/Feelings
• Love
• Hate
• Anger
• Peace

30. 30
• Pride
• Sympathy
States/Attributes
• Bravery
• Loyalty
• Honesty
• Integrity
• Compassion
• Charity
• Success
• Courage
• Deceit
• Skill
• Beauty
• Brilliance
• Pain
• Misery
Ideas/Concepts/Ideals
• Belief
• Dream
• Justice
• Truth
• Faith
• Liberty
• Knowledge
• Thought
• Information
• Culture

31. 31
• Trust
• Dedication
Movements/Events
• Progress
• Education
• Hospitality
• Leisure
• Trouble
• Friendship
• Relaxation
ARTICLES
The words a, an, and the are special adjectives called articles.
Articles are of two types: Indefinite and Definite.
Indefinite Articles: a, an
An- used before singular count nouns beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or vowel sound:
• an apple, an elephant, an issue, an orange
A - used before singular count nouns beginning with consonants (other than a, e, i, o, u) :
• a stamp, a desk, a TV, a cup, a book
Used before singular nouns that are unspecified:
• a pencil
• an orange
Used before number collectives and some numbers:
• a dozen
• a gallon
Used before a singular noun followed by a restrictive modifier:

32. 32
• a girl who was wearing a yellow hat
Used with nouns to form adverbial phrases of quantity, amount, or degree:
• I felt a bit depressed.
Definite Article- The
The word "the" is one of the most common words in English. It is our only definite article. Nouns in
English are preceded by the definite article when the speaker believes that the listener already knows
what he is referring to. The speaker may believe this for many different reasons, some of which are listed
below.
The definite article is used in the following cases:
To refer to something which has already been mentioned.
Examples:
• A woman who fell 10 metres from High Peak was lifted to safety by a helicopter. The woman fell
while climbing.
•
The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In January last year two men
walking on the peak were killed in a fall.
When you assume there is just one of something in that place, even if it has not been mentioned before.
Examples:
• We went for a walk in the forest yesterday.
• My father enjoyed the book you gave him.
• We live in a small village next to the church.
• When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we went to the beach every day.
In sentences or clauses where you define or identify a particular person or object.
Examples:
• The man who wrote this book is famous.
• I scratched the red car parked outside.
• I live in the small house with a blue door.
• He is the doctor I came to see.
• The Pope is visiting Russia.
• The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979.
To refer to people or objects that are unique.
Examples:
• Praise the Lord!

33. 33
• The Columbia River is near here.
• The sun rose at 6:17 this morning.
• Clouds drifted across the sky.
• The president will be speaking on TV tonight.
• The CEO of Total is coming to our meeting.
Before superlatives and ordinal numbers.
Examples:
• This is the highest building in New York.
• You are the tallest person in our class.
• It is the oldest building in the town.
• This is the third time I have called you today.
• She read the last chapter of her new book first.
With adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people.
Examples:
• The French enjoy cheese.
• The elderly require special attention.
• She has given a lot of money to the poor.
• I think the rich should pay more taxes.
• She works for a group to help the disabled.
Used to refer to a time period.
Examples:
• I was very naive in the past.
• This song was very popular in the 1980s.
• He was born in the seventies.
• This is a painting from the 1820's.
With clauses introduced by only.
Examples:
• This is the only day we've had sunshine all week.
• You are the only person he will listen to.
• The only tea I like is black tea.
WITH PROPER NOUNS
With names of geographical areas, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands, canals, seas and oceans.
Examples:
• They are travelling in the Arctic.
• Our ship crossed the Atlantic in 7 days.

34. 34
• I will go on a cruise down the Nile.
• Hiking across the Rocky Mountains would be difficult.
With countries that have plural names and those that include words like kingdom, states or republic.
Examples:
• I have never been to the Netherlands.
• Do you know anyone who lives in the Philippines?
• She lives in the United States.
• James is from the Republic of Ireland.
With newspaper names.
Examples:
• She works for the New York Times.
• I read the Times of India everyday.
With the names of famous buildings, works of art, museums, or monuments.
Examples:
• Have you been to the Vietnam Memorial?
• We went to the Louvre and saw the Mona Lisa.
• I would like to visit the Eiffel Tower.
• I saw King Lear at the Globe.
With the names of hotels & restaurants, unless these are named after a person.
Examples:
• They are staying at the Hilton on 6th street.
• We ate at the Golden Lion.
With the names of families, but not with the names of individuals.
Examples:
• We're having dinner with the Smiths tonight.
• The Browns are going to the play with us.
Used to designate a natural phenomenon:
Examples:
• The nights get shorter in the summer.
• The wind is blowing so hard.
To say something about all the things referred to by a noun:

35. 35
Examples:
• The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals)
• The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia)
• The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies)
We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments.
Examples:
• Joe plays the piano really well.(= Joe can play any piano)
• She is learning the guitar.(= She is learning to play any guitar)
To refer to a system or service.
Examples:
• How long does it take on the train?
• I heard it on the radio.
• You should tell the police
NOUN FORMS
privacy, legacy, fallacy, accuracy, adequacy, delicacy,diplomacy, conspiracy,
supremacy,
confederacy, illiteracy, immediacy,lunacy, piracy, pharmacy,fancy, idiocy, normalcy
(normality),
ACY (CY) prophecy, bankruptcy.
Note S+Y: fantasy, ecstasy, courtesy, heresy, jealousy, leprosy, controversy; hypocrisy,
idiosyncrasy.
brigade, grenade, parade, blockade, stockade, cascade, charade, crusade; comrade,
decade,
barricade, renegade, fusillade; cannonade, cavalcade, lemonade, masquerade,
promenade,
ADE (AD)
serenade; accolade, escapade, marmalade; ballad, myriad, nomad, salad, triad.
Note: facade, charade.
adage, bandage, garbage, courage, package, savage, damage, image, visage, hostage,
sausage,
voyage; language, wreckage, average, leverage, heritage, hermitage, orphanage,
personage;

