1. Page 1
Global Governance used to be an EU-US affair, but increasingly it reflects the emergence of new
powers and the declining ability of Brussels and Washington to shape the global agenda’. Discuss
with reference to climate change.
PostWWII, the United StatesandEurope have hadan apparentmonopolyof powerinthe global
arena over;trade,moneyandsecurityissues.However,withthe emergence of new powersonthe
world’sstage itcan be arguedthat the powerof WashingtonandBrusselsisindecline.Thisessay
will discussthisnotionin-depthinregardstoa prominentand relativelynew securityissue:Climate
change. Stateshave longbeenthe mainfocuswhenanalysingglobal governance,however,withthe
emergence of newsecurityissues,itcanbe arguedthat new powersare increasinglyshapingthe
global agenda.Thisessaywill beginbysettingthe contextof climate change onthe global agenda
and analyse howthe EU and the US have been historically dominant.Inturn,the role of the EU and
the US will be evaluatedastowhetherornot theyremainglobal leadersorif otherstatesare taking
theirplace.Precedingthis,the role of new powers;institutions,multinational companies(MNCs)
and non-state actors(NSAs) willbe analysedastowhetherthey have the abilitytoshape the global
agendamore effectivelythanstates.
Climate change isa highlycontentiousissueacrossthe globe,withsome scientistsdisputingthat
climate change existsorthatit isa man-made problem.However,‘the overwhelming majorityof the
world’sclimate scientists –andgovernments –agree that climate change isoccurringand that the
maincause is humanuse of fossil fuels’1
.The effectsof climate change varywidelyrangingfrom;sea
level rises,the meltingof the glacierstochangesinthe seasons2
,andthese are notlimitedto
national boundaries,theyappearonaglobal scale. Asa resultof the transboundarynature of
climate change,the issue movedfroma‘low’political issueto‘high’political issue3
afterthe First
Earth Summit(1972 StockholmUnitedNationsConferenceonthe Human Environment) withthe
Declaration ‘warningGovernmentstobe mindful of activitiesthatcouldleadtoclimate change and
evaluate the likelihoodandmagnitude of climaticeffects’4
.
It can be arguedthatthe EU andthe US have shapedthe global agendaonclimate change since the
official creationof the EU in1993 underthe Maastricht Treaty.Althoughmanyof the 28 EU member
stateshad beenactive inthe climate change debate before this,itwasthisyearthatthe EU acted as
a global powerwitha unitedvoice5
.Pre-1993, duringthe Rio Earth Summits, the UnitedNations
FrameworkConventiononClimate Change (UNFCCC) hadsetthe objectivetostabilise GHG
concentrationatlevelsthat shouldmitigateclimate change.Atthe UNFCCC, the principle of
‘commonbutdifferentiatedresponsibilities’wasset anddevelopedcountries (mostnotably the US
and the EU) were expectedtotake the lead oncombatingclimate change.Theywere todothisby
transferringfinancialandtechnical resourcestodevelopingcountriestohelpthemaddressthe
problem.6
By1997 legallybindingtargetsfordevelopedcountriesweresetbutwere delayedinThe
Hague in 2000 and eventuallyrepudiatedbythe US’snewly electedPresidentBushin2001. The
negotiationsaroundthe KyotoProtocol resultedinmajorpolitical divisionsbetween the USA and
1 Carbon Capture and Storage Association 2014
2 NASA Global ClimateChange
3 Carter 2010: 52
4 Jackson 2007
5 Nugent 2010: 55-59
6 Carter 2010: 56

2. Page 2
the EU and stalledthe ratificationof the protocol until 2004. Climate change hassince been amajor
itemonthe agendaforthe G8 andG7 summitsandhas createda rift inEU-US relations.
The repudiationof the KyotoProtocol bythe Bushadministrationin2001 showsthe dominance that
the USA had overthe global agenda.The USA wasresponsible atthe time forover20% of global
GHGs andthe Protocol couldnotenterintoforce until ithad beenratifiedby55 countrieswhich
were togetherresponsible foratleast55% of GHG emissions (developedcountries).Thisshowcases
the powerthat the US governmenthadoverthe climate change agendabutalsohow the EU could
take on a leadershiprole. The EUfacilitatednegotiationswithJapanandRussiato persuade themto
signup to the Protocol which theydideventuallyby2004, leadingtoitsratification.
