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Human Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 2 Biochemistry
- 1. Human
Anatomy
& Physiology
SEVENTH EDITION
Elaine N. Marieb
Katja Hoehn
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides
prepared by Vince Austin,
Bluegrass Technical
and Community College
C H A P T E R 2Chemistry
P A R T B
Comes Alive
- 2. Biochemistry
Organic compounds
Contain carbon, are covalently bonded, and are
often large
Inorganic compounds
Do not contain carbon
Water, salts, and many acids and bases
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
- 3. Properties of Water
High heat capacity – absorbs and releases large
amounts of heat before changing temperature
High heat of vaporization – changing from a liquid
to a gas requires large amounts of heat
Polar solvent properties – dissolves ionic
substances, forms hydration layers around large
charged molecules, and serves as the body’s major
transport medium
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- 4. Properties of Water
Reactivity – is an important part of hydrolysis and
dehydration synthesis reactions
Cushioning – resilient cushion around certain body
organs
PPLLAAYY InterActive Physiology®:
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid/Base Balance: Introduction to Body Fluids
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- 5. Salts
Inorganic compounds
Contain cations other than H+ and anions other than
OH–
Are electrolytes; they conduct electrical currents
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- 6. Acids and Bases
Acids release H+ and are therefore proton donors
HCl ® H+ + Cl –
Bases release OH– and are proton acceptors
NaOH ® Na+ + OH–
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- 7. Acid-Base Concentration (pH)
Acidic solutions have higher H+ concentration and
therefore a lower pH
Alkaline solutions have lower H+ concentration and
therefore a higher pH
Neutral solutions have equal H+ and OH–
concentrations
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- 8. Acid-Base Concentration (pH)
Acidic: pH 0–6.99
Basic: pH 7.01–14
Neutral: pH 7.00
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Figure 2.13
- 9. Buffers
Systems that resist abrupt and large swings in the
pH of body fluids
Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly releasing
bicarbonate ions and protons
The chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid
and bicarbonate resists pH changes in the blood
PPLLAAYY InterActive Physiology®:
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid/Base Balance: Acid/Base Homeostasis
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
- 10. Organic Compounds
Molecules unique to living systems contain carbon
and hence are organic compounds
They include:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
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- 11. Carbohydrates
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Their major function is to supply a source of
cellular food
Examples:
Monosaccharides or simple sugars
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Figure 2.14a
- 12. Carbohydrates
Disaccharides or double sugars
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Figure 2.14b
PPLLAAYY Disaccharides
- 13. Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides or polymers of simple sugars
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Figure 2.14c
PPLLAAYY Polysaccharides
- 14. Lipids
Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of oxygen
in lipids is less than in carbohydrates
Examples:
Neutral fats or triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eicosanoids
PPLLAAYY Fats
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- 15. Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol
molecule
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Figure 2.15a
- 16. Other Lipids
Phospholipids – modified triglycerides with two
fatty acid groups and a phosphorus group
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Figure 2.15b
- 17. Other Lipids
Steroids – flat molecules with four interlocking
hydrocarbon rings
Eicosanoids – 20-carbon fatty acids found in cell
membranes
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Figure 2.15c
- 18. Representative Lipids Found in the Body
Neutral fats – found in subcutaneous tissue and
around organs
Phospholipids – chief component of cell
membranes
Steroids – cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex
hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
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- 19. Representative Lipids Found in the Body
Fat-soluble vitamins – vitamins A, E, and K
Eicosanoids – prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and
thromboxanes
Lipoproteins – transport fatty acids and cholesterol
in the bloodstream
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- 20. Amino Acids
Building blocks of protein, containing an amino
group and a carboxyl group
Amino group NH2
Carboxyl groups COOH
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- 22. Amino Acids
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Figure 2.16d, e
- 23. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
- 24. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
H
R
H
R
C C
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydration
synthesis
Hydrolysis
Peptide bond
H
Dipeptide
N +
H
C
H
O
N
H
C
H
O H2O
H2O
H
N
H
R
C
C
H
O
N
R
C
C
H
O
OH OH OH
- 25. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
H
R
N +
H
R
C C
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
H
C
H
O
N
H
C
H
O
OH OH
- 26. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
H
R
H
R
C C
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydration
synthesis
N +
H
C
H
O
N
H
C
H
O H2O
OH OH
- 27. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
H
R
H
R
C C
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydration
synthesis
Peptide bond
H
Dipeptide
N +
H
C
H
O
N
H
C
H
O H2O
H
N
H
R
C
C
H
O
N
R
C
C
H
O
OH OH OH
- 28. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Peptide bond
H
Dipeptide
H
N
H
R
C
C
H
O
N
R
C
C
H
O
OH
- 29. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Hydrolysis
Peptide bond
H
Dipeptide
H2O
H
N
H
R
C
C
H
O
N
R
C
C
H
O
OH
- 30. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
H
R
H
R
C C
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Hydrolysis
Peptide bond
H
Dipeptide
N +
H
C
H
O
N
H
C
H
O
H2O
H
N
H
R
C
C
H
O
N
R
C
C
H
O
OH OH OH