36. 36
AGE
advantage, percentage;
Note: camouflage, collage, espionage, fuselage, garage, massage, mirage, montage,
sabotage.
Note: cartridge, partridge; vestige; college, privilege, sacrilege; prestige.
animal, cardinal, criminal, general, marshal, vandal; professional, intellectual; tribunal,
credentials, collateral; approval, removal, referral, rehearsal, dismissal, disposal,
proposal,
AL, IAL
refusal, appraisal, arrival, revival, survival, denial; trial; manual, ritual, serial, burial;
material,
memorial, editorial, centennial, initial, official; court-martial.
human, pelican, charlatan, puritan, captain, chaplain, villain; republican; partisan,
artisan,
AN, IAN courtesan; German, African, Anglican; Alaskan, Tibetan, American, Korean, European,
Venezuelan; magician, musician, optician, physician, patrician, technician; dietitian
(also,
dietician).
pirate, magnate, advocate, candidate, delegate, graduate, magistrate, surrogate,
chocolate,
ATE
doctorate, estimate, consulate, postulate, syndicate, duplicate, concentrate; associate,
subordinate, coordinate, certificate, electorate, directorate, conglomerate, protectorate.
DOM
freedom, kingdom, wisdom, stardom, boredom, earldom, serfdom, martyrdom;
officialdom.
children, brethren, oxen, maiden, warden, citizen, chicken, kitten, marten, raven, vixen;
EN garden, burden, kitchen, oven, heaven, token, omen, batten, pollen, regimen, specimen,
acumen.
basket, blanket, bullet, pellet, comet, cabinet, hatchet, mallet, nugget, midget, owlet,
packet,
ET, ETTE, LET
picket, pocket; planet, plummet, puppet, rocket, skillet, socket, market, target, tenet,
trumpet,
valet, wallet, amulet, violet; clarinet, cornet.
childhood, babyhood, boyhood, girlhood, brotherhood, sisterhood, motherhood,

37. 37
womanhood,
HOOD
manhood; knighthood, priesthood, neighborhood, falsehood, likelihood, livelihood,
hardihood;
adulthood.
justice, notice, office, practice, service, chalice, malice, cornice, crevice, hospice, solstice,
ICE
bodice, jaundice; police, caprice; avarice, edifice, cowardice, licorice (also, liquorice),
orifice,
precipice, prejudice; accomplice, apprentice.
Note: premise, promise, treatise.
IC, TIC
Arctic, classic, ethic, magic, music, rhetoric, public; republic, Antarctic, arithmetic;
characteristic; critic, mystic, skeptic (BrE sceptic), lunatic; fanatic, mechanic, neurotic,
agnostic;
paramedic, antibiotic.
ethics, physics, politics; acoustics, athletics, gymnastics, hysterics, italics, linguistics,
mechanics,
ICS
phonetics, statistics; acrobatics, analytics, calisthenics, economics, mathematics,
pediatrics.
engine, sardine, famine, doctrine, urine, medicine, heroine, wolverine; canine; aborigine;
INE, IN
magazine, tangerine; cuisine, machine, ravine, routine; basin, bulletin, cabin, coffin,
margin,
origin, insulin, protein, resin; adrenalin (also, adrenaline); hemoglobin.
ceiling, building, dressing, dwelling, feeling, filling, longing, meaning, morning,
evening,
ING
pudding, shilling, wedding; greeting, meeting, landing, opening, clearing, painting,
saying,
singing, swimming, suffering, warning, writing, hardening; surrounding; engineering.
journalism, symbolism, vandalism, alcoholism; feminism, mechanism, pessimism,
optimism,
ISM
organism; racism, fascism, criticism, classicism, cynicism; autism, sadism, baptism,
despotism,
dogmatism, magnetism, pragmatism, rheumatism, nepotism; tourism, aphorism,
barbarism,
terrorism, vulgarism, voluntarism, plagiarism.

38. 38
dentist, typist, stylist, chemist, scientist, tourist; artist, linguist, lyricist, humorist,
essayist;
IST
pharmacist, physicist, specialist, hypnotist; sadist, fascist, communist, dogmatist,
humanist,
terrorist; atheist, egoist, realist, feminist, nihilist, optimist, pessimist.
captive, additive, narrative; detective, adhesive, abrasive, explosive, executive;
representative;
IVE
defensive, offensive, incentive, collective, directive, perspective, prerogative;
contraceptive.
treatment; apartment, department, appointment, adjustment, commitment, enlistment,
investment; government; environment, assignment, alignment; pavement, movement;
MENT improvement, involvement, achievement, agreement, excitement;rudiment, sentiment;
blindness, brightness, coldness, darkness, toughness, harshness, stiffness, highness,
illness,
sickness, thickness, quickness; happiness, business, laziness, coziness, dizziness,
giddiness,
readiness, hardiness, heaviness, emptiness, friendliness, liveliness, loneliness,
cleanliness,
NESS
weariness, worthiness; carelessness, helplessness, homelessness, hopelessness,
restlessness,
uselessness, weightlessness; faithfulness, hopefulness, meaningfulness, skillfulness,
thankfulness; consciousness, obviousness, seriousness.
friendship, hardship, worship, courtship, leadership, dealership, membership,
scholarship;
SHIP
relationship; ownership, partnership, citizenship, statesmanship, championship;
companionship, dictatorship; kinship, township, authorship, censorship, chairmanship,
fellowship, penmanship, partisanship.
TH
breadth, depth, filth, growth, health, length, month, stealth, strength, truth, warmth,
wealth,
width.
altitude, amplitude, aptitude, attitude, gratitude, platitude, latitude, longitude,

