Emma Casey The Male Gaze in European Painting.” The .docx

Emma Casey
“The Male Gaze in European Painting.”
The male gaze is demonstrated through both the patronization of
the paintings, and the content matter represented within the
paintings themselves.
The influence of the male gaze on how women were being
painted highlights the sexual objectification of women, as well
as their social status and
roles within European society. Which demonstrates how the
artists’ captured and perpetuated the stratification in European
culture’s view of
women versus men. Throughout centuries of history men have
dominated European society, and this encompasses the
patronization of arts. The
patronization of arts demonstrates the culture of European
society. Through the works one can observe how women were
viewed by their male
counterparts, and how they served a role in this society.
Through the years the significant roles of women across Europe
have paralleled to one
another, and remained unchanged for decades.There are several
recurring themes in Renaissance art this includes: religion,
beauty, and nudity. The
development of the Italian Renaissance focused on the
development of nudity in art, and this is fundamental to art
tradition. Humanism is a
philosophy that was greatly being employed by the artists. This
philosophy in Renaissance art took the initiative to revive the
literature and art of
ancient Greece and Rome. (1) Prior to this, many artists had

purely been restricted to religious figures, and representations.
Within this religious
scope, the Virgin Mary had been the biggest representation of
women. However, during the Renaissance era the artists began
to revitalize, and
produce paintings that were reflective of classicism. This was
achieved through the classical statues that were rediscovered,
and then copied as
inspiration. The settings sand surroundings of the pieces are of
the utmost importance because they reflect a narrative of the
woman and her status,
or her identity. The patronization of the arts further placed
emphasis on the sexualization of women, and how women
functioned in art, and how
the art demonstrates the historical reality. There are myriads of
artists, and with this each artist comes with their signature
style, and
consequentially their patrons who commonly commissioned
their works. (2) However it is aptly demonstrated through the
humanism's scope that
women are designated to a given role that rather than narrating
a story, they are locked into a pose that their only purpose is to
be gazed upon to be
looked at. During this Renaissance era the placement,
expressions, and positioning of the women in the pieces
contributes to the women’s role or
lack thereof and the consequential male gaze.
1 The Venus of Urbino was made in 1538 by Titian. This work
is a prime example of Italian Renaissance art, and contains
many details
within the the work symbolizing female sexuality, and in turn
the role that marriage has in providing value for a woman in
society. This work is

located at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. 3′ 11″ x 5′ 5″
http://www.titian.org/venus-of-urbino.jsp
Titian painted this goddess to highlight a set of values, and her
function as a woman. The painting was commissioned by Duke
Guidobaldo II of
Urbino in 1538. It is assumed that the painting was
commissioned to celebrate Duke’s recent nuptials. The details
within the work highlight this
paintings commissioning, and purpose. One can notice within
the background a group of maids at a cassone which is a
marriage chest. (3) This
cultural reference emphasizes and highlights the social
significance of the image. There is social commentary as
demonstrated by the surrounding
details. There is a dog curled up before her feet which is
symbolic of marital fidelity, and loyalty. There is a plethora of
references to flowers and
the natural environment which is demonstrated throughout
classic Renaissance works. Venus the goddess is holding roses,
and on the window
ledge is a myrtle plant and is set to contrast a sunset. These
flowering plants are symbolic of the goddess Venus. They
define the love that Venus
encompasses. She is representative of love, and permanence of
marital love. (4) The goddess Venus stares directly at the
viewer, and her left hand
is placed suggestively across her lower abdomen. This piece
demonstrates the Renaissance era’s reference to classicism, and
the patronization of
arts by the wealthy and elite.
Title: “The Venus of Urbino”
Artist: Titian
Date: 1538

Material: Oil paint on canvas
http://www.titian.org/venus-of-urbino.jsp
2 The painting Flora is an oil painting by the late Italian
Renaissance painter Titian. This painting is dated to be from
1515 and is currently
on display at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. This work
demonstrates the typical Italian renaissance stylized form, and
captures the culture’s
incessant desire of the sexualization of women. It also
demonstrates the continual and persistent illustration of
goddesses in art history as it
portrays Flora, the classical goddess of flowers and spring.
Spring and flowers allude to both the concepts of virginity, and
fertility which were
essential to a women’s success in European society. 79.7 cm ×
63.5 cm (31.4 in × 25.0 in)
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/t/tiziano/10/1/07flora.html
Being one of Titian’s most notable works this painting is
notable for it’s intensity of the hues, and classicism. During the
Renaissance Era many
painters utilized deities, and figures of mythology to express
their aesthetic ideals and highlight their sentiments of the
nature of humans and love.
The woman portrayed in this piece is thought to be as Flora. (5)
The woman’s holding of flowers highlights her being the
goddess of flowers and
spring. This painting of Titian’s is iconic in his idealization of
female beauty. Titian’s utilization of color, and idealization of
female beauty is
highlighted by the golden red hair, the ivory skin, and her
exposed breast. Her body is covered by a light ivory cloth, that

draped her frame. The
brocade of pink fabric in her left hand demonstrates the
Northern Renaissance’s trademark attention to fabric,
encompassing both it’s pattern, and
texture. However, notably the gaze of Flora does not meet the
viewers. The skin of Flora is luminous and Titian was renowned
for employing the
technique of glazing to achieve this luminosity. (6) Her right
hand is symbolically holding flowers which is seemingly being
handed suggestively
to the viewer. This piece is more poetic than social as it
encompasses sensuality, and idealized beauty. In this one can
notice the work’s function
under the viewer’s gaze. In this poetic piece Titian Flora is an
idealized and unattainable figure.
Title: “Flora”
Artist: Titian
Date: 1515
Material: Oil paint on canvas
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/t/tiziano/10/1/07flora.html
3 This particular portrait was of Eleonora of Toledo with her
son Giovanni and the artist was Agnolo Bronzino. Bronzino
captured this work
on a panel through the medium of oil in 1545. This work
remains a concise example of Mannerist portraiture. It captures
the affluence of high
society, and the prestige this woman hold for having bore sons
to the real lineage, further encapsulating and emphasizing the
role of women that
European culture had at the time. It is currently housed in the
Uffizi Gallery of Florence, Italy. 3′ 9″ x 3′ 2″
http://www.artcyclopedia.com/feature-2003-03-eleonora.html

The portrait, “Eleonora of Toledo with her son Giovanni” by
Agnolo Bronzino demonstrates the role of women during the
Renaissance era in
European high society. The woman in the portrait is Eleonora of
Toledo who was a Spanish noblewoman who is holding her
second son Giovanni.
The contents of this portrait is significant in it’s commentary of
the role of women in European society. For European society
there is an
importance of bearing sons, especially in a noble family. The
painting was commissioned by the family themselves. The
portrait is a symbol of
pride for this woman in her fertility as it depicts Eleonora with
not her first born son but her second born son. (7) This fertility
and her ability to
reproduce “A heir and a spare, as well as nine other children is
what makes her of value in society. As this was assurance of a
family’s dynasty.
The fabrics worn on her are rich, colorful, luxurious and in this
portrait also emphasize her status. (8) The portraits utilization
of oil paints
emphasizes a natural light and this light reflects off of the
faces, and clothing of the subjects. Eleonora and her son
Giovanni are positioned to be
staring right at the viewers. The details on each figure is
impeccable and they appear to be seated before the viewer. This
piece is important as it
demonstrates the patronization of arts by the elite Italy, and
how women were viewed during the Renaissance era in a male
dominated society.
Title: “Eleonora of Toledo with her son
Giovanni”
Artist: Agnolo Bronzino
Date: 1545

