1. Tomas Miskinis, s131478
Information Flow and Decision
Making in Construction Using BIM
Supervisors:
External Associate Professor Nicolaj Kenneth Bodholdt
Hvid
Associate Professor Sten Bonke
Master’s Thesis in Civil Engineering, July 2015
3. Preface
This master thesis is written as a final project of the MSc studies in Civil Engineering
at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU), in the summer 2015.
The purpose of the paper is to reveal importance and possibilities of information
flow and its impact on decision making in construction projects using Building
Information Modelling. This knowledge is based on literature review from various
scientific and academic research papers and concurrent practise in the industry.
Moreover, the thorough analysis of how data within construction information needs
to be constructed and organized is carried out. Paper also presents what kind of
communication and collaboration tools are available in AEC industry at present
time. Furthermore, their application possibilities are discussed and analysed. In
nowadays it is important to understand the context of information management
during the construction projects phases. However, it is still a question how to gain
considerable benefits by deciding to use BIM process and how it can be implemented
and utilised in efficient way and facilitating decision making process. Finally, several
interviews with companies were conducted in order to verify the problem statement
and look into the companies practice.
I would like to thank Rune Andersen (NIRAS), Joakim Lockert (MT Hojgaard) and
Ulrik Branner (GenieBelt) for their contribution and the time spent to share great
knowledge and providing insight overview of concurrent information management
situation in AEC industry.
Finally, a special appreciation is directed to external associate professor Nicolaj
Hvid and associate professor Sten Bonke for their guidance and professional input
throughout this hard research process.
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4.
5. Abstract
The issue of rational decision making in construction projects was identified. There-
fore, the thorough literature review was conducted concerning the information flow
and management. Efforts were put in order to understand the way how data needs
to be constructed and defined that it could ensure efficient information flow. The
principle of information flow and its impact on decision making process was anal-
ysed. Deep insight was taken into information flow facilitation by BIM, defining
how its structure is composed and what properties it needs in order to be effective.
The evaluation of BIM performance and its maturity is presented as well.
Furthermore, the analysis of several BIM tools was performed to find out how
to use and implement the information that is created and stored within the BIM
models. Possibilities of information filtering and dissemination were reviewed as
well as methods of visualizing it. Also information quality evaluation is described.
Moreover, the social-technical aspect was taken into consideration.
Finally, interviews were conducted with professionals from AEC industry who are
involved and know about the BIM processes within their companies in order to get
an overview of the concurrent situation. Discussion part represents the interpre-
tation of interview results with reflection on theoretical part and conclusions are
derived on how to facilitate decision making with information flow in construction
projects.
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6.
7. Abbreviations
AEC Architecture, Engineering and Construction
BIM Building Information Modelling
ICT Information, Communication and Modelling
AIA American Institute of Architects
KPI Key Performance Indicators
IFC Industry Foundation Classes
PSD Property Set Definition
MVD Model View Definition
COBie Construction Operations Building information exchange
BPMN Business Process Modelling Notation
IFD International Framework for Dictionaries
NBS National BIM standards
FIM Facilities Information Management
CMMS Computerized Maintenance Management Systems
SMC Solibri Model Checker
ITO Information TakeOff
LOD Level of Detail
MPS Model Progression Specification
VDC Virtual Design Construction
QA Quality Assurance
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11. Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Construction industry consists of very complex building systems and processes.
As a consequence it includes huge amounts of activities and large scale operations
throughout the phases starting from an idea development and finishing with real-
ization and maintenance of it. Therefore it requires smooth and onerous planning
and coordination of the projects. Furthermore, the design phase as well as con-
struction of a building is an information driven project. As a consequence during
the evolvement of the projects enormous amounts of data are produced, collected
and stored. As a result these amounts of data creates information flows which in-
clude design and technical project data, the contractual details, and data needed
for administration and control of the project. All of it requires hard efforts in order
to manage it and make it useful as well as available to relative parties.
Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry is a very active partic-
ipant in the sense of adopting and utilizing new Information Communication and
Technology (ICT) solutions. It starts with Building Information Modelling (BIM)
revolution ignited by GRAPHISOFT® in 1984 with creation of ArchiCAD which
is the industry first BIM software for architects. Incorporation of BIM concept is a
very promising deal which should increase efficiency of AEC industry and minimise
the possible occurrence of losses. Furthermore it should be noticed that BIM should
be accepted not only like a technology change, but as well as a process shift which
changes the way AEC industry was used to operate. In fact it enables to represent a
building by intelligent objects that can carry detailed information about themselves
and represent their relationship with other objects in the same building model.
In construction projects consisting of multiple independent teams case of slow and
interrupted information flow, erroneous and ineffective documents lead to significant
waste (1). In order to solve this problem efforts and challenges emerge in controlling
data quality, integrity and timeliness (2). Quality of data depends on its level of
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12. 1.2. Problem Statement
detail and precision. Furthermore, data which is correct, complete, consistent and
non-redundant creates considerable integrity. As well as timeliness of data means
its immediate availability for actions and decision making.
Knowing the source of information and where it needs to go ensures effective com-
munication in a construction project (3). Therefore, the guidelines and framework
are needed in order to define this path of information flow. The source should be
easy to access and extract the data, and besides it should have the option to al-
low choosing only relevant information. Moreover, it should to facilitate decision
making process.
In more and more researches about construction projects and their management
the focus area is the importance of efficient information flow. Data sharing between
project team members is suggested as a crucial factor in achieving success or failure
of the project. It is very important to understand the principles of information flow,
which parts of it are the most important and at what speed single components or
packages can be processed.
1.2 Problem Statement
Very often construction data is poorly organized and that is so because of lack in
proper grouping and sub-grouping of it what further may lead to missed opportuni-
ties to combine and utilize relevant data. Important messages may be buried within
voluminous database and that may influence the project performance. "Data rich -
information poor" problems can occur when the massive amount of data available
results in information overload (4). But the most significant problem is not get-
ting always the most rational decisions. It is interesting to research if this kind of
problem can be solved using proper information organization and BIM, where infor-
mation can be grouped and stored. Also it is important to asses the possible BIM
utilization for information flow through construction project life cycle. Further-
more, it is interesting to focus on and evaluate the information in the construction
projects in order to define the core aspects for efficient project management and
especially for rational decision making.
1.3 Purpose and Aim
The aim of this thesis is to compare the current situation of BIM utilization for
information flow with the promises of it in the AEC industry as well as defining
most common challenges in construction projects regarding decision making. Com-
prehension of information flow importance may influence the project’s development
and may be critical point to success if wrong decisions are made. It is necessary
to define crucial information flow and problems which may occur, what formats
of information should be used. One more aspect is the coherent information flow
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13. 1.3. Purpose and Aim
through the construction project phases, describing the core inputs and outputs
at different stages having a knowledge of what information stays here and what
moves forward, which would help to define milestones for each party of the project.
Subsequently, try to find out how the information must be defined and prepared in
order to make well-informed decisions. Furthermore, there is a need of better under-
standing how actually manage the data which is embedded in Building Information
Model. Putting efforts on realising how BIM can help better share information,
reduce amount of errors and waste, facilitate better reuse of information in future,
help to make rational decisions and improve capturing of knowledge is the main
purpose of this paper.
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15. Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Information components in construction
The most general definition of information describes it as the data that is spread
within communication networks. However, it can be thought about information in
two ways (5). The first way would be the classic resource view that assumes creation,
transmission, accumulation and reception of information by team members like
components on an assembly line. In theory it would mean that created information
stays comparatively static for the rest of the project period and in such a way it
could be used by multiple parties. On the other hand, information can be seen as
dynamic and continually evolving. And that is perception driven view. Usually such
information is interpreted differently by different team members depending on their
approach and expectations. For example, change in design can be seen by owner as
an influence on cost or as an impact on schedule by contractor. Sometimes it can
bring confusion and uncertainty.
Construction information can be divided in three categories: technical informa-
tion, commercial information, as well as management and control information (6).
Technical information category includes design and engineering data describing a
building project. It would include drawings, details, specifications and clarifica-
tions. Contract details and established responsibilities are included in commercial
information. Cost estimate, schedules as well as terms and conditions would be
also included in this category. And last, but no the least, management and control
information includes the information needed for a successful project management,
control and reports generation. This kind of information contains meeting notes,
submittals and factory drawings, request for information, change order status log,
etc. Flow of this type of information often has an influence on the duration of a
project, because usually this information is used to coordinate the construction pro-
cess (7). Furthermore, information contains relevant data needed to make decisions
for a project development and execution. It affects the cost and life-cycle duration,
procurement status as well as other aspects regarding project performance. Hence,
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16. 2.2. Information flow
information must be detailed sufficiently enough in order to make an informative
decisions about the item in question.