39. 39
magnitude,
TUDE
multitude; certitude, fortitude, lassitude, servitude, solitude; solicitude, ineptitude,
infinitude.
failure, figure, tenure; procedure; measure, pleasure, treasure, leisure, seizure,
URE
closure; disclosure, enclosure; culture, creature, feature, future, gesture, lecture;
adventure,
departure, conjecture, expenditure, imposture; manufacture.
Nouns with the suffixes ANCE, ENCE, ANCY, ENCY
acceptance, assistance, resistance, admittance, remittance, reluctance, importance,
inheritance; grievance, relevance, arrogance, elegance; extravagance, connivance,
significance;
ANCE advance; entrance, fragrance, hindrance, nuisance; remembrance, Renaissance,
reconnaissance; ordinance, ordnance, countenance, maintenance; parlance, semblance,
ambulance, nonchalance, petulance, vigilance.
sentence, competence; existence, insistence, persistence, subsistence, incompetence;
coexistence; silence, valence, violence, virulence, insolence, prevalence, excellence,
pestilence,
ENCE opulence, turbulence; condolence, equivalence, benevolence; presence, prominence,
eminence, imminence, continence, abstinence, vehemence; impertinence.
ANCY
vacancy, constancy, pregnancy, poignancy, occupancy, militancy; discrepancy,
expectancy,
redundancy.
agency, urgency, tendency, clemency, currency, decency, regency, frequency, fluency,
ENCY
presidency, residency; emergency, consistency, contingency, delinquency, complacency,
transparency; leniency (also lenience); efficiency, deficiency, proficiency, sufficiency,
expediency, constituency.
Nouns with the suffixes ANT, ENT
sergeant, servant; assistant, attendant, lieutenant, consultant, accountant, contestant;
tenant,
ANT tyrant, migrant, vagrant, emigrant, immigrant, applicant, occupant; defendant,

40. 40
descendant,
inhabitant, participant; instant, pendant, remnant, warrant, hydrant, radiant, variant,
colorant,
covenant, restaurant, stimulant.
parent, president, resident, student; adherent, opponent, respondent, correspondent,
superintendent; present, moment, patent, talent, tangent, torrent, current, solvent,
accent,
ENT
crescent, content, continent; event, extent, assent, consent, dissent, ascent, descent,
percent;
antecedent; accident, incident, precedent; component.
Nouns with the suffixes ARY, ERY (RY), ORY
secretary, dignitary, military, notary, votary, lapidary, dromedary, emissary, adversary,
antiquary, functionary, mercenary, missionary, visionary; canary, apothecary,
contemporary;
ARY
revolutionary; diary, primary, summary, salary, burglary, glossary, rosary, vagary,
boundary,
dictionary, centenary, commentary, tributary, estuary, statuary; obituary, vocabulary,
itinerary;
anniversary, documentary.
archery, fishery, bravery, slavery, flattery, lottery, robbery, snobbery, forgery, trickery,
ERY (RY)
witchery, quackery, gunnery, millinery; artillery, adultery, effrontery; dairy, fairy;
bakery,
battery, pottery, cutlery, eatery, greenery, grocery, nursery, nunnery, finery, vinery,
winery,
scenery, stationery, monastery, cemetery; machinery, refinery, confectionery.
memory, allegory, oratory, dormitory, lavatory, purgatory, repertory, signatory,
territory;
ORY
laboratory; directory, trajectory, inventory, accessory, reformatory, repository,
conservatory;
Nouns with the suffixes ER, OR, AR, EER (IER), EE, ESS
worker, lawyer, founder, officer, barrister, manager, minister, programmer, jeweler,
ER
advertiser; adviser, reviser, commander, employer, astronomer, commissioner;
manufacturer;dancer, drummer, painter, reader, singer, speaker, teacher, trainer,
viewer,
writer, publisher; center, theater, heater, quarter, sweater.

41. 41
sailor, tailor, janitor, operator, aviator, navigator; contractor, director, inspector,
inventor,
investor, investigator, distributor; actor, doctor, donor, mentor, tutor, tenor, sculptor,
editor,
OR
prosecutor, commentator; dictator, translator, conductor, instructor; ancestor, bachelor,
neighbor, orator, traitor, visitor, warrior, alligator; color, favor, glamour, honor, humor,
labor,
odor, rumor, tumor, valor, vigor; endeavor, behavior (BrE colour, favour, honour,
humour,
behaviour, etc.).
beggar, burglar, liar, scholar, vicar, cougar, dollar, calendar, circular, seminar, vinegar,
AR
caterpillar; registrar; altar, cellar, collar, cedar, sugar, hangar, mortar, nectar, molar,
pillar,
grammar, caviar; cigar, guitar.
career, veneer, auctioneer, engineer, gazetteer, mountaineer, mutineer, overseer,
EER (IER)
pamphleteer, pioneer, profiteer, puppeteer, racketeer, volunteer; soldier, terrier, barrier,
glacier, rapier; cashier, premier, frontier, bombardier, brigadier, cavalier, grenadier,
chandelier;
financier.
absentee, addressee, devotee, divorcee, employee, endorsee, lessee, licensee, payee,
refugee,
EE trainee, trustee; apogee, coffee, levee; committee; jubilee, decree, degree,
guarantee, repartee.
actress, goddess, governess, hostess, mistress, poetess, sculptress, seamstress,
sorceress, waitress, baroness, countess, duchess, princess, empress, heiress,
lioness, tigress, fortress, enchantress.
Nouns with the suffix ION (TION, ITION, ATION, SION)
million, billion, trillion, union; cushion, fashion, champion, scorpion, carrion, legion,
region; religion, criterion, oblivion, accordion; caution, lotion, motion, notion, potion,
nation, ration,
ION, TION station, portion; diction, fiction, friction; prediction, addiction, conviction,
eviction; caption, option; adoption, absorption, deception, exception, perception,
ESS