Material: Oil paint on panel
http://www.artcyclopedia.com/feature-2003-03-eleonora.html
4 Giovanni Bellini’s work the Naked Young Woman in Front of
the Mirror was completed in 1515 and today can be seen at the
Kunsthistorisches Museum located in Vienna, Austria. The work
is oil on canvas and is 62 x 79 cm. Bellini is a highly respected
artist, who has an
esteemed reputation as a Renaissance artist. In this work Bellini
frames the woman body by draping a red cloth around her arms.
However
contrasting to other Renaissance works is that the woman’s hair
is covered. Each detail is beautifully rich in colors, and the
lighting and shadow is
observed throughout the work.
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/b/bellini/giovanni/1510-
/210mirr.html
The Naked Young Woman in Front of the Mirror painted by
Bellini. This piece is incredible as the artist was 85 years old
when he painted this
piece. This painting is an additional nude that was painted by a
Renaissance artist. The work demonstrates the focus of artist’s
attention to the
physical beauty of women, and highlighting their sexuality.
This point is emphasized through the woman in the work
holding a mirror to look at
her reflection. It seemingly suggests that she finds her beauty to
be of importance. (9) Bellini exhibits the male gaze as he is the
male gaze. His
perspective of women as seen in this piece highlights the sexual
objectification of women. One can not see status nor this
woman’s role however

the mirror demonstrates the focus and European’s emphasis on
the beauty of women. Bellini in this work perpetuated the
stratification in European
culture’s view of women versus men as this piece is another
nude and it highlights the vanity of women. The piece contains
a natural setting in the
background while the foreground contains a room. While the
woman’s nudity is seemingly a central focus. The painting has
many critical details
that highlight the influence of the male gaze in portraying
women. (10) Through the nudity and head covering there is
seemingly a conflict
between sexuality and modesty. However, when observing this
work is it Bellini’s place to provide a commentary on the
modesty or sexuality of
women?
Title: Naked Young Woman in Front of
the Mirror
Artist: Giovanni Bellini
Date: 1515
Material: Oil on canvas
/210mirr.html
5 This work was painted by Leonardo Da Vinci around 1489-
1490 and is titled, Lady with an Ermine. It is an oil on wood
panel painting and
is currently on display at the National Museum in Kraków,
Poland. This work is said to capture the image of Cecilia
Gallerani, who would have
been the mistress to Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. This

portrait demonstrates how women of high society were captured
through portraits, and
here portraits capture their roles in society and these roles often
were to satisfy or compliment men. 54 cm × 39 cm (21 in × 15
in)
https://www.leonardodavinci.net/lady-with-an-ermine.jsp
Lady of Ermine is significant in not only being painted by
Leonardo da Vinci. But, the painting highlights the history of
retouching, and
intervention that many Renaissance painting have been victim
to. Lady of Ermine highlights the male gaze in the subject of the
painting being
Cecilia Gallerani who is said to have been the mistress of the
Duke of Milan: Lodovico Sforza. This painting was then
commissioned by Sforza to
paint and capture the image of a woman he was carrying an
affair with. (11) This highlights the influence of men in the
European society and in
turn this control demonstrates which women were painted and
also how they were portrayed. Cecilia Gallerani would not have
been painted if she
did not have her relationship with the Duke. The Lady of
Ermine is delicate in her features. The woman is elegantly
draped in cloth that is rich in
color and detailed. While it is hard to discuss the techniques
utilized in making this piece as X-rays have revealed that it has
been altered several
times throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the elegant
lighting and shading shines throughout the work. (12) This is
perhaps most aptly
demonstrated in the ermine that is seen on the lap of the woman.
The fur of this animal is tangible, and the animal is extremely
realistic in it’s
appearance. The male gaze and it’s influence is highlighted
through both the commissioning of this piece and in viewing the

work that is presented
before the viewers today.
Title: Lady with an Ermine
Artist: Leonardo Da Vinci
Date: 1489-1490
Material: Oil on wood panel
6 This painting is titled, “Bathsheba at her Bath.” It is a piece
painted by Paolo Veronese an acclaimed painter from the Italian
Renaissance.
Bathsheba at her Bath is dated to be from about 1575. Today it
is on display at the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon in France.
Both the light and
shadow are aptly seen in this oil on canvas painting. It is a
rather large work in it’s dimensions being 191 cm × 224 cm (75
in × 88 in.)
https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Bathsheba%20at%2
0her%20Bath%20(Veronese)
Veronese provides an interesting biblical piece that is
synthesized with classicism. This synthesis highlight the
Renaissance period and the mixing
of humanism, classicism, and religion. While the painting is
titled Bathsheba at her Bath it could depict both the biblical
story of Bathsheba, or the
story of Susanna. (13) However, the story of Bathsheba is
important as it was David’s gaze on the married Bathsheba that
initiated their
relationship. Regardless of which story it is, the work highlights
both the male gaze, and historically the power that men have
had over women in
societies. Veronese paints this stratification through a variety of

details that he painted in this piece. Veronese demonstrated the
difference in
positions of power through the different the colors that drape
the figures. The man in the work is painted in the shadow and is
draped in a red and
gold toga which highlights his position of power. Whereas, the
woman is seemingly in the light and dressed in white, and light
blue. Additionally,
woman’s chest is slightly exposed and these colors, and manner
of dress highlights her innocence, and vulnerability. The
background of this work
is painted in a plethora of rich colors, and the figures are
vividly detailed. The woman is placed in a vulnerable position
as she sits seemingly
cowering on a bench as a man lurks standing over her. This is
significant because both the dress, and positioning of figures
highlights the social
stratification of men and women, and how this stratification
influences the function of society, and interactions between the
two. Veronese paints
an illustrious background mixing architectural elements, and
nature. (14) The Renaissance movement is emphasized through
the backgrounds
mixing of both the elements of nature, and classical
architecture. All in all Veronese created a masterpiece in this
art and highlights how the male
gaze has power.
Title: Bathsheba at her Bath
Artist:Paolo Veronese
Date: 1575
https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Bathsheba%20at%2
0her%20Bath%20(Veronese)

7 Le Déjeuner sur l’herbe or The Luncheon on the Grass is
painted by the artist Édouard Manet in 1862. The Luncheon on
the Grass is an
oil on canvas work. While this work was painted well past the
Renaissance Era, the influence of the male gaze is seen
throughout the centuries.
Overall, this work provides a commentary on how for centuries
the female physique has been feasted on and gawked at for the
pleasure of many.
This work is located at the Musée d’Orsay, Paris. 208 cm ×
265.5 cm (81.9 in × 104.5 in)
http://pictify.saatchigallery.com/109294/edouard-manet-
luncheon-on-the-grass-le-djeuner-sur-lherbe
http://mentalfloss.com/article/72782/15-things-you-might-not-
know-about-manets-luncheon-grass
The work was painted by Édouard Manet who was a
revolutionary artist known as a French pioneer in the transition
from realism to
impressionism. This painting is of extreme value in assessing
the male gaze as it was inspired by Titian’s work, “The Pastoral
Concert.” The
painting features two naked women with modern clothes strewn
in the grass, accompanied with two fully modern dressed men.
This work was
revolutionary at it’s time as it took the female nude and placed
it in a modern setting. In this piece Manet achieved true
impressionism as he broke
away from the conventional norms in art that minded nudity to
the classical setting. (15) Manet paints a vivid natural
background with the dark
greens contrasting against the skin of the women, further
highlighting the female nude. This painting forces the viewer to
think who these women