2.2 Information flow
Information flow could be simply described as the path which data takes from its
original source to its end users. Successful perception, ability to move from one place
to another, reasoning and planning it all strongly depend on existence of a reliable
relationship between involved project parties who are capable to gather, process,
disseminate and receive information. Information flow is necessary for achieving
success in a construction project. It helps to guide every step and action, to form
and make a decision, and supports the many complex interactions that make up
any construction project (8).
The importance of information flow management in construction is very high since
new design models, innovative technologies, processes and solutions are producing
the increased amount of information that needs to be processed and used by profes-
sionals. Even though the volume of available information has increased and became
easier to access, the big part of the shared information between the project teams
never ends up adding the expected value to the project (9). There are still occur-
ring significant communication errors and loss of project information. Sometimes
the same information is re-entered more than few times in the different systems
which concludes in overload and waste. Therefore probably the most greatest chal-
lenge is to manage the information in such a way that it would bring a considerable
value. At this moment waste in a construction project sometimes sums up to 30%
of the total cost what means that 1 out of 3$ is wasted.
2.2.1 The information flow model
Information flow would not be possible without four main components: source,
receiver, interaction and mutual relevance. As a starting point or an ending point
could be either people or boundary objects such as drawings, reports, building
information models or other documents that are communicated between project
members. There are three types of roles which determine the role of a project
member: contractual role, informal technical role and social role. These roles tells
what type of information could be expected from a member, what is his contribution
to it and how that information could be shared. On the other hand, information
flow is affected by boundary objects through their structure which impacts the type
and richness of information, and the method of capturing and using it.
Interaction between parties who are handling some particular information pack is
the main factor in determining the fate of information. Usually there are three ways
an information can turn out due to interaction type. It can be accepted, ignored
or rejected. It is obvious that only captured information would possibly add value
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17. 2.2. Information flow
to the project, but even though it sometimes ends up as a waste. Therefore it is
important to communicate and use information in a proper way in order to create
value of it. There are three essential steps to do that (9). First of all, information
must be shared by a person on the project team. Secondly, other members of the
project team need to accept the shared information, because otherwise information
immediately becomes waste, unless it is used again in the future under other cir-
cumstances. Accepted information can be captured in two types of repositories: in
the collective memory of the project team or in the boundary objects. But the real
value is added to a project when received information is actually used to make a
decision. And the last step would be to make sure that information is available and
sheared to the rest teams of a project. Figure 2.1 shows a simplified idea of informa-
tion flow, where the interaction field should be emphasized in order to understand
and improve information flow and overall complexity of the projects.
Figure 2.1: Concept of information flow
2.2.2 Measuring information flow
The information flow can be evaluated in three basic terms of time, quantity and
quality. Furthermore, representing data in information flow can be supported by
different levels of details in the definition of time (day, week, month), location (in-
dividual, group, class), project participants (individual, group, class) and physical
components (individual, group, system) (10). In one research by E. Tribelsky and
R. Sacks (1) there were developed techniques for information flow measurement
and indices for evaluating it. The indices indicate such measures as rate of infor-
mation generation, dissemination, batching, etc. Information itself and its flow can
be defined in several concepts:
• Information package in BIM represents an entire model or a subset of a model
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18. 2.2. Information flow
in an exchange. It is a basic unit that is transferred between project teams
and their members
• Information item is a single component of information, hence an information
package is made of set of information items
• Information object is an individual component which include both technical
and engineering attributes as well as characteristics and appears very often in
multiple information packages
• Information attribute is a facet of an information object containing technical,
engineering or management information such as dimensions, type, cost, etc.
• Action is a process when information package is transferred by a team member
in order to communicate information
• Project event is a moment in project’s life cycle when there is a highest demand
for information
• Information batch is a collection of information packages that are transferred
at one time
Willing to evaluate information flow needs to take into account aforementioned
indices. For the purpose of determining information transferring rate is used an ac-
tion rate index, which tells the number of actions recorded per time. Furthermore,
package size index quantifies the level of detail of information package. It allows
to evaluate the rate at which level of detail increases and completion of informa-
tion package or quantifies the number of attributes contained in it. Another very
important index is work in process. It shows the amount of available but unused
information packages, thus poor information flow can be identified where long gaps
occur between moment of information upload and use of it by others. Sometimes
some parts of projects slow down for a period of time while attention is paid some-
where else in this case this period would be pointed out by this indicator as well.
Batch size index defines the volume of transferred information. Besides it reflects
size of accumulated information by project participant in the time period, or usually
since his last delivery of information. Batch size hold the number of information
objects or else the total of information items. Usually volume of transferred infor-
mation depends on the transfer purpose: either there is a need of complete and
comprehensive information or there is only concern on a specific subject. Moreover
bottleneck indicator identifies a point in information flow at which congestion might
occur when information is delivered more quickly than someone at that point can
handle it or if it is not made available and disseminated to others yet. Finally,
rework index indicates the amount of necessary rework caused by errors in source
data or due to incompatibilities between separate representations of information.
Unfortunately evaluation of indices in projects requires a hard effort analysis (1),
nevertheless evaluation of indices could be facilitated using BIM what enables auto-
matic calculation. As a final point, all these indices are potentially influential tool
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19. 2.2. Information flow
for project managers to detect potential information flow problems at early stages
of the project.
American Institute of Architects (AIA) has provided standard requirements for
some parts of information flow. Their contracts and specifications define the exact
way how a part of information should be developed, transmitted, approved and
disseminated. In this case information flow is standard in the most of construction
projects and it can be measured. Usually it is log files which help to track key
data flow during the life-cycle of the project. Typically it would show when some
particular data was required and when it was send to appropriate team members.
There are three main AIA Digital Practice Documents that define transmission and
exchange of digital data between project parties (11). The most recent versions
were updated in 2013. E203TM
-2013: Building Information Modeling and Digital
Data Exhibit is an AIA document that helps to establish expectations for digital
data and BIM use in the projects. And another purpose of it is to define a process
for developing the detailed protocols and procedures that will govern the devel-
opment, use, transmission and exchange of digital data and BIM on the project.
Further relevant protocols and agreements are set on following two documents.
First, G201TM
-2013: Project Digital Data Protocol Form, documents the agreed
upon protocols and procedures that will control use, communication and exchange
of digital data within the project. Second, G202TM
-2013: Project Building Infor-
mation Modeling Protocol Form, helps to define development, use and exchange of
building information models. It provides with the requirements for model content
and assigns authorship of each model element by project milestone. It also defines
the reliability of model content for its users, as well clarifies model ownership, and
sets forth building information modeling standards and file formats.
Speaking about building information modeling, there are five components in order
to measure BIM performance. That are BIM capability stages, BIM maturity levels,
BIM competency sets, Organizational scales and Granularity Levels (12). To start
with briefly introducing each component, BIM capability stages characterize the
minimum BIM requirements that are supposed to be reached when implementing
BIM. Few key elements can be listed wiling to achieve BIM implementation such as
use of object based modelling software, practice model based collaboration within
organization and participate in network based environment by sharing object based
models. Furthermore, BIM maturity levels show quality of managing and realising
BIM capabilities. It focuses on control improvement, on cost, time, performance
predictability and forecasting enhancement, and on greater effectiveness of achieving
goals.
For those reasons the maturity models are created or adapted from quality manage-
ment field to fit construction industry. Few of the present models can be successfully
used as a BIM maturity index. One of them is a BIM proficiency matrix developed
by The Indiana University which helps to estimate the competence and skills of user
in BIM environment (13). The BIM proficiency matrix is a simple MS Excel Sheet
with eight categories to be assessed (Figure 2.2). During the assessment points from
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20. 2.2. Information flow
1 to 4 are given to each category and after summing up them the BIM maturity
score is obtained (Figure 2.3). Depending of achieved results the BIM standard for
a project is identified. These standards starting from the lowest can be: working
towards BIM, certified BIM, silver, gold and ideal.
Figure 2.2: IU BIM Proficiency Matrix. Source (13)
Figure 2.3: BIM Maturity. Source (13)
Another tool to evaluate BIM performance is the BIM QuickScan created in the
Netherlands. This tool consists of four categories: Organization and Management,
Mentality and Culture, Information structure and Information flow, Tools and Ap-
plications. Within those four categories are number of KPIs in form of more than
fifty questions with multiple choice. Each KPI carries a certain weight factor and
after answering the questionnaire the result indicates respondent’s level of BIM.
Goal of this tool is to provide a clear vision of the strengths and standards of the
company using BIM and to collect benchmark data on BIM usage (14). The end
result usually is presented in the form of web that allows to identify easily how well
the BIM is implemented (Figure 2.4).
Knowledge management is also an essential part of BIM capability and maturity.