The above example showsthe ‘softleadership’strategythe EUimplementsforclimate change
politics7
.The EUhaslimitedpolitical andeconomicpowertoforce othercountriestojoin
agreementsortocut emissionssoitdevelopedanapproachthatcombines‘leadershipbyexample,
diplomacy,persuasionandargument’8
.
“Actionon climate change isexactlythe kindof testforthe EuropeanUnionin thiscentury.A testof
our capacityto act, our capacity to deliver.Anditisalsoa testof our capacityto lead.”9
(José
Manuel Durão Barroso)
The EU leadsby example withitsapproachtoclimate change byimplementingthe rulesand
regulationssetbythe KyotoProtocol (cuttingGHGs by 40% below 1990 levelsby2030 withthe
ultimate goal of reducingthisto80% by2050).The EU can alsobe saidto be leadingthe worldby
example withthe EuropeanTradingSystem(ETS) whichwas‘the first – andstill byfar the biggest-
international systemfortradingGHGs’10
whichisa keytool forreducingindustrial GHGscost-
effectively (usingthe Cap-And- Trade principle). Atthe UN Climate Summitin2014 Barroso
showcasedthe EU as an example of how tacklingclimate change canleadtoa boostin the economy
"The EuropeanUnionis on track to meetourtargets andat same time we have seenoureconomy
grow","We prove climate protectionandastrongeconomymustgo handin hand." The EU has long
beenthe world'sleadingproviderof climate finance throughofficialdevelopmentassistance and
therefore itis able toexertsome influence overdevelopingnations.However, ‘the battleagainst
climate change can onlybe wonthroughglobal action’11
andthe EU was responsible foronly10% of
the world’sGHG emissionsin 201212
so itsabilitytodirectlyaffectclimate change islimited. Itcan be
arguedthat the EU no longerhasthe hard powerto influencethe global agenda asitonce did and is
nowlimitedto the use of softpowerand enforcingpoliciesonthe Europeanlevel.
In contrastto this,the US has shownitsabilitytoshape the global agendaina differentway. Aswas
mentionedpreviously Washington’s decisionnottoratifythe KyotoProtocol severelydelayedthe
process.Atthe time,the USA was responsible for20% of all global GHGs so itwas paramountthat it
ratifiedthe protocol if there was anyhope of it beingasuccess. Thisexample showsthatthe US had
the abilitytoshape the global agendasimplybychoosingnot toparticipate.Inrecentyears
7 Wagner 2014
8 Carter 2010: 60
9 José Manuel Durão Barroso 2008
10 European Commission 2014
11 Europa: Summaries on EU legislation 2011
12 European Commission 2014

3. Page 3
however,ithastakena more proactive approachto climate change,choosingtofocus more on
fundinginnovative productsandtechnical advancestolessenthe impactof pollutants.The US
Departmentof Defense statesthatit‘isrespondingtoclimate change intwoways:adaptation,or
effortstoplanfor the changesthat are occurringor expectedtooccur; andmitigation,orefforts
that reduce greenhousegasemissions’13
.Itisnotable whatpolicyisstatedfirsthere;adaptionrather
than attemptingtoreverse the effectsof climate change.Thisisindirectcompetitionwiththe EU’s
mainapproach; cuttingback usingrulesandregulations. Inthe speechmade byObamaatthe 2014
UN Summititis clearthat the US wantsto remainasa global leader, “The UnitedStateshasmade
ambitiousinvestmentsincleanenergyandambitiousreductionsinourcarbonemissions…TodayI
call on all countriestojoinus,not nextyearor the year afterthat,but rightnow.Because no nation
can meetthisglobal threatalone."ThisspeechshowsacleartransitionfromWashington’sprevious
unilateral approachof the Bushadministrationinregardtothe KyotoProtocol.