were with their clothes there but not on them, and what their
roles were as these two women are spending time alongside two
men it also takes
sexuality and places it in a modern setting. What is most
striking about this painting is the classical references and their
place in the modern art
world. Initially, in 1863 the Paris Salon rejected Manet’s work
as the women’s casual nudity amongst the dressed men was seen
as obscene. (16)
However, Manet created a piece to ask the world what is the
difference between the nude women Manet’s work and the nude
women painted in
Renaissance pieces?
Title: The Luncheon on the Grass
Artist: Édouard Manet
Date: 1862
http://pictify.saatchigallery.com/109294/edouard-manet-
luncheon-on-the-grass-le-djeuner-sur-lherbe
8 Painted by Sandro Botticelli in 1486, this painting is titled as,
The Birth of Venus. This work is a tempera on canvas. The
dimensions of
the painting are 172.5 cm × 278.9 cm (67.9 in × 109.6 in) While
this work was painted for the Medici Family of Florence why it
was
commissioned, and where it was originally displayed is
unknown. Today the painting can be seen on display in the
Uffizi Gallery in Florence,
Italy.
http://www.italianrenaissance.org/botticelli-birth-of-venus/

The Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli is a world renown piece
that most art historians would declare a treasure of the
Renaissance era. It
captures the classical influence on Renaissance art, and is an
example that encompasses classicism, and the female nude.
While at the time this
painting was daring for featuring the female nude, it was not
controversial as the figure of a goddess, and her hair was
modestly covering her. The
painting was revolutionary as it was painted on a canvas and at
this time wood panel was more typical. (17) Canvas at the time
was seen as being
more informal in comparison to the wood panel. The figure of
Venus exemplified sexuality, and femininity. The sexuality and
femininity
encompassed by Venus indulges the male gaze. This piece
exemplifies the influence of Italian Renaissance period as it was
commissioned for the
Medici family. Whilst there are other individuals to her left and
right the background behind Venus is plain and isolated. Both
the shell, and ocean
hold Venus in the center, and the other subjects from the figure
of Venus. To Venus’ left there is a woman on land and in a
dress holding a large
piece of fabric, seemingly ready to cover the figure of Venus. It
its said that the figure of Venus was inspired by a statue titled,
“Aphrodite of
Cnidos.” (18) This piece has it’s colors compliment one another
as they are pastel. It is glassy smooth in it’s appearance and
reflects the male gaze
as Botticelli painted the nude goddess Venus.
Title: The Birth of Venus
Artist: Sandro Botticelli
Date: 1486
Material: Tempera on canvas

9 La Vierge au Lys or The Madonna of the Lilies was painted
by William-Adolphe Bouguereau was painted in 1899. This
painting is from
the realism era, and is religious in it’s content. The two figures
are perhaps the most important figures of Christianity as they
are the Virgin Mary
and Christ Jesus. This piece is done through oil on canvas.
Today, the painting is apart of a private collection and is
periodically put on display at
different museums.
https://www.wikiart.org/en/william-adolphe-bouguereau/the-
madonna-of-the-lilies-1899
The Virgin of the Lilies was painted by the French artist,
William Bouguereau in 1899. This is the youngest painting in
this exhibit. However, this
painting encompasses centuries’ old tradition of painting the
Virgin Mary and the infant form of Jesus Christ. The figure of
Mary is enthroned on a
stone throne that frames the Virgin and Jesus. At the bottom of
the work are white lilies. (19) These white lilies symbolize the
innocence and purity
of the Virgin Mary. The golden halos that surround the faces of
both the Virgin and Jesus are so bright and luminous that they
appear to be three-
dimensional. These halos demonstrate the divine selection of
the Virgin Mary, and the divinity of Christ. The dark robe of the
Virgin contrasts
against the light skin of Christ. The positioning of Jesus’ hands
are very advanced and make Christ’s body appear to be in a
cross position, which

demonstrates his divinity from a young age. The Virgins gaze is
lowered, while Christ is staring directly at the viewer. The
figures are realistic in
their appearance, and their lighting and shadowing makes them
appear as being three dimensional. This painting is important in
understanding the
male gaze as for centuries Mary’s significance only being a
birth vessel to a son. (20) Especially these figures have been
painted for the male
dominated Catholic church. This highlights that the male gaze
has limited women to their ability to have children, their
sexuality or their social
status. While this piece was painted in 1899 hundreds of
paintings of the Virgin and Child Enthroned precede this piece,
this work is significant as
it embodies the centuries old custom of perpetuating the
painting of the Virgin with Christ while enthroned.
Title: The Madonna of the Lilies
Artist: William-Adolphe Bouguereau
Date: 1899
https://www.wikiart.org/en/william-adolphe-bouguereau/the-
madonna-of-the-lilies-1899
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1 Berdini, Paolo. "Women under the Gaze: A Renaissance
Genealogy." Art History, vol. 21, no. 4, Dec. 1998, p. 565.
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EBSCOhost, doi:10.1111/1467-8365.12029.
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www.williambouguereau.org/madonna-of-the-lilies/.
20 "William-Adolphe Bouguereau - The Madonna of the Lilies,
1899." Trivium Art History. Accessed December 03, 2017.
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madonna-of-the-lilies/.
https://news.artnet.com/art-world/secrets-of-da-vincis-lady-
with-an-ermine-finally-revealed-117891
https://useum.org/artwork/Bathsheba-at-her-Bath-Paolo-
Veronese-1575
http://www.musee-
orsay.fr/index.php?id=851&L=1&tx_commentaire_pi1%5Bshow
Uid%5D=7123
http://www.manet.org/luncheon-on-the-grass.jsp
http://mentalfloss.com/article/64273/15-things-you-should-
know-about-birth-venus
http://www.williambouguereau.org/madonna-of-the-lilies/
https://arthistoryproject.com/artists/william-adolphe-
bouguereau/the-madonna-of-the-lilies/

Heaven and Hell on Earth:
A look at Medieval depictions of
Paradise and Damnation
While different versions of Heaven and Hell have been depicted
within the art world, all have a very similar theme:
Heaven is a beautiful place of glory and wonder, and Hell is a
pit of fire and brimstone and pain. These two spiritual worlds,
and
the rulers of each, appear in different capacities depending on
the specific religion, but each one was carefully created by the
master behind the brush, behind the stone, behind the metal, or
behind the glass. These images didn’t just tell a story; they
affected the people who saw them, who stared at Heaven and
Hell on Earth, and wondered which one they would end up in.
Through syncretism, some images remain unchanged within the
different religions, while others vary extensively. No matter the
composition, each representation of Heaven and Hell gave the
people who viewed it hope that if they were good enough,
something better awaited them; and the knowledge that if they
sinned without repenting, something far worse lied beyond the
veil. In the Book of Revelations, the end of the world is
prophesied. The Last Judgment is a key concept to this
prophecy, in that
it claimed to affect every living soul on Earth.
In the Old Testament Bible, The Last Judgment is found in the
Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. One day
Jesus turned to his disciples and explained to them that at the
end of the world he, the Son of God and the Son of man will
rise
to sit upon his throne with the angels. There he will gather the
humans of the world and divide those who are good from those