For the continued possession, use and control of knowledge four levels to indicate
maturity, which were introduced by Arif et al. (15), can be adopted in this case
too. Their matrix (Figure 2.5) embody these levels:
• Level 1: The knowledge is shared amongst the project members
• Level 2: The shared knowledge is documented
• Level 3: The documented knowledge is stored
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21. 2.3. Decision making
Figure 2.4: Average BIM level per aspect (in %). Source (14)
• Level 4: The stored knowledge is accessible, can be retrieved and used easily
For the purpose of determining these levels of knowledge maturity, simple require-
ments are listed such as: face-to-face communication, sharing thinking process,
lessons learned at each project phase, tasks rotation, knowledge renewing, self-
organized teams, training and coaching system, competition and award system.
The answers to these requirements can define project team’s knowledge shearing
process and practice.
2.3 Decision making
To start with, it is difficult and challenging to make a rational and well-informed
decisions. Generally the main factor is a human being. People apt to be impulsive,
ignorant or illogical. They tend to have a vision of themselves as having a quality
of being reasonable as well as having enough facts to make a comprehensive de-
cision. As Joseph Nathan Cohen, an Assistant Professor of Sociology in the City
University of New York, Queens College, has described, it can be defined as model
of rational, well-informed actors. The first part of this model is an assumption of
rationality. That means making a logical and objective decisions. Logical decision
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22. 2.3. Decision making
Figure 2.5: Model of knowledge retention process. Source (15)
should be clear and with a profound reasoning. By meaning objective, decisions
should be made based on evidences and without personal preferences. Second part
of the model is an assumption of being well-informed when making decisions. That
basically means having a good idea of what options and choices are, what is re-
ally possible to do and try not to miss any major prospect, and then subsequently
having a good idea of what are the potential consequences of each choice.
But usually it is easier to say than to do, because there are several problems with
making rational and well-informed decisions. First of all, most of decisions are made
non-deliberately, meaning that choices are made without extensive thought. People
tend to act impulsively and lack in effort to look thoughtfully at the issue for a longer
time. Also, some decisions are simply made habitually in the same way as it was
performed previously in the past without rethinking and repeating decisions over
and over again. Or simply decision makers just stop at first choice that they think
is good enough. Secondly and very commonly, decision makers lack of information
to make a rational decision. They don’t know all the possible choices as well as pros
and cons of each choice. On the other hand, it would be very complicated to provide
decision makers with a list of possible choices and leaving no space for their own
contemplation, since even the smallest error could have considerable consequences.
Moreover, decision makers have to be capable of picking up the right answer even
though ten experts will provide ten different opinions. Last but not least problem
that prevents making rational decisions are mental errors. This type of errors might
occur when decision maker sticks to or performs incorrect evaluation of the very
first received information. Human mind tends to proceed in an easier and more
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23. 2.4. Information flow impact on decision making
familiar way, and that is why people’s choices are of such kind that requires the
least amount of changes on their parts. Likewise, people repudiate their mistakes
or bad decisions made in the past and try to continue of the same way just because
they have already invested their time and resources in it.
To sum up, in order to make a rational decisions it is required to think them
thoroughly and collect relevant and detailed information although it can be very
challenging in huge construction projects where exist significant amounts of data
flows.
2.4 Information flow impact on decision making
Information flow and data within it has a very significant influence on making high
quality and timely decisions by construction project participants. To be able to
make right decisions the required information needs to be easily deducted from the
large data sets which have developed during the project life cycle. There is no yet
best way how to obtain the right information, but one of the options would be visual
analytic models (10). They provide parts of construction project for development
of an interactive visualization environment which is applied to the certain needs of
a particular project teams. It helps participants to extract needed information from
various sources of complex data sets.
Effective visual analytic models are based on four main factors (10): (i) the purpose
of the analytical reasoning; (ii) the preferences of data representations and transfor-
mations; (iii) the options of visual representations and communication technologies;
(iv) the production, presentation and dissemination of the visual analytic findings.
Data representation and transformation are the main parts of visual analytics.
Visual information representation and transformation helps faster to understand
complex data. It takes necessary data in a structured form from the whole data
package and presents it with the retaining information and knowledge at the highest
level. Visualization applied in construction management improves understanding
of project status and reasons for it, enhances communication among project mem-
bers, helps to identify potential causal relationship and positively influences decision
making (10).
2.5 Information flow with BIM
Building Information Modelling covers a wide area of knowledge in the Architecture,
Engineering and Construction as well as Operations industry. BIM manages in a
comparatively small but significant way to change the key processes including as a
necessary part of creating and assembling a building. It impacts such processes as:
• Capturing and using the client’s requirements in order to develop early stage
concepts and space plans
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24. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
• Analysis of design alternatives regarding spatial and structural configurations,
energy aspects, cost, constructability etc.
• Collaboration on a design between multiple team members within not only a
single discipline but also across multiple disciplines as well
• Actual construction of building and fabrication of components by sub-contractors
• Operation and maintenance of the building facility after construction
BIM is a "methodology to manage the essential building design and project data
in digital format throughout the building’s life cycle" (16) by interacting policies,
processes and technologies. The BIM process field involves AEC industry members
who are involved in the design, delivery, ownership and operations of construction
projects. They are provided with a specific order of work and activities regarding
time and place, with beginning and end, and identified inputs and outputs. Fur-
thermore, BIM is supposed to increase integrity within AEC industry by increasing
interoperability. For this reason it is necessary to have a framework to organize
domain knowledge as well as a framework which connects academic and industrial
consideration of BIM (17).
There is always an interaction between policy, process and technology fields. Once
knowledge is pushed from one field to another it is pulled back in order to satisfy a
request. As a result deliverable always requires two or more members from different
fields. For instance, architects and engineers from process field are providing design
according building standards, following guidelines and using best practice which
are set by regulatory bodies from policy field. Alternatively, software and network
providers from technology field contribute by providing database and communica-
tion systems for both policy and process fields.
2.5.1 Information in BIM
Information is viewed as a distributed, freely accessible commodity (18) and BIM
comprises high-speed and reliable communication as well as object-oriented product
description. BIM changes accessibility in a way where whole model is shared for
the transfer of information. Transparency and short cycle time of information flow
could be achieved enabling project participants to create new information online
directly in a shared BIM model.
There are some of problems regarding site recording such as accessibility, legibility,
continuity and consistency (19). It is very important to integrate the site reports
with the project planning and scheduling. To do that there are pen-based portable
computers to obtain information directly on the construction site (20) and then
the collected information goes directly to the BIM model. Most of documents such
as daily site records and photos, request for information (RFI), instructions to
contractors (ITC), drawings, material types, specifications as well as cost, which
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25. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
were or still are used to communicate on web now can be stored in the BIM model
where users are allowed to create, obtain, modify and track these data.
The answer to question, how the information can be obtained and stored, can be
the electronic data acquisition (2). There are several technologies of automated
data acquisition in construction. The most popular and frequently used technolo-
gies would include bar coding (BR) and quick response coding (QR) which is sort
of two-dimensional barcode. These technologies have proven to be an effective
tools to collect materials and equipment information needed for management in the
construction projects. The working principle of these technologies is to create a lan-
guage to encode information and easily to be recognized in a computer. Thus, code
can maintain all the necessary information about the element through its whole
life cycle. The data items that are created by aforementioned technologies can be
specified in five main categories (2):
• General data items. In this category such data as code number, project title
and location is included.
• Direct labour hours and costs. In here cost account code, worker’s ID, hourly
pay rates and required working hours are included.
• Direct material quantities and costs. Data related to total quantities and unit
prices of particular materials are included as well as material descriptions.
• Direct equipment hours and costs. It includes data regarding equipment code,
description, hourly rental rate and hours of operations.
• Task time data. This category carries data such as task code, description and
start and finish dates.
Introduction of automated data acquisition provides good control over the quality
and integrity of data, because human errors in filling the information by hand is
eliminated.
The level of detail in BIM directly impacts scheduling and costs. "A BIM deliverable
needs to be as unique as building it represents" (21). Usually the end user needs
to determine how detailed should be and what project model has to include. But
on the other hand, it is still hard to create such a BIM model which would fit all
users with the same efficiency. For instance, BIM model created during the design
phase would be saturated with irrelevant information for facilities management.
Nevertheless, the more data end user or owner has the better it is in the sense
of broader possibilities for operations and analysis. Even though manufacturers
are trying to provide "BIM-ready content" of their products the lack of national
standards for BIM makes it a bit messy. For example, one manufacturer may provide
model with only basic data such as dimensions, whereas another may put more
applicable information for engineers and still both models can lack some other sort
of data needed for mechanical engineers. In Denmark as well as other countries there
are provided guidelines and report templates dedicated to define the requirements
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26. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
and deliverables of BIM. A danish guide called BIPS is made of 4 components:
3D CAD Manual, 3D Working Method, Project Agreement and Layer, and Object
Structures.