As hasbeennotedabove,boththe EU and the US wantto leadthe way intacklingclimate change
but otherpowersare alsoshapingthe global agenda.Withthe rise of new and developingpowers
such as Chinaandthe BRIC countries,the EUand the US’s leadershipstruggleisbecoming
increasinglychallenged.Chinanowemits48% more CO2 than the USA and isresponsiblefora
quarterof the world’semissions14
meaningthatthe decisionsthatChinamakesinregardstoclimate
change has a great impacton the rest of the world. In November2014 the US and Chinaannounced
a jointagreementtocut carbonemissions. Thisnew powerdynamiccanbe seenasreplacingthe
previousEU-USpartnershipasthe US andChina’sclimate change policiesare alot more similar. The
US-Chinapartnershipwillplayamajorrole inshapingthe global agendaas theyare alreadytwoof
the world’slargesteconomies,largest investorsincleanenergyandalreadyhave robustprogramsof
energytechnologycooperation inplace suchas;the U.S.-ChinaClimate Change WorkingGroup
(CCWG);the global phase downof hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs);the U.S.-ChinaCleanEnergyResearch
Center;andagreedon a jointpeerreview of inefficientfossil fuel subsidiesunderthe G-2015
.
The recentClimate Change SummitinNew Yorkhighlightedanothermajorplayerinshapingthe
global agendaonclimate change:Brazil.The Braziliandelegationrefusedtosignananti-
deforestationpledge because‘measurestoendillegal deforestationhadbeendraftedbehindclosed
doorsat the UnitedNationswithoutitsparticipation’16
.WithoutBrazilsparticipation –whichholds
approximatelyone-thirdof the world’sremainingrainforests,includingamajorityof the Amazon
rainforest17
- the UN’saimto ‘halve deforestationby2020 andto endit withinthe followingdecade’
will be extremelydifficulttodo.Thisexample showsthatwhenmakingdecisionsat the global level,
manystatesneedto be involvedinthe processbecause evenone state- suchasBrazil- hasthe
abilitytoderail orstopa global agenda.
Due to the verynature of climate change andits abilitytoshape the global agenda,itisnodoubt
that bilateral,multilateral andinternational agreementswillbe usedtocombatclimate change. The
firstinternational responsewas formulatedatthe RioEarth Summitin1992, whenthe United
NationsFrameworkConventiononClimate Change (UNFCCC) wassigned (the firstattemptto
13 Department of Defense 2014
14 Rogers 2012
15 The White House 2014
16 Usborne 2014
17 Usborne 2014

4. Page 4
stabilise GHGsat a level thatwouldpreventdangerousanthropogenicclimate change)18
.Since then,
the world'sgovernmentsmeetannuallyatthe Conferences of the Parties(COPs) todiscussthe
climate change challenge. Itcouldbe saidthat the UN is the mostlegitimate source of global
authorityas almosteverystate inthe worldhasbecome a member(193 membersasof 201219
). The
UN has continuouslymonitoredthe impactsof climate change usingthe IPCCsince 1988; held
conferences andsummitsonclimate change suchas;the UnitedFrameworkConventiononClimate
Change (UFCCC) in1992; the Momentumfor Change summitin2011 and the soon-to-be-heldParis
SummitinDecember2014. It facilitates recommendationsonhow tocombat climate change using
initiativessuchas the KyotoProtocol andits Doha Amendment.However,althoughthe UN isa large
playerin the climate change debate,itspowercomesfromthe headsof statesandtherefore the UN
can be seen asmerelyaplatformforworldpowerstovoice theiropinions. The UN agendaissetby
the Secretary- General20
,whoiselectedbasedonthe recommendationof the permanentsecurity
members(China,France,Russia,the UKandthe US) so therefore theyhave the abilitytoshape what
ison the UN agendabychoosinga candidate whoismostlikelytobe sympathetictotheirown
agendas.