who are evil. There Jesus will pass judgment on mankind. Those
who believed in him and were good were placed on his right
side. Those who disobeyed or were evil, he placed on his left.
“‘And those on the right,’ said Jesus, ‘will go into life eternal,
but
those on the left will have everlasting punishment.’” (ASL
Bible, 2006) It was this section of the Bible more than any other
chapter that caused man to fear what awaited on the other side.
Heaven’s ruler was God, the loving Creator, the Father, who
watched over Heaven and welcomed those who were worthy to
Paradise, full of love and light. Hell’s ruler went by many
names: the Devil, Satan, Lucifer, Abaddon, Beelzebub,
Deceiver, and hundreds of others (Matos, 2011). His realm was
everything that Heaven wasn’t. Hell was full of torture meted
out by the Devil’s minions for all eternity.
Heaven and Hell: The Last Judgment
In every aspect of Medieval life, death was at the center. With
disease, famine, high infant death rates, war, and lack
of medicines, death followed every person in some way, shape
or form. Because of this way of life, beliefs about death
were shaped according to what was told to happen after one
takes their last breath. Christian beliefs claimed that the very
reason for a person’s life was to die without sin, by performing
acts of kindness, and following the Christian beliefs. The
reward for living a life without sin was being welcomed into
Paradise for all eternity, while those who were judged and
found
wanting were destined to Purgatory, or Hell. This way of living
explains why the Last Judgment was created in many
different material art forms, and prominently displayed in
churches and cathedrals. The constant reminder of judgment day
kept the citizens of the Middle Ages in their place. So focused

on death and the afterlife, they need not contemplate their
current environment and the injustice laid upon their way of
life.
(Albrile, 2016)
1. The Last Judgment Triptych
Artist: (unknown)
Material: Oil on panel
Date: 1500 (relative)
Style: Germany
Context: The Last Judgment as
referenced in the Bible. Depictions of
Heaven and Hell.
Location: Legion of Honor, California,
USA
URL:
https://art.famsf.org/anonymous/last-ju
dgment-614432
1. (cont.)
In my research, when I searched “Heaven and Hell in
Renaissance,” the most common theme for
works of art was The Last Judgment. Here in this set of painted
panels, the Last Judgment is shown in

spectacular detail and color. Jesus, Mary, and John are in the
largest, center panel, with apostles gazing
upon them in the upper left and right panels. In the lower left
panel is a view of heaven, with souls being
weighed and measured. The gates of heaven are off in the
distance, with worthy souls going through into
Paradise. Heaven is shown with brilliant, saturated colors, seen
on the clothing of those going in, as well
as the soft blue of the sky in the background. In the lower right
panel is Hell, with demons and goblins
torturing sinners in the pits of damnation. Here the colors are
more muted and lean towards harsher,
uglier forms of color and contrast. This painting gives a limited
view of Heaven, where we see those who
are destined for Paradise lining up to enter through the Pearly
Gates. But in the panel that shows Hell,
there are graphic details of the demons and hell-minions who
dole out torture to sinners and evil souls.
The background shows the crumbling castle of Hell, with
craggily mountains and trecherous pits lining the
broken pathway to Damnation. This depiction of The Last
Judgment seems to put less emphasis on how
wonderful Heaven and greater influence on how horribly
terrifying Hell will be for those who don’t repent.
(Legion of Honor, 2017)
2. The Last Judgment
Artist: Gislebertus (?)
Material: Stone
Date: 1120 (relative)

Style: Romanesque
Context: The Last
Judgment as referenced in
the Bible. The weighing of
the souls.
Location: Cathedral of
Saint-Lazare, Autun
URL:
https://www.wga.hu/html_
m/g/gisleber/2lastj.html
2. (cont.)
Placed above the doorway leading into the Autun cathedral is an
arched sculpture that illustrates the
Last Judgment. The Last Judgment shown here was the first
monumental sculpture in Medieval times.
This sculpture depicts Heaven and Hell, and the souls of the
recently departed being weighed. In the
center of the arch is Christ on a throne. Christ’s form is
considered linear and symmetrical, with his body
and head size being disproportionate to one another. His large
size in comparison to the other figures
shows the underlying hieratic organization of the piece. Jesus is
not turned but facing straight out at
anyone who stands before it, in silent judgment of all who bare
witness to this stone creation. To the left
shows heaven, with the Virgin Mother and angels framing the
new souls that are arriving, happy and
blessed. To the right are the demons of hell, twisted and
grotesque, pulling souls into the pits of hell. The

souls show the terror they feel, their mouths open in a terrified
scream, their eyes bulging. This split of
heaven and hell, separated by the large presence of Christ,
shows the contrast between the land of
paradise and the torment of damnation. The bottom portion
shows the souls leaving their sarcophagus as
they join the realm of the dead and move towards judgement.
(Cothren & Stokstad, n.d.)
Artist: Giorgio Vasari
Material: Fresco (watercolor on plaster)
Date: 1572-1579
Style: (still researching)
Context: The Last Judgment as
referenced in the Bible. Heaven and Hell
shown.
Location: Duomo, Florence
URL:
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/v/vasari/2/13d
uomo.html
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/v/vasari/2/13duomo.html

3. (cont.)
This fresco created by Vasari also shows an interpretation of the
Last Judgment. This fresco was
created on the dome of Florence Cathedral, which has eight
segments that hold it together. In the
painting, as your eye travels upward, we see a temple with
several elders of the Apolcalypse, followed by
a pattern of four central themes. First there is shown a choir of
Angels that hold the instruments of the
Passion; a group of saints, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and
finally the regions of Hell and the personification
of the deadly sins. In the segment facing East, on the other side
of the central nave, only three themes are
shown, as one is left out to make space for Jesus, Mary, and St
John. While Giorgio Vasari was the one
who executed the design, he died in 1574 before he could finish
it. In 1575-1579, Federico Zuccaro was
able to complete the painting.
Vasari’s fresco does something that other depictions of the Last
Judgement do not: instead of
having a 2D, one-piece structure to look directly at, Vasari
created a ring of elements, a 360 degree
rotation of themes that differs from one segment to the next but
still comes together into one
detail-orientated circle of Heaven and Hell.
(Florence Inferno, 2015)
Artist: Master of the Bambino Vispo
Material: Oil on panel

Date: 1422
Style: Gothic
Context: The Last Judgement as referenced by
the Bible.
Location: Alte Pinakothek, Munich, Germany
URL:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%27
The_Last_Judgment%27,_by_the_Master_of_th
e_
Bambino_Vispo,_c._1422,_Alte_Pinakothek.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%27%20The_Last_Jud
gment%27,_by_the_Master_of_the_%20Bambino_Vispo,_c._14
22,_Alte_Pinakothek.jpg
4. (cont.)
Though not much is known about the artist of this piece, it is
still a striking version of the Last
Judgment that captures the moment where angels are calling
down to the dead with their trumpets so that

they may rise and be judged by Jesus who sits upon his divine
throne. What makes this painting so
unique is the almost grotesque twisting and shaping of the
figures shown. Here Jesus is not some all
powerful entity but a scraggly, emancipated man who still
carries the mortal wound of his death upon his
body. The angels who call down to the dead are crossed over
each other, yet the way they are created,
one would assume they have no bodies, since there’s no way for
them to make an X of their bodies. From
the coffins below are more figures twisted into odd poses, their
bodies disproportionate and bent in ways
that bodies usually don’t bend. I think it is because of the
horrific way these figures are captures is what
makes this depiction so impactful. It stands as a great reminder
of what can await those who choose to sin
while on Earth.
What I find interesting is the lack of angels shown that are
supposed to carry souls up to Heaven.
What is shown are black, winged demons who are scooping
souls straight from their coffins. This seems
to be yet another attempt at conveying the message that what a
person should strive for most in life is
being good to avoid going to Hell, rather than the reward of
Heaven itself as motivation.
Artist: Stefan Lochner
Material: Oil and gold on
panel
Date: 1435
Style: Netherlands
Context: The Last Judgment
as referenced by the Bible.