2.5.2 BIM data flow
Life cycle of a construction project can be divided into BIM stages which describe
maturity levels of implementation. BIM maturity stages identify a certain starting
point which defines the situation before BIM implementation, three established BIM
maturity stages and the ending point as a long term goal of BIM implementation
(17). These BIM maturity stages need to be implemented gradually and successively
by project stakeholders. Stages are divided into incremental steps which lead to a
transformational changes. There are three BIM maturity stages:
• BIM Stage 1: object-based modelling
• BIM Stage 2: model-based collaboration
• BIM Stage 3: network-based integration
One of the most important component of BIM maturity stages is the BIM data flow.
Building information models are composed of smart objects which represent diverse
aspects of project information required for multidisciplinary views of the physical
elements and contain intelligence as well as knowledge by representing functional
aspects, design constraints, and life cycle data management features (22). Object
intelligence and data flow between project parties are both critical and detectable
variables of BIM maturity.
There are three types of possible BIM data that flow between project stakeholders:
structured/computable data such as databases, semi-structured such as spread-
sheets, and non-structured/non-computable such as images (17). It flows either as
a file-based transfer or as a push-pull between project servers. Therefore, such data
flow includes sending and receiving both intelligent objects and document-based
information.
Furthermore BIM data flow can be classified into a BIM data exchange and inter-
change. A BIM data exchange is simply an export or import of non-structured or
non-computable data such as 2D CAD drawing taken from a 3D object based model.
Usually in this type of flow a significant portion of relevant information can be lost.
While export and import of data which is structured and computable by supple-
mentary or another applications creates a data interchange. In this case a sufficient
interoperability between two or more systems which are exchanging and using the
information is provided. Typically IFC or CIS/2 type files would be transferred in
order to have adequate interoperability between two BIM applications with at least
loss of object data volume.
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27. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Through the aforementioned BIM stages the data is evolving and brings more and
more reasonable value to the construction project. At Stage 1, single-disciplinary
models are generated whereas generation of 2D documentation and 3D visualization
is automated as well as basic data such as element schedules, quantities, costs are
exported. At this stage 3D models so to speak are light-weight and have almost
no modifiable parametric attributes. Because of that there is no significant model-
based exchange between different project discipline teams thus data exchange is
operating in a single direction. At Stage 2, starts an active model-based collabora-
tion between project parties. This collaboration may be either through proprietary
formats, meaning same file format exchange (ex: .rvt), or through non-proprietary
simply open formats such as IFC files, which can be communicated between two
different developed software for example between Tekla®
and ArchiCAD®
. Further-
more, collaboration can proceed either within the one or between two construction
project phases. Worth to mention that it is enough to contain all geometric data in
one 3D model which will be collaborated later in order to achieve semantic inter-
change between two disciplines. For instance generated 3D model in design phase
can be collaborated with scheduling or cost estimating databases in construction
phase and that leads to 4D (time) and 5D (cost) project generation. Thus construc-
tion players provide more and more design related information based on generated
model and then designers add construction information into their design models.
At Stage 3, information rich integrated models are created, shared and maintained
collaboratively in construction project. At this stage BIM models become nD mod-
els (23) which incorporates all the required information in all stages of a project
life cycle. Furthermore it allow different complex analyses and evaluations at early
stages thus stakeholders gain rich information and reduce risks. Outputs from this
stage models also include lean construction principles, policies and life cycle costs.
Network-based integration stage suggests a possible way of concurrent construction
(24) when there is a strong integration of all project activities, and simultaneous
planning of all aspects of design, construction and operation thus leading to value
increase and constructability as well as operability optimization.
Because of the fact that BIM represents multiple kinds of geometry and relations
as well as attributes and properties for different behaviours it is very important
to pass data between applications smoothly and be able to jointly contribute to
the project work with multiple applications. The most important data exchange
is between a so called BIM platform, which is a main information model, and a
set of tools, which are used to support data and construction analysis in various
aspects such as structural analysis or scheduling and cost estimate. To proceed
that exchange it is necessary to translate portions of existing data on BIM platform
into the format readable by the specific tool. Commonly, the translation from the
BIM platform to any tool is one way, because receiving tools lack design data or
rules in order to update the platform’s building model, therefore tools inform the
responsible party for BIM platform and then the original model is updated. In
some cases the updates can be generated automatically such as eliminating errors
in response to clash detection or setting design changes closest to the project goal.
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28. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Altogether there are three types of BIM data exchanges:
• Platform to tool exchange
• Tool to tool exchange
• Platform to platform exchange
First type of exchanges is the most crucial form of interoperability and is supported
by direct application-to-application exchange or by sharing neutral exchange for-
mats such as IFC. This type of exchanges, however may be complex because of
lack in automated translation, hence the future goal would be to have a robust au-
tomatic translation from design oriented models which will require less interactive
manual translation and application for specific use. Tool-to-tool exchanges are less
complicated and easier to perform, but nevertheless they are more limited due to
available data limitation within the exporting tool. As an example can be transla-
tion of quantity take-off to cost estimation, where BIM data extracted for quantity
take-off may have multiple potential uses not only for cost estimate, but also for
scheduling or material purchase and tracking (25). Or for example lightweight geom-
etry view exported by such tool as Autodesk®
Design Review can not be edited and
later implemented into the main BIM model. Third type, platform-to-platform ex-
changes are quite challenging nowadays, because such BIM platforms as ArchiCAD®
or Revit®
incorporate not only an extensive variety of data, but also incorporate
their own rules regarding objects management thus supporting only limited similar-
ity of the rule sets. It means that even the same wall object in different platforms
may have distinct application of those rules. A standardized set of rules would be a
solution for exchange of parametric models. Another, more general issue regarding
interoperability is to adjust or customize the information model so that it could
represent the design for different uses.
There is a shared boundary across which two separate components of a computer
system exchange information. It is called an interface and in computing it means
that there can be the exchange between software, hardware, peripheral devices,
people or combinations of the mentioned ones. Likewise principle works in BIM.
The interfaces provide capability to modify, check, delete or export the building
model as well as import and adapt the received information. In BIM product
modelling technologies and schemas are based on public domain interfaces such as
Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), and CIMsteel Integration Standard, version 2
(CIS/2), as well as ISO-151296 for lifetime modelling of process plants (25). For
BIM 3D object based formats and the IFC building data model is of the highest
importance. The common 3D object based exchange formats in AEC applications
is shown in Table 2.1.
The purpose of data exchange has a significant importance for advanced BIM users.
With time the richness of data about the building is growing together with types
of information represented within properties, object types and relations. Therefore
it is not just enough to accurately translate the exchanged data, but also filter
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29. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Table 2.1: Common 3D object based exchange formats in AEC applications.
3D Object exchange formats Description
STP, EXP, CIS/2, IFC Product data model formats represent geom-
etry according to the 2D or 3D types rep-
resented; they as well carry object type in-
formation with relevant properties and rela-
tions. These formats are the richest in infor-
mation content
the needed information and keep its quality (25). For that reason the best solution
would be to have a single software which would be capable to provide functionality as
several separate software since gaining interoperability of different software systems
is easier than asking all construction project teams work with the same software
platform.
ISO-STEPs are one of the basic and earliest exchange models and based on this
technology the following construction product representations defined in the EX-
PRESS language have been developed (25):
• AP 225 - Building Elements using Explicit Shape Representation. This is
the building oriented product data model, which deals with the exchange of
building geometry. Europe is the main user of it as an alternative to DXF
(Drawing eXchange Format).
• IFC - Industry Foundation Classes. This is an industry developed product
data model for building life cycle. It is supported by most software companies
and buildingSMART.
• CIS/2 - CimSteel Integration Standard, Version 2. This is also industry de-
veloped standard for structural steel engineering and fabrication. It is widely
used and supported in United States and United Kingdom.
• AP 241 - Generic Model for Life Cycle Support of AEC Facilities. It mainly
apply to industrial facilities and develops a product data model for factories
and their components using fully compatible ISO-STEP format.
• ISO 15926 - A STEP standard for industrial automation systems and integra-
tion. It is developed for integration of life cycle data for process plants such
as gas and oil production facilities. Naturally the objects are 4D in this ex-
change format, because there is involved continuous maintenance. ISO 15926
is composed of seven parts that include information related to engineering,
construction and operation as well as data model and reference data, geometry
and topology, and implementation methods of distributed systems.