42. 42
reception, conception.
ignition; recognition, precognition, definition,
admonition, premonition, ammunition, exhibition,
prohibition; petition, partition, contrition,
nutrition; malnutrition, apparition,
competition, repetition, superstition; volition,
suspicion, tuition; intuition, demolition, abolition,
coalition.
sensation, cessation, pulsation, causation;
conversation, condensation, compensation,
indexation, annexation, accusation,
improvisation; indication, dedication,
medication,
syndication, abdication, fabrication; eradication,
sophistication, prognostication; purification,
falsification, fortification, nullification; identification,
intensification, personification.
vision, lesion; revision, division, provision,
collision, derision, decision, incision, precision,
excision, adhesion, cohesion; fusion; confusion,
conclusion, delusion, illusion, allusion,
inclusion, intrusion, preclusion, explosion,
erosion, corrosion, occasion, invasion, evasion;
passion;
compassion, concussion, discussion, percussion,
confession, profession.
Nouns with the suffix TY (ITY)
plenty, bounty, safety, nicety, deity, surety, liberty,
poverty, property, puberty, honesty,
TY majesty, certainty; faculty, cruelty, loyalty, royalty,
novelty, penalty, specialty (BrE speciality), admiralty,
difficulty, casualty.
SION
SSION
ITION
ATION

43. 43
cavity, gravity, brevity, levity; activity, captivity,
declivity, festivity, passivity, proclivity, depravity,
longevity; productivity, conductivity, creativity,
receptivity, sensitivity; scarcity; capacity, audacity,
opacity, sagacity, vivacity, ferocity, atrocity, velocity;
complexity, perplexity; agility, civility, debility, docility,
facility, humility, nobility, senility, fragility, sterility,
fertility, futility, hostility, utility, virility; volatility,
imbecility.
history, botany, carpentry, industry, anarchy,
monarchy, tyranny; economy, astronomy, autonomy;
apology, analogy, anatomy, anomaly, antipathy,
miscellany, assembly, monotony, monogamy,
polygamy; ivy, envy, levy, fury, jury, entry, country,
ministry, symmetry, ivory;
Y delivery, discovery, inquiry, upholstery; artery,
gallery, celery, century, factory, category, surgery,
sorcery, theory, victory, injury, luxury, misery,
mystery.
VERB
Definition
Verb is a word which shows action or state of something. Most
verbs describe action, for example write, eat, run, and speak. Some
verbs describe state of something, and are not usually used in
continuous tense for example be, impress, please, surprise, belong to,
consist of, resemble, seem
Examples:
• He works in a factory(action)
• I bought a computer. (action)
• John seems happy. (state)
• He resembles his brother (state)
VERBS TYPES- Transitive and Intransitive
ITY

44. 44
Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs require an object.
Example:
She filled the cup.
In this sentence, filled is a transitive verb and the cup is the object
in the sentence. It doesn't make much sense to have filled without
an object. She filled is incomplete.
Tip: Think of transitive verbs as transferring their action to the
object.
Direct objects and Indirect objects
There are two different types of object: direct objects and indirect
objects. A direct object is, as its name suggests, directly affected
by the action of the main verb. In the following two sentences, ‘a
drink’ and ‘a story’ are direct objects: ‘a drink’ was bought and ‘a
story’ was being read.
Examples
Jonathan bought a drink.
[subject] [direct object]
He was reading a story.
[subject] [direct object]
Indirect object is usually a person or thing that benefits in some
way from the action of the main verb.
Examples
Jonathan bought Catherine| a
drink.
[subject] [ind obj] [Dir
obj]
He was reading his daughter| a
story.
[subject] [ind obj] [dir
obj]
Examples of Transitive Verbs
• They climbed the mountain.
• The clock struck one.
• I want candy.
• He carried the bag.
• Jose thanked Wayne.
• I couldn’t face him today.
‘Catherine’ has received a drink, but
it is ‘the drink’ that has been bought.
‘His daughter’ is hearing the story,
but it’s ‘the story’ that is being read.

45. 45
Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs don't take an object.
Examples of Intransitive Verbs
• He ran.
• The baby cried.
• They napped.
• They laughed uncontrollably.
• The dog barked.
• She slept.
Verbs that are both transitive and intransitive
Some verbs can be transitive or intransitive, depending on how
they are used in a sentence.
Examples of Verbs That Can Be Transitive and Intransitive
To cheer is one example.
• They cheered. |They cheered the band.
• She sang. |She sang a song.
• Larry tripped. |Larry tripped Alex.
• We visited. |We visited Aunt Ruth.
The forms of the verb "to be"
Tense Used for Form Example
Base form Be It can be simple.
Simple Present
I Am I am here.
You are You are here.
He/She/It Is She is here.
We are We are here.
They are They are here.
Simple Past
I was I was here.
You were You were here.
He/She/It was She was here.
We were We were here.
They were They were here.
Simple Future
I will be I will be here.
You will be You will be here.
He/She/It will be She will be here.

46. 46
We will be We will be here.
They will be They will be here.
Progressive form being He is being unusual.
Perfect from been It has been fun.
Uses of being
The word being is used in several different grammatical
structures.
Being + adjective
The structure being + adjective is used to talk about actions and
behavior.
Why are you being so silly?
You are being cruel when you hurt others with your words or actions.
Note that when the adjective refers to feelings, the continuous
form is not possible.
I was upset when I heard that I had failed the test. (NOT I was being
upset when I … Here we are talking about the speaker’s feelings
and hence a continuous form is not possible.)
I am delighted to hear that you have won the first prize. (NOT I am
being delighted …)
Being + past participle
Being can be followed by a past participle. This structure is used
in the passive forms of present and past continuous tenses.
Compare:
Mother is cooking dinner. (Active)
Dinner is being cooked by mother. (Passive)
They are repairing the roof.
The roof is being repaired.
I am quite sure that somebody is following me. (Active)
I am quite sure that I am being followed. (Passive)
Being in participle clauses
Instead of a because /as / since clause, we sometimes use an
adverbial participle clause with being. This structure is mainly
used in a formal or literary style.