Heaven and Hell are shown.
Location:
Wallraf-Richartz-Museum,
Cologne
URL:
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/l/l
ochner/lastjudg.html
5. The Last Judgement
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/l/lochner/lastjudg.html
5. (cont.)
Yet another version of the Last Judgment that shows the more
grotesque side of Revelations. Here
we see more figures rising from the coffins, their bodies bulging
and twisting in uncommon fashions that
can only mean death has departed their bodies. Shown on the
left of the painting are the many souls who
are being welcomed into Heaven, to the right those who sinned
are being snatched from their graves by
gargoyle-like demons and dragged to Hell. But rather than the
Heaven above and Hell below motif that
most Last Judgment creations tend to depict, this one seems to
show them as if they are two locations on
the same plain; literally Heaven and Hell on Earth. Shown in
monstrous sizes, but still apart of the same
plain as those souls being called to judgment, Jesus, Mary, and
John come together in a triangular

composition that makes them the focal point of the image.
I really find it fascinating that their are two forms of angels,
one dressed in white with white wings,
and the other dressed in dark blue with blackish-blue wings.
Because of these other, darker angels, you
almost can’t tell which are angels and which are demons. Both
are shown with dark clothing and black
wings. Once you finally separate angel from demon, it is
interesting to see how the dark angels in this
piece seem to be helping the demons in controlling the souls of
the damned and forcing them towards the
black gates of Hell. In the bottom center is a gargoyle-like
demon attempting to drag a soul away from the
gates of Heaven, but a light angel is holding strong to him.
Again we see the physical representations of
avarice in the soul who lies on the ground in agony, clutching a
torn bag of coins.
Name: The Last Judgment
Artist: Michelangelo
Material: Fresco (watercolor on plaster)
Date: 1534-1541
Style: Italian Renaissance
Context: The Last Judgment as referenced
by the Bible
Location: Sistine Chapel, Vatican
URL:
http://www.abcgallery.com/M/michelangelo/
michelangelo54.html

http://www.abcgallery.com/M/michelangelo/michelangelo54.ht
ml
ml
ml
6. (cont.)
This depiction of the Last Judgment is one of the most popular.
It is found in the Sistine Chapel and was
commissioned by Pope Paul III upon his election.
Michelangelo's rendition is one of the most important creations
in
Christian art history. Over 300 figures are shown in amazing
detail, each one different from the last. Even with the
compacted layout of figures, there is still a clear structure, an
organization to the figures, with groups and clusters pairing
off. Christ is the focal point, as usual with the Last Judgment
imagery. Here he is shown as an extremely powerful and
muscular individual. His body was created with a twisting
motion, which gives the illusion of movement as he sorts the
final
souls, separating the damned from the divine. Below Christ are
groups of angels, sounding the trumpets that call out to the
dead to rise. Other angels record the good and bad deeds of the
dead in books. In the lower left of the painting, dead are
crawling from their graves and rising towards judgment. Some
seem to rise without issue, while others need assistance
from angels. Below all of this is a figure who is being caught in
the middle of Heaven and Hell. Two angels are pulling one
end, while an escaped demon pulls from the other. On Christ’s
left, demons are dragging the souls of the damned to Hell,
and from above angels strike down those who try to escape their

fate. Physical manifestations of sin are present here; for
instance, a figure is being beaten by an angel while a demon
drags him down to Hell. From around his chest dangle a bag
of money and two keys, signs of the sin of avarice. Yet another
figure, depicting the sin of lust, is being dragged down by
his genitals.
Here is where we can see Christian beliefs mixing with Pagan
and Greek religions. In the bottom right corner is
Charon, the boatman of the Greek river Styx, who brings souls
across the murky waters to the underworld. Here he is seen
aiding the demons in shoving the souls of the damned into hell.
Another non-Christian figure is that of Minos, who stands at
the edge of hell and judges the souls of hell to determine their
eternal torture.
(Camera, n.d.)
References:
Albrile, Ezio (2016). “A Merchant in Heaven: Visions of
Afterlife among Hellenism and Iranian Lore.” Asprenas,
Vol. 63, Issue 1-4, pp. 93-118.
ASL Bible. (2006). The Last Judgment. ASLBible.com.
[Webpage]. Retrieved from:
http://www.aslbible.com/bible_stories/nt86lastjudgment/lastjud
gment.html
Bovey, Alixe (2015). “Death and the afterlife: how dying
affected the living.” British Library. [Website].
Retrieved from: https://www.bl.uk/the-middle-
ages/articles/death-and-the-afterlife-how-dying-affected-the-
living

Camera, Esperanca (no date). “Last Judgement.” Khan
Academy. [eArticle]. Retrieved at:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-
reformation/high-ren-florence-rome/michelangelo/a/mi
chelangelo-last-judgment
http://www.aslbible.com/bible_stories/nt86lastjudgment/lastjud
gment.html
https://www.bl.uk/the-middle-ages/articles/death-and-the-
afterlife-how-dying-affected-the-living
reformation/high-ren-florence-
rome/michelangelo/a/michelangelo-last-judgment
References (cont.)
Cothren, Michael., Stokstad, Marilyn. (n.d.) The Church of
Saint-Lazare at Autun. REVEL: Art History 6th
Edition, Volume B. [ebook]. Retrieved from:
https://revel.pearson.com/#/courses/598221d8e4b0d7c9430fdbfd
/course-content/%257B%2522startUrl%
2522%253A%2522https%253A%252F%252Frevel.pearson.com
%252Feps%252Fsanvan%252Fapi%252
Fitem%252Fe84e0e5b-db25-4603-a4a0-
ef586495e920%252F1%252Ffile%252Fstokstad_ah_6e_vol_b_r
evel-
v1%252FOPS%252Fxhtml%252Fch16_pg0019.xhtml%2522%25
2C%2522highlightTerms%2522%2
53A%255B%2522LAST%2522%252C%2522Last%2522%252C
%2522last%2522%255D%257D

Florence Inferno. (2015). Giorgio Vasari’s Last Judgment.
Florence Inferno. [Webpage]. Retrieved from:
https://www.florenceinferno.com/giorgio-vasari-last-judgement/
Matos, Morgan (2011). “The Satanic Phenomenon: Medieval
Representations of Satan.” Master of Liberal
Studies Theses, 28. [PDF].
Unknown Tyrolean Master (1500’s). “Last Judgement
Triptych.” Legion of Honor Museum, San Francisco.
/course-
content/%257B%2522startUrl%2522%253A%2522https%253A
%252F%252Frevel.pearson.com%252Feps%252Fsanvan%252Fa
pi%252Fitem%252Fe84e0e5b-db25-4603-a4a0-
evel-
2C%2522highlightTerms%2522%253A%255B%2522LAST%252
2%252C%2522Last%2522%252C%2522last%2522%255D%257
D
/course-
evel-
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/course-

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/course-
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D
https://www.florenceinferno.com/giorgio-vasari-last-judgement/