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30. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
2.5.3 Industry Foundation Class
The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) specification is a neutral and open data
format intended to describe and share an extensible set of consistent AEC industry
data (26). IFC is the international standard for openBIM developed by buildingS-
MART and it is registered officially as ISO 16739:2013. Furthermore, it is object
based file format and was designed as an extensible framework model (25), thus it
is a often used as a communication format in BIM based projects. IFC focus is on
better interoperability between project teams and at the moment in Denmark the
use of IFC format is compulsory for public construction projects.
IFC framework model has a purpose to provide general definitions of objects and
related data which can be used later for more detailed and more specific task re-
lated models and their exchange. IFC is designed to cover the whole life cycle of
the building project including design (analysis and simulations), construction and
building maintenance (occupancy and operations). In March 2013 the newest IFC4
(formerly IFC2x4) version was released and in 2014 IFC4 Addendum 1 for minor
updates to be incorporated for official IFC4 Model View Definitions. It contains
now 768 entities (data objects), 410 property sets and 130 defined data types. It is
also translated into six languages that include English, German, French, Japanese,
Korean and Chinese. These numbers reflect the richness of building information,
including multiple systems, ranging from energy analysis and cost estimation to
material tracking and scheduling.
Figure 2.6 represents the architecture of IFC data schemas. At the bottom are the
resource definition data schemas which consist of supporting data structures. It in-
clude the base reusable constructs such as Actors, Geometry, Materials, Measures,
Presentations, Properties, Quantities, Topology etc. The core data schemas create
the most general layer within IFC schema architecture and provide structure, rela-
tionships and the common concepts for all further specializations in specific models.
All entities derived in this layer have unique identification, name, description and
change control information. The shared element data schemas define objects that
are commonly used in AEC industry. It include shared building elements such as
generic wall, floors and structural elements, as well as shared management, facilities,
component and services elements. And at the top level of IFC data schemas are the
domain specific data schemas which contain final specialization of entities. These
schemas organize definitions according to industry disciplines and deal with specific
entities needed for a particular use. It include structural architecture, elements and
structural analysis, construction management, electrical and plumbing, HVAC as
well as building control domains.
Any objects in BIM used in exchange are laying within a complex entity definition
tree. Each branch of the tree has different attributes and relations to the object
entity. For instance, one of the most abstract and root class for all IFC entity
definitions is IfcRoot. It assigns the globally unique ID, additionally it can provide
for a name and a description about the concept. Furthermore, there is included
history and ownership, and merge state what gives the revision control. An IfcOb-
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31. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.6: IFC data schemas. Source (26)
jectDefinition is the concept of any semantically treated object or process. Objects
are independent pieces of information that also can have relationships in which ob-
ject can be involved. It may assign other objects, associate to external resources,
create spatial relation or location within a context. IfcProduct is a geometric or
spatial representation of any object, and with subtypes of IfcProduct a shape and
an object placement within the project structure can be represented. IfcElement
provides generalization of all components that make up an AEC product and they
can be located at a certain level of project structure hierarchy (site, building, storey
or space).
In order to exchange alphanumeric information attached to building elements and
components as well as spaces the IFC property sets are used (26). However, alphanu-
meric information is depending on life cycle stage, discipline, region and building
regulations thus it is almost impossible to make internationally standardized at-
tributes. Property Set Definitions (PSD) are intent to standardized a basic set
of properties, therefore other property sets can be defined regionally or upon the
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32. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
project agreements. As an example the following property set definitions specific to
IfcColumn are: Reference, Slope, Roll, IsExternal, ThermalTransmittance, Load-
Bearing, FireRating.
The amount of information to be exchanged within the AEC industry is huge, but
with the years the IFC coverage in representing building design, engineering and
production information increases. In an IFC model, the application-defined objects
are linked with relevant object type, geometry, properties and relations as well.
Furthermore, it can contain process objects for representing the way to construct
the elements, also both geometry and input analysis, and result properties (25).
IFC geometry covers most of design and construction needs. It was designed for
exchanging simple parametric models such as wall or other extruded shapes, but
unfortunately such information as rules and constraints are difficult to exchange.
With relations one object is linked with another, for example a wall element and
its relation with windows and doors. This is a complex area thus there are updates
for relation structures with every new IFC release. Properties define the element’s
material, its type of performance and contextual properties such as wind or weather
as well as geological data. In IFC there are collected property sets for most of
common building objects, and in addition many properties can be associated with
material behaviour. Yet there are some shortages such as tolerance of measurements
that makes hard to represent the uncertainty, but for that case there is left freedom
to adjust it manually by agreements. Furthermore, spaces are also not standardized
and require special editing in order to perform complete building analyses. There are
also functional limitations applied to structural elements and mechanical systems.
As the information is supposed to be used over time and be manageable, therefore
IFC provides information ownership, tracking of changes, controls and approvals
(25). It also can define constraints and objectives for describing purpose, but IFC is
quite weak in providing the details for fabrication and manufacturing. Nevertheless,
there is left space for improvements and it may be included in more detailed IFC
product schemas.
2.5.4 Model View Definition and Information Delivery Man-
ual
One of the most important aspect of IFC schema subsets are a task-related ex-
changes. These exchanges are called model views that are taken from concept of a
database view. As an example would be the architectural model exported for struc-
tural analysis, or building element exported for fabrication coordination. Model
View Definitions (MVD) identify what should be expected for an exchange to be
effective (25). With help of MVD the party who is exporting the information knows
what is and what is not required, and on the other end the receiver knows what can
be expected and how to act based on what he receives. Furthermore, MVD defines
what has to be applied in order to have aligned export and import, it eliminates
mismatches regarding assumptions. The thing is that MVD is supposed to respond
to essential needs in building procurement and do it better than IFC interoperabil-
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33. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
ity. The goal is to define as well the handover specifications for different phases of
construction project and that would specify milestone handover. In consequence
design team would know what they are supposed to deliver to construction phase,
and construction team to operation. There are attempts to define those steps by
Construction Operations Building information exchange (COBie).
The way MVD is implemented starts with programming. At this step an industry-
based group is identified and formed in order to define the needed exchanges based
on model views. To be implemented those exchanges need to be specified in suffi-
cient detail to be translated into IFC constructs which will be used later. Business
Process Modelling Notation (BPMN) was used by buildingSMART for creating and
defining Information Delivery Manual (IDM). It implements clear way to describe
activities and the information flows between activities within so called process map.
A typical process map display set of information exchanges (Figure 2.7). Usually
such map defines a set of tasks and exchanges specified for handling of some par-
ticular project element. In the rows are identified disciplines participating in the
exchange process and the exchange fields between disciplines that organize and
group exchanges. The columns identify project phases within which the activities
are described. The intersection of proper discipline and phase identifies the context
of exchange. All the activities have more extensive descriptions. They can be it-
erative or may contain high level description made up of a set of activities defined
separately and hierarchically. Information exchanges can proceed in two forms: first
form can be building model exchange, second form can be reports represented as
text or even as voice messages. And these exchanges can be either one-way, when
the return information is in a form of comments and suggestions, or two-way, when
the return information is in a form of proposed changes. The final outcome of this
step is a report, that identifies a set of exchanges and specifies their content from
the user’s perspective (25).
Second step to implement MVD is a design phase. At this moment the identified
exchange requirements in the aforementioned report are structured into a set of in-
formation modules that stand as the exchange units. Now IT specialists collaborate
with the domain experts of the first step. The concepts that are the crucial part
of the Model View are identified. Having the concepts limits the possible informa-
tion waste, cutting the amount of repeated model constructs for geometry or links
between elements and assemblies, as well as minimizing repeated specifications and
implementations. Concepts are made in a hierarchical way of structure starting with
user defined Exchange Models, breaking down to modular units of implementation
binding. Great aspect of concepts is that they are available for public use and can
be reused (25). The result of design phase is a specified implementation and the
way how the properties have to be managed, giving the software implementation
specification of a Model View Definition.
Third step concerns the implementation of the Model Views by software companies.
Testing of files containing information specified previously by MVD for import and
export is performed. This process is usually called Model View Validation and
assessed for all varied conditions that MVD is supposed to support. The testing of
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34. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.7: IDM Process Map of information exchange. Adopted from source
(25)
concepts and complete model views can be made on Web site hosted by Institute
for Advanced Building Informatics at Technical University in Munich that is the
Global Testing Documentation Server. It serves as a validation and certification
test site.
The final step is about deployment and use of the MVD. It involves guidelines that
specify the model views and the way how its components should be modelled within
a particular BIM tool. It afterwards defines for users what they need to do in order
to prepare models to carry required information in exchange. As the final result
the MVD contains structural analysis exchange, transfer of as-built data to facility
operations site planning, code compliance, quantity take-off etc (25). And also the
promising side of MVD implementation is that it can be modularized using previous
definitions and that can lead to easier future implementation.