47. 47
Compare:
Being late, he couldn’t watch the show. (= Because he is late, he
couldn’t watch the show.)
Being a friend of the Minister, I am often invited to official parties. (=
As I am a friend of the Minister, I am often invited to official parties.)
Being quite slim, I managed to squeeze through the small opening in
the wall. (= Since I was quite slim, I managed to squeeze through the
small opening in the wall.)
The Participle
The participle is a verb that acts as an adjective. There are two
types of participles:
1 Present Participle 2 Past Participle
Present Participle
Present participles end in -ing.
Examples:
• boiling water
• caring nature
• deserving recipient
Some more examples of present participles:
• A laughing man is stronger than a suffering man.
• If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous, he will not
bite you. This is the principal difference between a dog and a man.
• The only thing that comes to a sleeping man is dreams.
The [verb] + "ing" part is known as a present participle. It is
formed like this:
Add "ing" to most verbs:
• play > playing
• shout > shouting
For verbs that end "e", remove the "e" and add "ing":
• prepare > preparing
• ride > riding
For verbs that end "ie", change the "ie" to "y" and add "ing":
• lie > lying
• untie > untying

48. 48
For verbs whose last syllable is written [consonant-vowel-
consonant] and is stressed, double the final consonant and add
"ing":
• run > running
• forget > forgetting
Past Participles
Past participles have various endings, usually -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n.
Examples:
• broken window
• painted frame
• destroyed bridge
Some more examples of past participles:
• A swollen eye is God's way of telling you to improve your
interpersonal skills.
• Do not waste time staring at a closed door.
• I like children...if they're properly cooked.
Forming the Past Participle (Regular Verbs)
If it's a regular verb, the past participle is the same as
the simple past tense. In other words, it is formed like this:
Add "ed" to most verbs:
• jump > jumped
• paint > painted
If a verb of one syllable ends [consonant-vowel-consonant],
double the final consonant and add "ed":
• chat > chatted
• stop > stopped
If the final consonant is w, x or y, don't double it:
• sew > sewed
• play > played
• fix > fixed
If last syllable of a longer verb is stressed and ends [consonant-
vowel-consonant], double the last consonant and add "ed":
• incur > incurred
• prefer > preferred

49. 49
If the first syllable of a longer verb is stressed and the verb ends
[consonant-vowel-consonant], just add "ed":
• open > opened
• enter > entered
• swallow > swallowed
If the verb ends "e", just add "d":
• thrive > thrived
• guzzle > guzzled
If the verb ends [consonant + "y"], change the "y" to an "i" and
add "ed":
• cry > cried
• fry > fried
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
An English verb can be regular or irregular.
Regular verbs
Regular verbs form their past and past participle forms by adding
–ed or –d.
Examples:
Walk – walked – walked
Dance – danced – danced
Paint – painted – painted
Work – worked – worked
Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs form their past and past participle forms in
different ways.
There are mainly three types of irregular verbs.
Verbs in which all the three forms are the same (e.g. put – put –
put)
Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same (e.g. sit – sat –
sat)

50. 50
Verbs in which all three forms are different (e.g. drink – drank –
drunk)
TENSES
The tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event.
Read the following sentences:
1. I write the letter.
2. I wrote the letter yesterday.
3. I will write another letter tomorrow.
In sentence 1, the verb write refers to present time and is said to
be in the present tense. Examples are: write, build, love, like etc.
In sentence 2, the verb wrote refers to past time and is said to be
in the past tense. Examples are: wrote, built, loved, liked etc.
In sentence 3, the verb will write refers to future time is said to be
in the future tense. Examples are: will/shall write, will/shall
build, will/shall love, will/shall like etc.
Thus we have three main tenses which are further classified as
below:
Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense
Simple Present Simple Past Simple future
Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous
Present Tense
SIMPLE PRESENT
The simple present tense is formed:
subject + first form of the verb
Examples:
I write.
He writes.

51. 51
She writes.
You write.
They write.
In other words, it only changes in the third person singular (he /
she / it). It adds either s, es or ies.
The Spelling Rules
For regular verbs, just add s:
talk> talks
improve> improves
For verbs that end in s, ss, sh, ch, x and o, add es:
guess> guesses
mash> mashes
fix> fixes
go> goes
For verbs ending with ‘y’, change the y to i and add es:
fly> flies
study> studies
The simple present tense is used to talk about-
A habitual action.
• He gets up at 8 am.
• He drinks tea in the morning.
• She keeps her home neat and tidy.
General truths
• Honey is sweet.
• The sun rises in the east.
• Fortune favors the brave.
In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there (to
express what is actually happening in the present.)
• There goes your husband!
• Here comes the bus!
Future events that are part of a time table
• The train leaves at 6 pm.
• The match starts at 9 o’clock.
• The next flight is at 6:30 tomorrow morning.

52. 52
To tell stories (particularly jokes) to make your listener or
reader feel more engaged with the story.
• A horse walks into a bar, and the barman says, "why the long
face?"
(Compare to: A horse walked into a bar, and the barman said, "why
the long face?")
We heard the helicopter overhead. Suddenly, the radio bursts into life.
Note also the other uses of the simple present tense.
1) To introduce quotations
• Keats says, ‘A thing of beauty is a joy for ever.’
2) In clauses of time and condition
• I will call you when dinner is ready. (NOT I will call you when
dinner will be ready.)
• I will go abroad after I finish my studies. (NOT I will go abroad
after I will finish my
studies.)
3) In broadcast commentaries
In broadcast commentaries on sporting events, the simple present tense
is used instead of
the present continuous tense to talk about activities in progress.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
The present progressive tense is formed like this:
[am, is, or are] + [verb] + ing
Choose am, is, or are based on the following table:
Subject Verb "to Be" Present Participle
I Am
[verb] + "ing"
You Are
He / She / It (or singular noun) Is
We Are
You Are
They (or plural noun) Are
Example:
• She is running.
• I am talking.