Theme: Using symbolism in Christian Arts to persuade and
engage viewers.
From the beginning of Christianity church used visual art to
their purpose: to teach
people about the Bible events, Afterlife and Christian doctrines.
The beginning of
using icons, frescos, and mosaics goes back to 4th century. First
visuals were flat, out
of proportions and many of them used foreshortening, the
conventions that grew
from the Early Byzantine Art. Later, the artist started using
ornamental
embellishment and precious materials in decorating, to express
wealth of the Church
and glory of God.
Approximately in Early Renaissance, we start to see use of the
different symbols in
Christian and nonreligious Art. Symbolism defined as, “the use
of symbols to signify
ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meanings that are

different from their
literal sense” (Literary Devices). In Cristian Art, the low level
of the people’s
education forced Church to find the way to persuade and engage
its flock during
congregations and daily life. The way, probably, was found in
the use of symbols
and artistic conventions to help create the memorable and
understandable visuals
that can be used during the congregations. One of the
conventions Church asked to
follow, apart of the subject matter was the use of the particular
colors in Virgin Mary,
Christ and Saint’s clothes.
First, the use of colors was to differentiate liturgical seasons. It
became a common
practice in the Western church in about the 4th century. At first,
usages varied
considerably but by the 12th century Pope Innocent III
systematized the use of five
colors: Violet, White, Black, Red and Green. Violet is the royal
color and became a
symbol of Christ. Violet also associated with repentance from

sin. White and Gold
symbolize the brightness of day and widely used to express
purity and holy. Black
is the traditional color of mourning. Red evokes the color of
blood, that’s why it is
the color of martyrs and of Christ’s death on the Cross. Red also
symbolizes fire,
and therefore is the color of the Holy Spirit. Sometimes, red
associated with
cleansing and purification (Riding The Beast). Green is the
color of natural growth
and life. Blue is the color of the sky, Heaven, and Holy service.
In Christianity, blue
often honors Mary (WOU).
URL http://www.wga.hu/html_m/p/provost/allegory.html
But not only color meant to have a hidden meaning to the
viewers, different objects
often placed into composition to convey the idea. Those
symbols were transformed
from the holy books and highlighted the aspects of Christian
dogma.

Object #1
Name: Christian Allegory
Artist Jan Provost
Material Oil on Wood
Relative and/or Absolute Date c.1510-1515
Culture Flemish, Belguim
Scale 40x50 cm
Current Location Musée Du Louvre, Paris, France.
http://www.wga.hu/html_m/p/provost/allegory.html
Painting by Jan Provost contains a lot of different Christain
symbols here. First, we
can see the use of color – blue for Mary, associated with
Heavens because Mary in
Catholic Church is “Queen of Heaven”; and red for Christ-
associated with remission
of sin, blood, and royalty. Christ is holding a sword, because He

proclaimed, "Do
not suppose that I have come to bring peace to the earth. I did
not come to bring
peace, but a sword” (Matthew 10:34). Mary is holding the lily –
symbol of Her
virginity, and the Holy Spirit came to Her as a white pigeon, the
symbolic element
often used to represent Holy Spirit. In the center of the
composition God is giving
the Earth to Jesus to rule as promised in the Book of Gospels.
Above the Earth on
the left, the white lamb represents the Christ’s sacrifice for
people’s sins; and the
book on the right is, probably, a Book of Gospels brought by
Christ to people. At
the very top, there is all-seeing eye of God, the symbolic
representation of God, who
sees everything. Probably, the eye on the bottom of the painting
represent that, there
is “nothing in all creation is hidden from God's sight.
Everything is uncovered and
laid bare before the eyes of him to whom we must give account”
(Hebrew 4:13).

Object #2
Name: The Miraculous Draft of Fishes
Artist: Pieter van Aelst, after a cartoon by Raphael
Material Tapestry, in silk and wool, with silver-gilt threads
Relative and/or Absolute Date c.1519
Culture Florence, Italy
Scale 15’11’’x14’5’’
Current Location Pinacoteca, Vatican
URL http://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Raphael-
Tapestries.html

The tapestry, the most expensive art of the Renaissance, was
created by Pieter van
Aelst, after a cartoon created by Raphael. This tapestry recounts
Miraculous Draft
of Fishes (Luke 5:1-11), when Peter impressed by the quantity
of fish they caught
exclaimed “Go away from me, Lord; I am a sinful man” …Then
Jesus said to Simon,
“Don’t be afraid; from now on you will fish for people.” In this
beautiful tapestry,
there is also some elements of hidden symbolism. For example,
the cranes in the
foreground are the symbols of vigilance (Vatican collection)
and probably provided
the reference to the pope authority (Art). The seagulls in the sky
are not a random
element of the composition, the seagulls in Christian
representation allude to sin and
apostasy. What I found fascinating about this tapestry, is how
the transformation
from fishermen to disciples is depicted here. We know that at
least three fishermen

where converted to disciples there - Simon (Peter), and James
and John, the sons of
Zebedee, Simon’s partners. But we can only see two of the
fishermen with halos. I
think, the halos above Peter’s and his companion’s head
appeared when they stepped
into the Christ’s boat. There is hard to see, but there is also the
appearance of Holy
Spirit at the same time in the likeness of the two white birds
appeared next to their
heads. The third white bird is farther on the background.
According to Shearman,
the panorama in the background recognized as the Vatican hill,
with the towers, and
Saint Peter’s under construction (The Vatican Collection).
http://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Raphael-Tapestries.html
Object #3
Name: Adoration of the Mystic Lamb, fragment of the Ghent
Altarpiece
Artist Jan and Hubert van Eyck

Material Oil on panel
Relative and/or Absolute Date completed 1432
Culture Flemish
Scale 11’ 5 ¾” x15’1 ½”
Current Location Cathedral of St.Bavo, Ghent
URL
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/oct/12/ghent-
altarpiece-
restoration
The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb is one of my favorite
paintings, full of Christian
symbolism. This Ghent Altarpiece is polyptych and consists of
twelve oil painted
oak panels. The number twelve is not a random number, there
were twelve disciples
converted by Christ, so this number is often crossing different
fields of Christian

beliefs and rituals. For example, in Western Christian Church
practice there are
altarpiece-restoration
twelve big holidays filled with special meaning and rituals,
when Easter is a special
holiday, which stand above all holidays, like Christ and twelve
disciples.
In the center of the composition there is Jesus Christ
represented by the Lamb of
God. The term Lamb of God is found in John 1:29: “The next
day John saw Jesus
coming toward him and said, "Look, the Lamb of God, who
takes away the sin of
the world!" The angels on the left hold the Cross as a symbol of
Christ’s sacrifice.
The blood coming out of the Lamb, which is standing on the top
of the communion
table is the representation of the Eucharist and its importance

for the Christians. In
the foreground, there is a fountain. The fountain represents the
source of life, the
promising living water, "He who believes in Me, as the
Scripture said, 'From his
innermost being will flow rivers of living water" (John 7:38).
For me, the whole
scene represents the Book of Revelation, “Then I saw a Lamb
who appeared to have
been slain, standing in the center of the throne, encircled by the
four living creatures
and the elders. Then I looked, and I heard the voices of many
angels and living
creatures and elders encircling the throne, and their number was
myriads of myriads
and thousands of thousands” (Revelation 5:7-11).
Object #4
Name: Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)
Artist Workshop of Robert Campin (Netherlandish, ca. 1375–
1444 Tournai)