Briefly, with help of MVD the software implementers know which IFC elements
to use and how the implementation should operate as well as what are expected
results. And also Model View Definitions define coherent and specific part of the
IFC implementation for a particular use or application type. On the other hand,
IDM defines which information and when to share at the users level. Thus it
defines detailed user information exchange requirements. The whole structure of
IDM consists of the process maps, exchange requirements, and functional parts
and business rules. Given these points, the functional breakdown of the building
construction process is provided.
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35. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
2.5.5 Classification
In such a vast industry as AEC it is not just enough to deal only with data structures
that represent geometry, relations and attributes which are provided by IFC. It is
also important to have conventional way of naming those attributes in an interna-
tional aspect. For that reason there are plenty of attempts providing classification of
construction information and creating BIM related standards. There is the Interna-
tional Framework for Dictionaries (IFD) that deals with mapping of terms between
different languages for the purpose of wide use in building models and interfaces
(27). Furthermore, IFD develops standards for building product specifications to
be able to use them later in different utilization fields such as energy analysis or
cost estimation.
Another classification system for the construction industry is the OmniClass Con-
struction Classification System developed by the International Construction Infor-
mation Society and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It
consists of 15 tables (see Table 2.2) that are useful for many applications in the
area of Building Information Modelling starting with organizing library materials,
product literature and project information and continuing to providing classifica-
tion structure for electronic databases (28). The main objective of OmniClass is to
Table 2.2: The 15 interrelated OmniClass tables
Table 11 Construction Entities by Function
Table 12 Construction Entities by Form
Table 13 Spaces by Function
Table 14 Spaces by Form
Table 21 Elements
Table 22 Work Results
Table 23 Products
Table 24 Phases
Table 32 Services
Table 33 Disciplines
Table 34 Organizational Roles
Table 35 Tools
Table 36 Information
Table 41 Materials
Table 49 Properties
provide a standardized basis for classifying information created and used in North
American AEC industry, throughout the life cycle of the facility, starting from con-
ception and to reuse or demolition, and contain all the information about different
types of constructions in the built environment.
Another an information exchange specifications for the life cycle capture of the
construction projects is a Construction Operations Building information exchange
(COBie). COBie defines the methodology for collecting information throughout
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36. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
design and construction processes and it basically delivers the needed information
for the facility managers (29). This specification attempts to reduce the waste
related to the current paper process at each phase of the project. It is required to
provide space layout, system list, type and location of equipment by the designer.
Construction team adds the equipment model and make as well as serial number,
also gives manufacturer literature, warranty and replacement parts information.
At the commissioning phase the job plan data with related tools, training and
equipment requirements are provided.
In Denmark there is a cuneco - centre for productivity in construction. It is a de-
velopment project which develops common standards for digitalized cooperation in
construction through enhanced exchange of information throughout the whole con-
struction process (30). It is aiming to be user friendly and compatible with national
as well as international standards. The focus area of cuneco does not only comply
with classification, but it also includes property data, level of information and mea-
surement rules. Cuneco classification system (CCS) provides common ground for a
clear communication throughout building process from the initial idea to operation
and maintenance. Each construction project starts with CCS levels of informa-
tion to determine who supply which data and when. Building model elements and
spaces are assigned with classification and has an unique id. Id can show element’s
location and relation to other building elements. Furthermore, properties such as
dimensions, colour, material, U-value, acoustic as well as fire rating can be added
to each element. Then the same data concepts flow through different project teams
that perform various analysis. Data within the each element can tell everyone where
to place that element and how to install it correctly. At the final stage of construc-
tion project during the handover the necessary data is provided for the client for
the daily operation of the building.
Last one specification tool for BIM that is worth to mention is a NBS Create. It
covers architecture, landscape, structural and building services content, giving the
opportunity to the project team to create a single, integrated specification (31).
It specify construction products in both ways generically and through manufactur-
ing and product reference. It uses a NBS National BIM Library which contains a
comprehensive collection of BIM objects. Moreover, there is integrated NBS Plus
service that provides product catalogues and specification clauses, as well as list
of manufacturers with related information. All the elements are linked to different
products that creates the entire system and they also can be edited by performing
some manual specification decisions. There is also included technical guidance box
that provides expert guidance and links to standards and industry sources. Manu-
facturers specifications contain relevant information for that particular manufacture
product, it also provides product catalogues, standard features with high quality,
well structured technical information, product options and training or installation
guidance. NBS Create also works within a time line so you can start by writing out-
line specifications, performance specifications and document contractor decisions.
The output from this software can be exported to COBie format.
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37. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
2.5.6 Lenses and filters
Having so much of information and data in Building Information Models requires
a specific way of sorting and obtaining what is necessary. In order to ease this
process there are developed highlighting and filtering tools that help to investigate
data inquiry and domain analysis (17). BIM lenses generate knowledge views by
abstracting the BIM domain and controlling its complexity by removing unnecessary
data. Lenses are deployed from the investigator’s side of view, thus it highlight all
observables with required attribute or criteria that meet inquiry. It helps to focus
on any aspect of construction project. On the other hand, filters are developed from
the data side and they simply remove observables which do not meet the inquiry
criteria thus leaving only observables with required values or attributes.
In order to generate a knowledge view can be applied three types of lenses and
filters:
• Disciplinary
• Scoping
• Conceptual
First, disciplinary lenses use fields of knowledge to generate BIM views and then
using a filter of the same discipline leaves only related data to that discipline. For
instance, using data management disciplinary BIM lens can be accompanied with
disciplinary BIM filters which are data standards, security, flows etc. In this way
two clearly different knowledge views can be created since data management lens
highlights data flows and controls whereas a data flow filter will show only ex-
changed file types. Alternatively knowledge management lens highlights knowledge
acquisition, representation or transfer while representation filter will isolate specific
information transfers. Second, scoping lenses consider separately the knowledge
view by changing its level of detail in the set of data and scoping filters sort out
unwanted information. There can be excluded three complexity levels of lenses: a
macroscopic lens provides wide coverage of certain data but low in detail, it can be
data flow at industry breadth level; a mesoscopic lens provides medium focus area
and detail and it can be data flow at organizational level; a microscopic lens pro-
vides narrow focus area but with high level in details, for example showing the role
of data within a team. Third, conceptual lenses and filters are based on BIM ontol-
ogy (17) including four high level knowledge objects such as concepts, attributes,
relations and knowledge views. Basically BIM ontology is used for generation of
communication language and interoperability between project participants.
As we know within each 3D discipline model developed in the project lays significant
amount of the geometry information and other data which need to be used to
maximum advantage. For that reason there are BIM tools for information retrieval
and management. With those tools it is more convenient to select exact information
and linked data, and use it for achieving better results in a project.
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38. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Walter P Moore
Walter P Moore (WPM) is a consulting engineering company in the United States.
They provide "WPM - Facility Management Plugin" application which is currently
using the Autodesk Navisworks platform. It is BIM to FIM (Facilities Information
Management) system which provides a "Visual Bridge" between computerized main-
tenance management systems (CMMS) and BIM models. Users can simply select a
model component in order to activate the BIM-FIM data retrieval service (Figure
2.8). They immediately receive general and detailed Asset Information. Such gen-
eral information tells asset’s serial and control numbers, condition and location, as
well as asset’s description and specification class etc.
Figure 2.8: WPM - Facility Management Plugin. Source (32)
Furthermore, virtual walk-through option can be used in order to enhance visibility
on the location of equipment and components in the facility. For better observation
of equipment and other system components, users can visually isolate them and as
well to learn more about their information. Clicking on the element recovers data
from CMMS system and it can be extracted in real time and also users have direct
access to the CMMS system for better comprehension.
WPM can combine all different discipline models into a single virtual model of
a project. Then comprehensive and structured clash detection can be performed.
Their BIM execution planning ensures that the necessary design and construction
information is included in an "as-built" 3D model. Components within this 3D
model are linked with the owner’s legacy CMMS. With point and click facility
managers can access to a variety of information about facility components such
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39. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
as component’s manufacturer, maintenance schedule, instructions, design drawings
and assembly diagrams, work order entries and plenty of other potential options
(32).
Solibri Model Checker
Another great tool to filter and manage information within BIM models is Solibri
Model Checker (SMC). Despite its wonderful ability to analyse BIM models for
integrity, quality and physical security, SMC enables easy and instant information
takeoff. Within the software lay multiple report templates that suit different disci-
plines and there is as well a possibility to create your own one. Solibri Inc. itself
states such possibilities regarding information takeoff and its reporting (33):
• Calculates basic quantities: dimensions, areas and volumes.
• Customizable listing functionality.
• Lists any properties for any set of components.
• Listing is integrated with 3D view with visualization and zoom-in functional-
ity.
• Customizable report templates and possibility to use Excel functions with
them.