53. 53
The present continuous tense is used to talk about an action going
on at the time of
speaking.
• The baby is sleeping.
• The children are playing.
• It is raining.
• The students are reading.
To talk about a temporary action which may not be actually
happening at the time of speaking.
• I am reading ‘David Copperfield’. (But I am not reading at this
moment.)
Planned future events (arranged to take place in the near future)
• My father is arriving tomorrow.
• We are going to the cinema tonight.
We have already seen that the simple present tense is used to
talk about habitual actions.
But to refer to a particularly obstinate habit we often use the
present continuous tense with
an adverb like always, continually, constantly etc.
• My dog is very silly; he is always running after cars.
Verbs not used in the present continuous tense
The following verbs are not normally used in the present
continuous form: see, hear, smell,
notice, recognize, appear, look, seem, want, wish, desire, feel, like, love,
hate, think,
suppose, believe, consider, remember, forget etc.
When have means possess, it is not normally used in the
continuous form.
Incorrect: These grapes are tasting sour.
Correct: These grapes taste sour.
Incorrect: I am thinking you are wrong.
Correct: I think you are wrong.
Incorrect: She is seeming upset.
Correct: She seems upset.
Incorrect: She is having a dog.
Correct: She has a dog.
Incorrect: I am liking it.

54. 54
Correct: I like it.
Note that many of these verbs can be used in the continuous form
with a change of
meaning.
• I am thinking of writing a novel.
• She is tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt.
• They are having lunch.
PRESENT PERFECT
The present perfect tense is formed:
has/have + [the past participle]
Example:
• I have worked
• She has painted
Forming the Past Participle (Regular Verbs)/
If it's a regular verb, the past participle is the same as the simple
past tense. In other words, it is formed like this:
Add "ed" to most verbs:
jump> jumped
paint> painted
If a verb of one syllable ends [consonant-vowel-consonant],
double the final consonant and add "ed":
chat> chatted
stop> stopped
If the final consonant is w, x or y, don't double it:
sew> sewed
play> played
fix> fixed
If last syllable of a longer verb is stressed and ends [consonant-
vowel-consonant], double the last consonant and add "ed":
incur> incurred
prefer> preferred
If the first syllable of a longer verb is stressed and the verb ends
[consonant-vowel-consonant], just add "ed":
open> opened
enter> entered

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swallow> swallowed
If the verb ends "e", just add "d":
thrive> thrived
guzzle> guzzled
If the verb ends [consonant + "y"], change the "y" to an "i" and add
"ed":
cry> cried
fry> fried
The present perfect tense is used to talk about completed
activities in the immediate past. It is often used with the adverb
of time just.
• I have (just) finished my work.
• He has (just) gone out.
• They have (just) arrived.
The present perfect tense can also be used to talk about past
actions whose time is not given or definite.
• I have read all plays of Shakespeare. (This statement doesn’t say
exactly when I read
the plays. All that we know is that it happened sometime in the
past.)
• I have visited Africa.
• She has acted in several films.
Past events whose effect is felt in the present
• He has broken his leg. (So he can’t walk now.)
• I have finished my work. (= Now I am free.)
Past events that have began in the past continued up to the
present:
• I have known him for a long time. (I still know him.)
• We have lived in this city for ten years. (We still live in this city.)
• He has been ill since last week. (He is still ill.)
• I have been to London. (I visited London before, but I don't have to
be physically in London at the time when I say the sentence.)
• I have been in London for three days. (I mean I am still in London.)
Note that the present perfect tense cannot be used with adverbs of
past time. However, the following adverbs or adverb phrases can
be used with the present perfect tense: never, ever, so far, till now,
yet, already, today, this week, this month etc.

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PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The present perfect progressive tense is formed:
"has/have been" + [present participle]
Example:
• I have been working since yesterday evening.
• She has been chewing for two minutes.
In the examples above, the words "working" and "chewing" (i.e.,
the [verb] + "ing" part of the construction) are known as present
participles. A present participle is formed like this:
The present perfect progressive tense has two uses. It is used
for:
(1) a continuous activity that began in the past and continues into
the present, or
(2) a continuous activity that began in past but has now finished
(usually very recently).
• I have been gardening since morning.
• It has been raining since yesterday.
• Rani has been studying since morning.
• Rahul has been playing for hours.
• They have been waiting for long.
Difference between present perfect and present perfect
continuous tense
Both present perfect and present perfect continuous tenses can be
used to talk about situations that started in the past and are still
going on. The present perfect continuous tense is preferred in
cases where we want to say how long a situation has lasted.
To simply show the continuity of an action, we use the present
continuous tense. The present perfect tense is used in cases where
the focus is on the idea of completion.
• I have written six letters since morning. (Focus on the idea of
completion)
• He has eaten a whole loaf of bread.
• I am writing a letter. (Focus on the idea of continuity with no
reference to duration)
• I have been writing since morning. (Focus on the continuity and
duration of the idea)

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Use of 'For' and 'Since'
"For" is applied before uncertain time:- "Since" is applied before certain time:-
Five hours, two hours, an hour 3 O'clock, 10 O'clock, 5 PM, 4 AM.
few days, four days, seven days Monday, Saturday, Sunday
two months, eight months March, June, December
One year, ten years 2011, 2012, 2013
for a long time Since long.
Yesterday, tomorrow, day after tomorrow
Morning, Evening, Night, Noon, Afternoon.
Birth, beginning, then, when
Past Tense
SIMPLE PAST
We use the simple past tense for events
that happened or started and completed in the past and that have
no relation with the present.
The simple past tense is formed:
If it's a regular verb, the simple past tense is formed like this:
Add "ed" to most verbs:
jump> jumped
paint> painted
If a verb of one syllable ends [consonant-vowel-consonant],
double the final consonant and add "ed":
chat> chatted
stop> stopped
If the final consonant is w, x or y, don't double it:
sew> sewed
play> played
fix> fixed
If last syllable of a longer verb is stressed and ends [consonant-
vowel-consonant], double the last consonant and add "ed":
incur> incurred
prefer> preferred