In contrastto the above,multinationalcompanies (MNCs) playalarge partin shapingthe global
agendainrelationtoclimate change.Some MNVswill be largely affectedif regulationsare enforced
uponthemand theirclose relationship withstate policymakers mayleadtoincreasedpressure
whenshapingthe global agenda.It isclearthat some companies will attempttoinfluence policy
makersto suittheirowninterestsforexample,
‘U.S.-basedcompaniessuchasExxonand Chevronhave aggressivelychallengedclimate
science,pointedtothe potentiallyhigheconomiccostsof greenhouse gascontrols,and
lobbiedagainstmandatoryemissioncontrols…Bycontrast,BPand Shell,the twolargest
Europeancompanies,have acceptedthe scientificbasisforprecautionaryaction,expressed
supportfor the KyotoProtocol ongreenhouse gases,andannouncedsubstantialinvestment
plansfor renewableenergy’21
.
Policymakersare restrictedinwhattheycan do inregardsto climate change if itwill affectlarge
MNCs. Thiseffectswhatpoliciesare proposedatthe global levelbecause the countriesthat benefit
economicallyfromthesecompanies wouldnotwanttolose them. Asisnotedinthe 2006 Stern
report, climate change couldhave a severe impactoneconomicgrowthanddevelopment if no
actionis takento reduce emissions. MNC’swillbe greatlyaffectedbythissomayhelpfundthe state
to pursue theirbestinterestswhenshapingthe global agenda.Itcouldbe arguedthatthe
TransatlanticTrade InvestmentPartnership proposalisanexample of this ‘the EUsetsout on the
path towardsthe TTIP withthe US in the firmbelief thatouraspirations andobjectivesare basedon
a commonoverarchingobjective of sustainable development….weenvisage anintegratedchapter
specificallydevotedtoaspectsof sustainable developmentof importanceinatrade context’22
.
18 Betzold 2012
19 United Nations:Member States
20 UNelections.org
21 Levy and Kolk 2002
22 European Commission,Trade and sustainabledevelopment

5. Page 5
The supportof non-state actorsisincreasinglyimportantinglobal governance. Itcanbe arguedthat
NGOs ‘have the largestinfluence onthe outcome of climate negotiationswhentheymobilize public
pressure incollaborationwiththe media’23
.NGOshave playedanactive role inenvironmental
politicssince the RioEarthSummitin1992 and are increasingactive bothinsideandoutside
governmentsusingtacticssuchas;lobbying,protesting,educational events,thinkthankgroupsetc.
Theirabilitytoengage withthe publicatthe grass-rootslevel enablesthemtoswaypublicopinion
more easilyandtherefore toinfluencewhatdecisionsare made inthe government.Itisalsonotable
manyindividualsare takingonthe climate change debate themselves. Al Gore (USPresidential
candidate),LeonardoDicaprio(acclaimedactor) and Russell Brand(UKComedian) are tooname but
a few.These individualsare helpingenable publicsupporttoaddressclimate change andare
changingclimate change perceptionsona global scale usingthe internetandsocial media
campaigns.Al Gore’sTedTalkandDicaprio’sspeechatthe UN Climate Change summitare examples
of this. Environmental groups are encouragingcitizensto thinkaboutclimate change whentheyare
makingeverydaypurchases,encouragingthemtolimittheirenvironmentalimpactandtobuy
environmentallysourcedproducts.Thisenablesindividualstoshape the global agendabecause if
theyare notbuyingcertainproductsdue to theircausationeffectwithclimatechange,companies
will be forcedtodiversify,anddemocraticgovernmentswill be forcedtomake decisionsinline with
theirelectorate.
In conclusion,itisclearfromwhathas beenevaluatedhere thatglobal governance inrelationto
climate change isno longersimply anEU-US affair. Climate change isatransboundaryissue,itdoes
not respectnational boundariesnordoesitdeviate betweenmore orlessenvironmentallyfriendly
states. The emergence of newpowerssuchasChinaand Brazil highlightthe importance of working
on a global level tocombata global problem.Itwas alsomade clearinthe analysisof MNCsand
non-state actors that manyfactors otherthan those specificallyatthe state level have the abilityto
shape the global arena,as Marshall McLuhan states ‘There are no passengersonSpaceshipEarth.
We are all Crew’24
andinan increasinglyinterconnectedworld,the global agendaneedsto be
determinedglobally.
23 Rietig 2011:3
24 McLuhan 1964

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