At Information Takeoff (ITO) layout user can capture the information from the
BIM file and use it for his purposes. ITO layout consists of Model Tree that allows
user to navigate through the model’s levels (floors), Classification view that allows
to define the classes of model elements, Selection Basket that allows to work with
selected spaces or elements, Info view that provides all the information within each
element, 3D view for visualization of model and its components, with walk-through
and zoom-in options, and Information Takeoff view where the actual information
takeoff is done.
Making information takeoff starts with choosing classification (Figure 2.9) depend-
ing on the user’s role and preferences. In fact depending on what kind of components
user is dealing with he can set different filters or rules, for example choosing that
elements of the certain type would belong to some particular class. Then choosing
the Information Takeoff definition which describes what user can do with an Infor-
mation Takeoff. "Building Element Quantities" definition allows to report quantities
of building components, or "Spaces" definition reports space areas by their usage
type. Those definitions can be manually modified or added new ones regarding the
user’s needs.
Running the information takeoff there are two possibilities: first, to capture the
information of the entire model, or second, it is possible to take information only
from the part of model that the user decides. For example, looking only at one
floor of the entire building. As well in the Information Takeoff it is very simple just
to choose the element that user needs and see its information and location in the
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40. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.9: Solibri Model Checker. Classifications.
model, or just examine that element isolated it from the rest of the model (Figure
2.10). SMC provides as well great information filtering, where components can be
grouped by type or location, or other specified property. Moreover, by selecting
some particular components they are highlighted and seen at once in the 3D view.
After selecting the necessary information the report can be easily exported to the
Excel spreadsheet.
Furthermore, Solibri Model Checker is a great tool for space management. User can
run through the spaces within the model locating its place and receiving related
information such as area, room height or volume, as well as floor and zone. Spaces
can be filtered and sorted out depending on space usage or location, or any other
criteria.
VICO Software
Yet another wonderful solution to manage information flow through a construction
project is provided by Vico Office (VO). VO is structured in a modular way creating
a tightly integrated 5D BIM workflow. Vico software connects different disciplines
of construction project and enables data flow between them and data reuse. 5D
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41. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.10: Solibri Model Checker. Isolating element of the building.
BIM model simply means incorporating 3D design, scheduling data ,and estimating
data. Furthermore, this model is dynamic and responds to changes in the design
and on-site.
Information flow starts with creation of 3D models and it can be done in many
different applications since Vico Office supports Revit, ArchiCAD, AutoCAD Ar-
chitecture and AutoCAD MEP, Tekla, as well as IFC files, SketchUp files and CAD-
Duct files, and even 3D DWG files. With Vico Office Document Controller during
the design phase general contractors can quickly handle change management tasks
that back in the years would require many hours to do it manually: (1) compare 2D
drawing sets in order to find changes between the versions; (2) compare 3D model
versions to find changes; (3) compare the contract documents to the coordinated
3D models. System of comparing the drawings and models is of two simple types:
colour coded with slider bar (Figure 2.11) and highlighting mode (Figure 2.12).
In colour coded method green means no changes detected and red means detected
changes. Another great feature in the highlighting mode is the ability to filter and
show only the modified or new elements of the project to see on which parts the
project team was working on since last review or discussion. After the BIM models
are done they are combined and checked for constructability and clash detection
in Vico Office Constructability Manager. If there are some issues that can not be
solved then they are built in RFI and tracked through the project data flow.
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42. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.11: Vico Office Document Controller. Slider mode (Source (34))
Valid and coordinated models can be used for identification for the critical points
for the project with Vico Office Layout Manager. The information from the model
can be exported as *.csv file by the project engineers and sent to the construction
site. Reverse information flow works as well to compare as-built conditions to the
original design.
Use of Vico Office Takeoff Manager allows quick and highly accurate extraction of
location-based quantities from BIM models. Each takeoff item contains a defined
set of construction-caliber quantities for cost estimate and scheduling. Due to the
fact that quantity takeoff is interconnected with 3D models any changes within
them or newly activated model versions would automatically update the quantities.
Another great option in Takeoff Manager is to highlight or isolate 3D elements in
BIM model based on properties such as type or location and thus have the relevant
data. Furthermore, within Vico Office environment takeoff data can be used in Vico
Office Cost Planner and Vico Office Schedule Planner. Cost estimate is continuous
throughout the project as level of detail increases. Besides, Cost Explorer can be
used to determine which decisions may influence the budget and schedule the most.
Moreover, Vico Office LBS Manager allows to create Location Breakdown Struc-
ture that define location structures in the BIM models. That means BIM model can
be subdivided in any combination of floors and zones and thus optimize locations
for schedule and cost planning. Then by optimizing the project locations, apply-
ing sequencing logic, including crew size, allocating resources, setting productivity
rates the model-based schedule can be produced with Vico Office Schedule Plan-
ner. Combination of estimated quantities, locations and productivity rates creates
accurate and clear schedules that allow users using the Flowline view (Figure 2.13)
visually identify conflicts, manage task buffers and communicate on a single page.
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43. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.12: Vico Office Document Controller. Highlight mode (Source (34))
At the stage of construction on site project team can use Vico Office Production
Controller in order to control actual progress of the project schedule. Use of Produc-
tion Controller allows to identify schedule problems early on, analyse their impact
on the overall project schedule and apply appropriate actions to solve them. The
state of the project is presented in coloured control chart (Figure 2.14) where the
percent completeness for each location is identified. Moreover, it also allows to
obtain the subcontractors promised vs actual productivity data which is stored in
the Standard 5D Library that contains collection of activities required to construct
each building element and the sequence in which these activities are performed.
Then using average productivity rates and standard formulas labour and material
resource requirements can be derived for each project.
On the whole, in the AEC industry are emerging more and more such solutions
for model-based information management that enhance and optimize construction
project process. RIB iTWO solution for construction planning and execution is
quite similar to Vico Office by providing model information to the design team,
engineers, planners, estimators and construction execution team in every phase of
the project. Where the breakdown structure can be applied as well letting model
user to subdivide the whole building project in smaller, manageable parts such
as substructure, superstructure, finishes, fittings, services etc. All the mentioned
BIM tools share as well the same option to let the users to view and observe the
3D model from any possible position and angle or perspective, what gives a great
overview. And to facilitate decision making process more, users can easily filter
objects and see their attributes. Then furthermore considering connecting owners
with designers and builders, likewise there is VEO platform by M-SIX that provides
environment for better project collaboration and transfer of BIM information to
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44. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.13: Vico Office Schedule Planner. Flowline view (Source (34))
facility management. Thus newest solutions realize and implement progressively
more of BIM promises.
2.5.7 Level of detail
It is not just enough to have rich information in the project, but that information
moreover needs to be planned to support the decision making. But at what stage
of the project what information is needed may lay within the versions of models
and its level of detail (LOD). LOD defines the specificity required for a particular
element at a particular stage of the project. Further it helps to specify BIM deliv-
erables and have a clear picture of what will be included in them, what information
and detail is provided at a given time in the project. Nevertheless, the BIMForum
organization declares that LOD should rather be interpreted as Level of Develop-
ment, which describes the degree to which the particular element’s geometry and
information attached to it has been thought through (35). Furthermore, they have
a nice description of each of six fundamental LOD definitions which are shortly
presented as following:
• LOD 100, where the model element is graphically represented in the model
with a symbol or other generic representation.
• LOD 200, where the model element is graphically represented as a generic
system or object containing approximate quantities, dimensions, location and
orientation. Non-graphic information can be attached.
• LOD 300, where the model element is graphically represented as a specific
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45. 2.5. Information flow with BIM
Figure 2.14: Vico Office Production Controller. Control chart (Source (34))
system or object in terms of quantity, dimensions, location and orientation.
Non-graphic information can be attached.
• LOD 350, where the model element is graphically represented as a specific
system or object in terms of quantity, dimensions, location, orientation and
interfaces with other building systems. Non-graphic information can be at-
tached.
• LOD 400, where the model element is graphically represented as a specific
system or object in terms of quantity, dimensions, location and orientation
as well as detailing, fabrication, assembly and installation information. Non-
graphic information can be attached.
• LOD 500, where the model element is a field verified representation in terms
of quantity, dimensions, location and orientation. Non-graphic information
can be attached.
And then the whole list of tables of LOD specifications for each construction ele-
ment defining what information should be presented within it at different levels of
development is introduced in document called "Level of Development Specification
for Building Information Models, 2015" (35). In order to easier manage the content
of the specification it is divided in seven fundamental building parts containing its
relevant attributes: substructure, shell, interiors, services, equipment and furnish-
ing, special construction and demolition, building site-work.