Material Oil on oak
Relative and/or Absolute Date ca. 1427–32
Culture South Netherlandish
Scale Overall (open): 25 3/8 x 46 3/8 in. (64.5 x 117.8 cm)
Central panel: 25 1/4 x 24 7/8 in. (64.1 x 63.2 cm)
each wing: 25 3/8 x 10 3/4 in. (64.5 x 27.3 cm)
Current Location Metropolitan Museum of Arts, New York
URL http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/56.70/
This triptych belongs to a group of paintings associated with the
Tournai workshop
of Robert Campin (ca. 1375–1444), sometimes called the Master
of Flémalle.
Documents indicate that he hired at least two assistants, the
young Rogier van der
Weyden and Jacques Daret. Annunciation Triptych is one of the

most celebrated
early Netherlandish paintings—particularly for its detailed
observation, rich
imagery, and good condition (The MET). The triptych is filled
with different
symbols disgusted as common household objects – a pouring
vessel, a towel, a
candle and many more. Meaning of those objects is not always
obvious for us,
however, in the times when most of the population couldn’t
read, the symbolic
meaning of objects meant to persuade and teach viewers about
the lifes of the Virgin
Mary and Christ. In this triptych, most of the symbolic objects
allude to Mary’s
virginity. First object is a vessel on the background of the
centerpiece, probably,
refers to the Christian doctrine, “Lord, have made thee, from the
first, “a most pure
vessel” (Proverbs quoted in Life of Mary). Lilies on the table
usually appear on the
Annunciation icons as a symbol of Mary purity and virginity.
Other symbols
associated with Mary’s virginity are the sealed windows, guard

by the gates and
white color of the ritual towel. The candle on the table can be
association with Christ
transformation from the pure God’s form to the combined
human and God
appearance. It is also can be a symbolic meaning of the Christ’s
preparation for
death. What is interesting in this image is the time lapse of the
events - Gabriel just
arrived, Mary is still unaware of His presence, however, Holy
Spirit is already
coming from the Heaven, to fill Mary with the Holy Spirit – the
events that were not
so tight in time. Many scholars also find a lot of symbolic
references to Christ’s
Crucifixion there – the miniature Christ is holding the cross,
use of wood in the
Joseph’s shop, mouse trap to catch Satan after Crucifixion.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/56.70/
Object #5

Name: Saint Jerome
Artist Pier Francesco Mola
Material Oil on canvas
Relative and/or Absolute Date c.1660
Culture Italy
Scale 135x99 cm
URL https://fineartamerica.com/products/saint-jerome-by-pier-
francesco-mola-
stefano-baldini-art-print.html
The icon refers to the period of Counter-Reformation in
Christian Art, when the new
conventions were established. In this painting, we can see many

characteristics of
that period – removing of unnecessary imaginary elements from
the art; focusing on
lifes of Saints and different aspects of Catholic dogma;
cultivating piety; making
image relevant and understandable to the public (VisualArtCork
). Even though the
making elements up were banned from use in the Catholic Art,
elements that evoke
a piety and spiritual ecstasy were encouraged to be used in art.
That’s why we can
observe elements that either had been related to the life of Saint
Jerome or had been
placed with educational purpose on canvas. Francesco Mola
depicted Saint Jerome
listening to the Trumpet of Last Judgement, the subject that
supposed to awake
awareness about viewers Afterlife. Other devotional elements
were placed in the
foreground – a cross, a rosary, and a skull. In Christian arts, a
skull often refers to
Golgotha, which means “the place of the skull”, sometimes it
refers to Adam
(Christ’s cross was believed to be raised above the Adam’s

skull as part of the
redemption for the Original sin), to remind public to fight
against Satan. Usually, a
rosary and cross associated with prayers and devotional
exercises, that every
Christian should do daily. No doubt, the life of Saint Jerome
depicted in this
painting, supposed to be a spiritual inspiration to the Catholic
congregation.
https://fineartamerica.com/products/saint-jerome-by-pier-
francesco-mola-stefano-baldini-art-print.html
Object#6
Name: The “Mystic Wine” Tapestry, fragment
Artist Flanders
Material Tapestry in wool and silk, with silver and silver-gilt

threads
Relative and/or Absolute Date first quarter of the 16th century
Culture Flemish, Belgium
Scale 139x173 cm
URL http://www.christusrex.org/www1/vaticano/M-
Tapestry.html
Beautiful tapestry created by Flemish artists has a deep spiritual
content. In the
center of the composition there is the Virgin Mary, who is
holding baby Christ on
http://www.christusrex.org/www1/vaticano/M-Tapestry.html
her laps. Before Mary and Christ, the women in the modern
(16th century) clothing,
that is holding a chalice – an allegory of the Church. The grape,
that Jesus is offering
is a representation of the Eucharistic wine.

There are also figures of Simon, son of Onia and Isaiah, who
are identified by the
scroll’s inscriptions (Galleria). Incorporating people from the
Old Testament was a
common practice in Christian Art, that helped to create not only
spiritual but also
visible connection between two parts of the Bible. To signify
the moment of
Eucharistic Mary and Jesus are accompanied by two singing
angels, that are playing
music on a harp and a viola, while third angel observes from the
background
(Galleria).
A beautiful framing creates the borders of the tapestry with
images of grapes and
roses. Usually, grapes associated with Eucharist, Passion, and
Redemption of the
Original sin. Roses, however, were an icon of veneration in the
pre-Christian era,
and was used in ancient Rome to symbolize devotion to the
goddess Venus.
Following the Christianization of Rome under the emperor
Constantine, the rose

became identified with the Virgin Mary. The rose symbol
eventually led to the
creation of the rosary and other devotional prayers in
Christianity (Lisa quoted in
Wikipedia).
Object#7
Name: Saint Catherine of Alexandria Adoring the Cross
Artist Titian
Material Oil on canvas
Relative and/or Absolute Date about 1567
Culture Venice, Italy
Scale 37”x301/2”

Current Location Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
URL http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/saint-catherine-of-
alexandria-at-
prayer-33241
Saint Catherine depicted in the emotional stage of paying. Her
feelings elevated by
her pose, facial expression, and amplified by the use of light.
She is surrounded by
the attributes that identify her: a piece of the spiked wheel,
broken by divine
intervention, on which she was to be executed; the sword with
which she was later
decapitated; and the palm, symbol of martyrdom. Combining
different time periods
within one picture frame widely spread in Christian Art.
At the bottom of the cross we can also see a skull – the usual
symbol of Crucifixion
and the fight against the Original Sin. The base of the cross also
contains a relief of
the Lamentation. The focal point is the body of Christ,
surrounded by the light

coming through the arch, slightly on the right. All those
elements were incorporated
into the painting to awaken the piety and religious observance.
http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/saint-catherine-of-
alexandria-at-prayer-33241
Bibliography:
1. Book of Gospels. The Bible Gate Way, 23 April, 2017.
https://www.biblegateway.com/
2. Book of Revelation. The Bible Hub, 23 April, 2017.
http://biblehub.com/revelation/5-10.htm
3. Catholic Counter-Reformation Art. Visual Arts Cork, 10
May, 2017.
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com
4. “Color Symbolism and Color Meaning in The Bible”. Riding
The Beast, 23
April, 2017. http://www.ridingthebeast.com/

5. “Color Symbolism in Christianity”. 23 April, 2017.
https://www.wou.edu/
6. Galleria delle Tappezzerie. 10 May, 2017.
http://www.christusrex.org
7. Hebrews. The Bible Hub, 23 April, 2017.
http://biblehub.com/hebrews/4-
13.htm
8. Lisa Cucciniello, "Rose to Rosary: The Flower of Venus in
Catholicism" in
Rose Lore: Essays in Semiotics and Cultural History (ed.
Frankie Hutton:
Lexington Books, 2008), pp. 64-65. Quoted in Roses
(symbolism).
Wikipedia. May 10, 2017.
9. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. [Texts by Adolph S. Cavallo
and others]. New
York, Newsweek [1969]. Print.
10.Proverb, quoted in Life of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother
of God: With
the History of the Devotion to Her; Completed by the Traditions
of the East,
the Writings of the Holy Fathers, and the Private History of the
Jews. Abbé