- 31. Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
H
R
H
R
C C
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydration
synthesis
Hydrolysis
Peptide bond
H
Dipeptide
N +
H
C
H
O
N
H
C
H
O H2O
H2O
H
N
H
R
C
C
H
O
N
R
C
C
H
O
OH OH OH
- 32. Structural Levels of Proteins
Primary – amino acid sequence
Secondary – alpha helices or beta pleated sheets
PPLLAAYY Chemistry of Life:
Introduction to Protein Structure
PPLLAAYY Chemistry of Life:
Proteins: Primary Structure
PPLLAAYY Chemistry of Life:
Proteins: Secondary Structure
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
- 33. Structural Levels of Proteins
Tertiary – superimposed folding of secondary
structures
Quaternary – polypeptide chains linked together in
a specific manner
PPLLAAYY Chemistry of Life:
Proteins: Tertiary Structure
PPLLAAYY Chemistry of Life:
Proteins: Quaternary Structure
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
- 34. Structural Levels of Proteins
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.18a–c
- 35. Structural Levels of Proteins
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.18b,d,e
- 36. Fibrous and Globular Proteins
Fibrous proteins
Extended and strand-like proteins
Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain
contractile fibers
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- 37. Fibrous and Globular Proteins
Globular proteins
Compact, spherical proteins with tertiary and
quaternary structures
Examples: antibodies, hormones, and enzymes
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- 38. Protein Denuaturation
Reversible unfolding of proteins due to drops in
pH and/or increased temperature
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Figure 2.19a
- 39. Protein Denuaturation
Irreversibly denatured proteins cannot refold and
are formed by extreme pH or temperature changes
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Figure 2.19b
- 40. Molecular Chaperones (Chaperonins)
Help other proteins to achieve their functional
three-dimensional shape
Maintain folding integrity
Assist in translocation of proteins across
membranes
Promote the breakdown of damaged or denatured
proteins
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- 41. Characteristics of Enzymes
Most are globular proteins that act as biological
catalysts
Holoenzymes consist of an apoenzyme (protein)
and a cofactor (usually an ion)
Enzymes are chemically specific
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- 42. Characteristics of Enzymes
Frequently named for the type of reaction they
catalyze
Enzyme names usually end in -ase
Lower activation energy
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- 44. Mechanism of Enzyme Action
Enzyme binds with substrate
Product is formed at a lower activation energy
Product is released
PPLLAAYY How Enzymes Work
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- 45. Active site
Amino acids
Enzyme (E)
Enzyme-substrate
complex (E-S)
Substrates (S)
H2O
Internal rearrangements
leading to catalysis
+
Free enzyme (E)
Peptide bond
Dipeptide product (P)
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21
- 46. Active site
Amino acids
Enzyme (E)
Enzyme-substrate
complex (E-S)
Substrates (S)
H2O
+
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21
- 47. Active site
Amino acids
Enzyme (E)
Enzyme-substrate
complex (E-S)
Substrates (S)
H2O
Internal rearrangements
leading to catalysis
+
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21
- 48. Active site
Amino acids
Enzyme (E)
Enzyme-substrate
complex (E-S)
Substrates (S)
H2O
Internal rearrangements
leading to catalysis
+
Free enzyme (E)
Peptide bond
Dipeptide product (P)
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.21
- 49. Nucleic Acids
Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and phosphorus
Their structural unit, the nucleotide, is composed
of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a
phosphate group
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- 50. Nucleic Acids
Five nitrogen bases contribute to nucleotide
structure – adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
thymine (T), and uracil (U)
Two major classes – DNA and RNA
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- 51. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Double-stranded helical molecule found in the
nucleus of the cell
Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring
genetic continuity
Provides instructions for protein synthesis
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- 52. Structure of DNA
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Figure 2.22a
- 53. Structure of DNA
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Figure 2.22b
- 54. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Single-stranded molecule found in both the nucleus
and the cytoplasm of a cell
Uses the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine
Three varieties of RNA: messenger RNA, transfer
RNA, and ribosomal RNA
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- 55. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Source of immediately usable energy for the cell
Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with three
phosphate groups
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- 57. P Pi
Solute Solute transported
(a) Transport work
Contracted smooth
muscle cell
(b) Mechanical work
X P X
Y
Pi
Product made
Relaxed smooth
muscle cell
Y
+
Reactants
Membrane
protein
ATP
(c) Chemical work
ADP
+
Pi
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
- 58. P
Solute
Membrane
protein
ATP
(a) Transport work
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
- 59. P Pi
Solute Solute transported
Membrane
protein
ATP
(a) Transport work
ADP
+
Pi
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
- 60. Relaxed smooth
muscle cell
ATP
(b) Mechanical work
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
- 61. Contracted smooth
muscle cell
Relaxed smooth
muscle cell
ATP
(b) Mechanical work
ADP
+
Pi
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
- 62. X P
+ Y
Reactants
ATP
(c) Chemical work
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
- 63. X P X
Y
Y
+
Pi
Reactants Product made
ATP
(c) Chemical work
ADP
+
Pi
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
- 64. P Pi
Solute Solute transported
(a) Transport work
Contracted smooth
muscle cell
(b) Mechanical work
X P X
Y
Pi
Product made
Relaxed smooth
muscle cell
Y
+
Reactants
Membrane
protein
ATP
(c) Chemical work
ADP
+
Pi
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24