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46. 2.6. Information quality evaluation
In order to create a BIM model in the consistent way by combining all the data
from different disciplines the Model Progression Specification (MPS) is used. MPS
is structured in a way where each building element categories are listed with cor-
responding level of detail to be achieved at a certain phase of the project. It helps
to define on which area of the project to focus at the certain stage. Usually, as an
example, at the early stages project team focus on substructure and superstructure
and in MPS it would be defined that model does not need such a detailed informa-
tion in order to analyse the structural system, therefore the level of detail would be
comparatively low, but as the project develops and requirements are increasing thus
LOD increases as well. However, not all design parts of the project are developing
at the same pace thus some systems in the project can be developed earlier than
others, but that is not a problem as long as project team understand upfront which
point in time certain LOD is going to be achieved by each discipline. To sump up,
MPS enables to achieve a successful implementation and use of BIM models with
associated estimates and schedules. This collaborative effort tells what each project
member needs to provide, at what point and at what level of detail as well.
2.6 Information quality evaluation
In construction industry to make a rational decision is not just enough to get all
the structured and arranged information. Instead, decision maker has to be sure
that he has received a correct and a high quality information. To achieve that, the
information has to be evaluated. And to do the evaluation may be challenging if
there is no way or a template how to carry out this procedure.
It is possible to find some initiations of making that process achievable. For example,
the more recent format of the COBie2, that is an internationally harmonized version
of the aforementioned buildingSMART initiative COBie format. It consists of fifteen
quality assessment measures that is expected to evaluate the value and quality of
COBie2 information (see Table 2.15). The delivered data is assessed in graduated
reply defining adequate, good and excellent compliance. These graduations were
arranged to reflect the time likely to be needed to set right any flaws (36).
As Glenn Llopis states in his article on "6 Reasons Leaders Make Bad Decisions"
in Forbes (37), one of the reasons why decision makers end up with bad decisions
is an ineffective understanding of the resources at their disposal. In this case that
would be the received information and thus decision makers need access to the
right information. Therefore, such type as COBie2 Quality Assessment or similar
evaluation of information would help to make decisions that have less tendency to
end up bad.
During construction phase in order to verify and track on-site activities BIM can be
used as well. It is possible to use the building model to validate that some actual
construction activities match those defined in the model (25). But even if the model
is as accurate as possible there is still space for human errors during installation
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47. 2.6. Information quality evaluation
Figure 2.15: COBie2 Quality Assessment. Taken from website of National
Institute of Building Science
and therefore these flaws must be tracked as soon as possible. Simple daily field
verification process of daily site walks can be easily combined with model reviews
in order to detect potential errors. One of techniques to support field verification
is a laser scanning technologies. These technologies can be used to verify the exact
location and dimensions of building element. As well the full laser scan of the
structure can be performed, point cloud data collected and uploaded into the BIM
system for later use and overview.
To link and keep up to date information at construction site may be possible with
global positioning systems (GPS). Information from the building model can be
delivered to field workers by managing through the coordination of GPS and BIM.
It enables to find related information based on location. Moreover, having in mind
high quality it is always associates with keeping track and up-to-date of information.
This is possible with Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system. It enables
tracking of component delivery and installation on-site, referred in BIM it can
automatically update work status and provide feedback on construction progress.
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48. 2.7. Socio-technical aspect
2.7 Socio-technical aspect
People and technologies are the prime aspects of desirable information flow, but to
make it work together sometimes throws a considerable challenge. Usually technolo-
gies have almost unlimited capacity to span and store information whereas people
are capable to understand a limited amount of it. It is so because the information
is limited based on person’s values and mental model. That means that different
people can perceive information differently because of their diverse frame of refer-
ences which process received information according awareness and importance for
a particular person. Nevertheless, people can glean insight from data better and
faster if it is presented in visual format rather than textual or numerical (10). And
still no matter how modern interaction and data request capabilities are, people
may spend a significant amount of time on deciding what data is available and
needs to be utilized.
In order to achieve success in a construction project the information should be man-
aged with respect to proper social and technical integration. Its purpose to create
an environment where the value of individual contribution concerning the project
goals would be emphasized, where responsibilities and discipline are maintained and
fairly distributed leading to clear and persistent goals, and where mental models of
other team members is known and links between them and the project are provided
(9). To easier achieve that needs to be considered having skills and competencies
in technical knowledge area for the purpose of understanding the scope of project.
Furthermore social awareness and emotional intelligence helps to identify relation
between team members and relevant information as well as awareness of principles
how various tools and processes affect information flow and could be used wisely.
Furthermore, for a smooth flow of information there are several factors that affects
the interactions (9). Combination of key factors such as trust and commitment
influences a persons values and vision towards the project. It affects how members
view each other in the project team as well as understanding their own role which
impacts their willingness to put effort and interest in the project. Another combina-
tion of key factors which are learning and common understanding forms a person’s
mental model. It describes how a person assesses new information and links it to
his existing knowledge and also how person categorizes and arranges information
for the project.
Inasmuch as BIM is not only a software or tool, but it is an ongoing process that
involves human activities. Therefore, new roles and skills are under development.
Now for architects is not enough to create a design, but therefore to develop a well
defined model that can support different assessments. The tendency is that each
project member needs to have knowledge not only within his field, but alongside
know things from surrounding disciplines. But to assist this new way of project
collaboration and execution, new management roles are evolving such as BIM and
ICT coordination. Well, sometimes technologies and new solutions are developing
much faster than the understanding, adoption and catch-up by the rest of the AEC
industry. BIM also creates a new pattern for project collaboration and management
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49. 2.7. Socio-technical aspect
that was different before. It includes new approaches and techniques that must be
accepted in the construction projects by everyone. However, it is not just enough
to understand the current capabilities but future trends and their impacts as well
in order to adopt the BIM.
It must be realized that building process that is facilitated by BIM requires the
integrated participation of the whole construction project team. Therefore, all
members of project team have valuable input for design and construction. The
whole information input has to be accessible, therefore visualization of it is a must,
thus interaction information workspaces (25) are developed where project members
can easily interact and follow the project information model. So in order to fully
exploit the technological promises of the BIM project members and as well owners
must be well disciplined and familiar with potential uses.
To sum up, technological progress will open new possibilities to exploit and compose
the new intelligence. The complex information workflows will be facilitated as
well. The model information will be available widely throughout the project and
accessible to everyone. Therefore, grater use of it will produce more accurate and
faster construction. But still to achieve the aforementioned goals requires overcome
challenges regarding technical feasibility, regulation, legal and liability, as well as
employment and education change management.
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51. Chapter 3
Methodology
First of all, comprehensive literature review was performed in order to get coherent
understanding and knowledge on the topic of this thesis. It was performed based
on many scientific and academic research papers as a common knowledge sources.
Then after collecting enough theory on the topic the idea was to compare and find
out the real situation in construction practice.
Next step was to prepare a questionnaire that would reflect the theoretical aspect of
this thesis and would allow to make a comprehensive analysis of the concurrent AEC
industry state regarding information flow and decision making. The interviews were
supposed to confirm problem statement and provide the approach how to handle
it. The questionnaire was adjusted several times and approved by supervisors.
The choice of companies was based on availability to approach them and their
competence within the industry and BIM implementation.
Then, collected information through the interviews was analysed and compared with
theoretical background. The goal was to see how companies and their managers
cope with information flow and decision making. Besides, the analysis of several
BIM tools for information management and collaboration was performed.
Finally, the results after the interviews allowed to make thorough discussion and
come up with conclusions. In general, choosing such approach of research allows to
explore the reality from a close look and gather direct information and best practice
from experts within this field of interest.
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52. Methodology
Interview Questions
• What is the usual project organizational structure (roles)?
• Do you feel you make rational decisions?
• Do you think that you receive all the necessary information?
• Do you actually handle the information or you just receive it?
• If you just receive it, then what type of information summary the
decision maker receives? (Format, structure, level of detail, credi-
bility) Organizing the information
• Do you breakdown the information flow in your projects? If yes,
how? Do you have type of data model in your projects? Information
flow tree, how to structurize information
• Maybe there is an issue of information overload?
• Do you perform information filtering and representation for decision
making? If yes, how?
• Do you combine all the relevant data? Combination of new and
existing information? Data grouping
• Do you keep up to date the information? If yes, how? Maybe you
concern creating as-built models?
• Do you ensure the quality of information? Do you perform any
evaluation or quality assessment of it?
• Is there any kind of methodology or template to perform important
decisions?
• What type of tools are used to communicate between different
knowledge areas or to disseminate information across the project
members? Do you see BIM as an information repository and/or in-
formation sharing platform? Means of information flow; is it only project
web, dropbox or similar storage cloud?
• What type of information repositories do you have? Do you con-
sider those repositories for future reuse of information? Capturing of
knowledge
• How do you deal with Request for Information (RFI)?
• What challenges occur when making decisions in huge construction
projects?
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