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If the first syllable of a longer verb is stressed and the verb ends
[consonant-vowel-consonant], just add "ed":
open> opened
enter> entered
swallow> swallowed
If the verb ends "e", just add "d":
thrive> thrived
guzzle> guzzled
If the verb ends [consonant + "y"], change the "y" to an "i" and add
"ed":
cry> cried
fry> fried
The simple past tense is sometimes used without an adverb of
time. In such cases, the time of the action may be either implied
or indicated by the context.
• His father worked for Google.
• I ate a big spicy piece of pizza for my breakfast.
To refer to an action completed regardless of how recent or
distant in the past.
• Alexander Bell invented the telephone in 1876.
• My brother joined the circus as a clown last week.
To talk about an action completed in the past. It is often used
with adverbs or adverb phrases of past time.
• I met him yesterday.
• His father died last year.
• I received the letter a week ago.
For an action done repeatedly, habitually or at regular times in
the past.
• When I was in college, I studied eight hours a day. (= When I was
in college, I used to study eight hours a day.)
• Edison sold newspapers before he became a famous scientist. (=
Edison used to sell newspapers before he became a famous scientist.)
• We saw the movie 'Titanic' several times at the cinema.
• He phoned his mother every Sunday until her death.
For a state in the past.
• I felt very tired after a couple of games of tennis.
To talk about someone who has died.
• Arthur was a highly respected science-fiction writer.

59. 59
• He left all his money to charity.
In providing details or information about events that happened
subsequent to news reports which, when first reported, are
usually expressed in present perfect tense.
• Negotiations with the insurgent forces have broken down. The
leader of the insurgent forces blamed the government for the break
down. A government spokesman said the insurgent
forces made unreasonable demands.
Used to
We use the expression used to to refer to a past habit or situation
that no longer exists. We use the infinitive without ‘to’ after 'used
to.'
• I used to chase butterflies, but now I don't see any butterfly around.
(NOT: I used to chase butterflies, .....)
• She used to be scared of spiders, but now she keeps a pet spider.
• Did you used/use to live in a houseboat?
• Professor Crabby is never used to people arguing with him.
PAST CONTINUOUS
The past progressive tense is formed like this:
For singular:
was + [verb] + ing
For plural:
were + [verb] + ing
The past continuous tense is used for an action that was taking
place in the past when a shorter action (expressed in the simple
past tense) happened.
• I was camping when I got stung by a bee.
• When I visited him in the hospital, he was snoring loudly.
• While he was reading the newspaper, he fell asleep.
• While I was talking to him, his eyes looked somewhere else.
Note: The past continuous tense and the simple past tense are
used together
With while to describe two actions that were going on at the
same time in the past.
• While my brother was laughing, my sister was crying.
• My father was drinking while my mother was eating.

60. 60
For an action that was happening and not yet finished at a
particular time or throughout a period of time in the past. We
do not state when the action started or ended.
• Grandma was knitting a sock at 11 o'clock last night.
• They were hunting wild boars all evening.
To show that we were in the middle of an action.
• I was collecting old newspapers. (I was in the middle of doing the
collecting.)
• The police sirens were wailing.
We use when with the past continuous and simple past tenses:
• To show that an action or event described in the past
continuous tense started before the event expressed in the
simple past tense.
➢ Two women were fighting in the street when the
police arrived. (The fighting started before the police
arrived.)
• To show that an action or event described in the past
continuous tense was going on when the event expressed in
the simple past tense took place.
➢ They were having a barbecue when the
rain started falling. (The rain fell when the barbecue was in
progress.)
• To show time order of events.
➢ When I woke up, my brother was brushing his teeth. (I woke
up during his brushing his teeth.)
➢ When I woke up, my brother brushed his teeth. (I woke up, and
then my brother brushed his teeth.)
➢ He was bathing his pet puppy when I visited him. (He started
the bathing before my visit and the bathing was in progress at
the time of my visit.)
➢ He bathed his pet puppy when I visited him. (Two complete
events: I visited him and then he bathed his pet.)
PAST PERFECT
The past perfect tense is used to express two types of actions
which occurred or completed in the past. It is used to make it
clear that one event happened before another in the past. It does

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not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it
clear which one happened first.
The past perfect tense is formed:
had + [the past participle]
Example:
• You had studied English before you moved to New York.
• Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several
times.
Note: The past perfect tense and the simple past tense are used
together.
The Past Perfect Tense is usedto show an action happened in
the past before another event took place:
• Words usually used with the Past Perfect tense
are when and after.
➢ They had already finished their dinner when I arrived to
join them.
➢ When he had done his homework, he went for a smoke in
the park.
➢ After I had eaten five apples, I felt ill.
➢ I arrived at the cinema after the film had started.
Note: The event in the past perfect tense occurred before the
event in the simple past tense.
• Words such as already, just and as soon as are also used with
the Past Perfect tense.
➢ It had already stopped raining when I bought an
umbrella.
➢ The whole house had just burnt down when the firemen
got there.
➢ As soon as she had got married, she regretted it.
For an action which happened before a definite time in the past.
• They had finished their prayers by ten o'clock.
For an action which took place and completed in the past.
• He had hurt his back in an accident at work and he had to stay at
home for three months.
(The action happened and he suffered the consequences all in
the past)
For states.

62. 62
• They had become good friends for many years after meeting on
holiday.
When two actions were completed in the past, use a past perfect
tense to clarify which event happened earlier.
a) INCORRECT: The museum occupied the building where the art
gallery was.
b) CORRECT: The museum occupied the building where the art
gallery had been.
c) INCORRECT: The list of movies you showed me, I saw before.
d) CORRECT: The list of movies you showed me, I had seen before.
In (a), the use of two simple past tenses (occupied; was) imply the
museum and the art gallery occupied the same building at the
same time, which was not the case.
In (b), the use of the perfect tense (had been) sorts out the order of
occupation of the building.
In (c), 'I saw before' clearly indicates it happened before the list
was showed to me, and so should be in the past perfect tense as in
(d).
Sometimes the past perfect tense and the past simple tense are
used separately in different sentences.
• This morning we visited John in the hospital. He had just been
admitted with stomach pains.
The past simple tense precedes the past perfect tense. Notice the
action in the past perfect tense happened first.
Before and after:
As mentioned above, the event expressed in the past perfect tense
occurred earlier than the event in the past simple tense. However,
when before or after is used in a sentence, the past perfect tense
becomes unnecessary as the two words - before or after – already
clarify which action takes place first. We can use the simple past
tense instead. Look at these examples.
a) After she had read the letter, she tore it into pieces.
b) After she read the letter, she tore it into pieces.
c) We had left the stadium before the match ended.
d) We left the stadium before the match ended.
Changing the past perfect tense to past simple tense does not

63. 63
affect the meaning of the sentences as (a) and (b) have the same
meaning, and (c) and (d) have the same meaning.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The past perfect progressive tense is used to show that an on-
going action in the past has ended. The sentence includes a time-
reference to show when the action started in the past or for how
long the action was continued in the past.
The past perfect continuous tense is formed:
had been + [present participle]
Example:
• I had been jumping.
• They had been meeting.
• The past perfect continuous is used:
For an action that occurred over a period of time in the past.
• He had been playing saxophone in a jazz band.
• She had been watching the movie for 2 hours.
• They had been running their business since 1987.
• She had been waiting for you since Wednesday.
Note: The first action uses the past perfect continuous and the
second action uses the simple past tense. Here are some more
examples:
For an action which started and finished in the past before
another past action. Here, since or for is usually used.
1. Jack got a job at last. He had been looking for a job since last year.
2. He and his brother had been playing badminton together for ten
years before one of them got married.
3. They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
4. She had been working at that company for three years when it went
out of business.
5. James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before
he left for Asia.
Before another action in the past is a good way to show cause
and effect.
• My clothes were wet because it had been raining.
• Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at
work.
• Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

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Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous
If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for
two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to
use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous.
Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence.
Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past
Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before
something in the past. Study the examples below to understand
the difference.
Examples:
• He was tired because he was exercising so hard.
This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he was
exercising at that exact moment.
• He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.
This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been
exercising over a period of time. It is possible that he was still
exercising at that moment OR that he had just finished.
SIMPLE FUTURE
We use the simple future tense for actions that will happen in the
future. How we use it depends on how we view the events are
going to happen.
The simple future tense has 2 forms:
1. Will
2. Be going to
Will
will + [base form of verb]
Example:
• You will meet Jane tonight.
• She will play.
• Martin will paint.
Be Going To
[am/is/are + going to + verb]
Examples:
• You are going to meet Jane tonight.
• She is going to play.

65. 65
• Martin is going to paint.
The table below shows the contraction forms using personal
pronouns:
Positive Negative
Contraction For emphasis Contraction
I will I’ll I will not I won't
You will you’ll You will not You won't
We will we’ll We will not We won't
He will he’ll He will not He won't
She will she’ll She will not She won't
It will it'll It will not It won't
They will they’ll They will not They won't
1. Will
We use will to:
Say something that we are certain will occur in the future.
• A meeting will be held next Monday at 2 p.m.
• I will come along with you.
Say something that we are not so certain will happen.
• I think he will phone me later.
• They think you are the right choice.
Make a prediction.
• The rain will stop soon.
• The movie will end in around 20 mins.
Make a sudden decision at the moment of speaking.
• There's a noise outside. I will just go and check.
• I will go check if the charge on the phone is down yet.
Give a command.
• You will report to me at eight o'clock tomorrow.
• She will pay the fine for breaking the rules of the traffic.
Give an invitation; make an order or a threat.
• They will invite Professor Dunce to speak at the scientific
conference.
• I will have a double brandy.
• Give me your wallet or I will slit your throat with this.

66. 66
Ask questions or make a suggestion or promise.
• Will you phone your mother-in-law to apologize, please?
• Shall we sneak a couple of bottles of brandy through Customs?
• I will try not to be late again.
2. Be going to
Be going to is used to refer to future actions as follow:
Intention or decision already made to do or not to do
something.
• We are going to move to a new neighbourhood next month.
• She is not going to be friends with those girls anymore.
Plans or arrangements for the near future that are made prior to
the time of speaking
• We are going to visit the zoo on Sunday.
• They are going to meet their old family friends.
Prediction of an outcome based on current situation.
• Look at the overcast sky. It is going to rain hard.
When a decision or plan is made for the distant future, will is
usually used.
• She will get married in two years.
Going to is usually used when a plan is made for the near
future.
• We are going to visit them again early next month.
3. Be to
Be to (is/are + infinitive) refers to an action that is to take place in
the future. It is used for instructions, obligation and something
that is arranged. However, other forms of usage are possible.
• You are not to answer any question from any one of the reporters.
(instruction)
• You are to hand this packet over to him before noon. (obligation)
• The Prime Minister is to meet his successor tomorrow.
(arrangement)
• The museum is to be closed while it is being renovated.
(information)
• The General Manager is to present the report to the board on
Monday. (duty)

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4. Be about to (+ infinitive)
We use ‘be about to’ for an action or event that will happen very
soon.
• Everyone sits down when the film is about to start.
• I have never drunk alcohol in my life and I am not about to start
now.
• We walked quickly home when it was about to rain.
• The audience fell silent when the President was about to appear.
• When a plane is moved to the end of a runway, it usually means it is
about to take off.
When ‘be about to’ is used with just, it emphasizes that
something is about to happen when it is interrupted by
something else.
• I was just about to eat my dinner when the phone rang.
Will / Shall
Will and shall are auxiliary verbs used mainly in the future tense.
• I shall arrive before noon. / They will arrive before noon.
Shall has always been used in the first-person singular (I) and
plural (we) but will is becoming more common.
• I shall be away tomorrow. / We shall be away tomorrow.
We use will to ask a favour of somebody.
• Will you look after my things for a while, please?
We use won't (will not) to show unwillingness or refusal to do
something.
• I have asked the noisy children to keep quiet, but they won't listen.
We use shall when we:
Ask a first-person question.
Shall I open the window?
Make a suggestion.
Shall we go together in one car?
Make an offer.
Shall I give you a lift to the airport?
Ask for instructions.
Shall I make all these payments by the end of the month?