Orsini (Mathieu). D. & J. Sadlier, 1856
11.Smith, Karen Sue. "Artful Contemplation." America, vol.
198, no. 7, 03
Mar. 2008, p. 15. EBSCOhost,
12.Symbolism Definition. 23 April, 2017.
https://literarydevices.net/symbolism/
13.The MET. Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece), 10
May, 2017.
http://www.metmuseum.org
14.“The Lamb of God”. Art and the Bible, 23 April, 2017.
http://www.artbible.info/art/lamb-of-god.html
15.The Vatican collections : the papacy and art : official
publication authorized
by the Vatican museums. New York : Metropolitan Museum of
Art : H.N.
Abrams, c1982. Print.
16.Workshop of Campin, Annunciation Triptych (Merode
Altarpiece). Khan
Academy, May 10, 2017. https://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.biblegateway.com/
http://biblehub.com/revelation/5-10.htm

http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/
http://www.ridingthebeast.com/
https://www.wou.edu/
http://www.christusrex.org/
http://biblehub.com/hebrews/4-13.htm
http://biblehub.com/hebrews/4-13.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington_Books
https://literarydevices.net/symbolism/
http://www.metmuseum.org/
http://www.artbible.info/art/lamb-of-god.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/
17.Vatican museums: Rome. [Texts by Gigetta Dalli Regoli and
others]. New
York, Newsweek [1968]. Print.
Kohei Takemura
The Style and the Development of Mannerism
Mannerism is an artistic style that predominated in Italy from
the end of the High
Renaissance in the 1520s to the beginnings of the Baroque style
around 1590. This name is
originated from Italian noun, maniera, meaning “style” or

“manner”. As a historical
background of the development of Mannerism, the social
situation of Italy was very unstable
in 16th century along with the religious reformation of Catholic.
Mannerism is mentioned as
the artistic style that even surpasses nature. However, there are
some interpretations of how
Mannerism develops in this era. The most probable candidate
for it is the further
development of the perfected High Renaissance art. In contrast,
some experts indicate that it
is the strong reaction against the completion of High
Renaissance art.
The characteristic of Mannerism from an aesthetic point of view
is that it emphasizes
an unrealistic proportion of a human body and artificial spatial
representations, and
exaggerates perspective and foreshortening. For example, the
figures in Mannerism works
frequently have graceful but queerly elongated limbs, small
heads, and stylized facial features,
while their poses seem difficult or contrived. By doing so, the
artists in the period of
Mannerism successfully created the dramatic images beyond

naturalistic depiction, and it
conveys more sacred and elegant impressions to the viewer.
This way of expressing scenes
opens a possible new approach to the aesthetic values that had
prevailed in that era.
The thing in the background of the unique occurrence of
Mannerism is that, many
historical and cultural factors are contributed to it. Mannerism
reflects the influences of the
time and the attempt to exceed the expression of Renaissance in
that the painting technique is
very unique to this era. In this virtual exhibit, I focus on the
transition of the techniques from
Renaissance to Mannerism and the characteristic of artistic
expression common to all
artworks while exploring the historical background of that age.
Name: Madonna dal Collo Lungo (Madonna with Long Neck)
Artist: Parmigianino
Date of Creation: 1534-40

Relative Style: Mannerism, Italy
Current Location: Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence
Scale: 216 x 132 cm
URL: https://www.wga.hu/frames-
e.html?/html/p/parmigia/1/longneck.html
This artwork displays the common characteristics of
Mannerism very well by means of several
techniques. For example, it accentuates not truly created beauty
based on anatomy but artificially-created
beauty that is often seen on the paintings of Mannerism. The
proportion of Mary is very unnatural with her
long neck, narrow shoulders, massive legs, and lower torso.
This intended proportion of Mary indicates the
one of shapes that we, human beings, intuitively regard as
beauty. Moreover, this painting is very
significant and fascinating in this age from an aesthetic point of
view such as the glossy texture of paint
and the elegant color usage. These factors allow Mary to convey
a somewhat artificial impression in this
painting. Mary herself is an unrealistic existence and an ideal
image at the same time.

https://www.wga.hu/frames-
e.html?/html/p/parmigia/1/longneck.html
Name: Deposition
Artist: Pontormo
Material: Oil and tempera on wood
Current Location: Cappella Capponi, Santa Felicità, Florence
Scale: 313 x 192 cm
URL:
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/p/pontormo/4capponi/1deposi.html
This artwork shows an ambiguous and complicated
composition. The figures in this space are
arranged as if they are levitating in the air. Moreover, the poses
and facial emotions of each figure are very
theatrical. The proportions of them are also depicted in an
unnatural way. Their torsos are exaggerated by
making them bigger compared to their small heads. “This
complicated bunch of forms arranged in the
shape of an upturned pyramid defies any attempt at a rational
exploration or identification of planes. The

compositional complexity is accompanied by a significant and
probably deliberate ambiguity in the
representation of the subject, which may be interpreted as
halfway between the theme of the Deposition
and that of the Pietà or Lamentation over the Dead Christ”(Web
Gallery of Art). In addition, the color
usage of this painting is very pastel. This color usage not only
conveys the sacredness and splendid
impression, but also it emphasizes the faint feeling of the
Virgin at the center.
https://www.wga.hu/html_m/p/pontormo/4capponi/1deposi.html
Name: Assumption of the Virgin
Artist: Correggio
Material: Fresco
Current Location: Duomo, Parma
Scale: 1093 x 1195 cm
URL: https://www.wga.hu/frames-
e.html?/html/c/correggi/frescoes/duomo.html

The theme of this is that the flesh and the soul of the Virgin
Mary is transporting to heaven after
the death of her. By Correggio’s soulful expressiveness and
sophisticated imagination, this magnificent
painting gives the sense in which the viewers feel like they are
led to heaven as well. In his style, Leonardo
da Vinci’s use of sfumato and Raphael’s idealism are reflected.
As for this fresco, the entire architectural
surface is treated as a single pictorial unit of vast proportions,
equating the dome of the church with the
vault of heaven. The realistic way the figures in the clouds seem
to protrude into the spectators' space is an
audacious and astounding use for the time of foreshortening.
This fresco anticipates the Baroque style of
dramatically illusionistic ceiling painting. By the completion of
this painting, he played a significant role in
the transition from the style of Renaissance to the style of
Baroque by means of his expression method.
https://www.wga.hu/frames-
e.html?/html/c/correggi/frescoes/duomo.html
Name: Descent from the Cross
Artist: Rosso Fiorentino

Date of Creation: 1521
Current Location: Cathedral, Volterra
Scale: 375 x 196 cm
URL: https://www.artble.com/artists/rosso_fiorentino
The theme depicted in this painting is the Jesus who died on
the cross has been taken down by
people around him. The facial emotion of him is very different
from the artworks in the past because his
face express somewhat delight or comfortableness instead of
grief and pain as expressed before. In contrast,
the color usage plays a significant role in conveying a sense of
gloom. “The colour is devoted to one end: a
violent and emotional expressiveness which overrides
everything else, and seeks only to provoke in the
spectator a thrill of horror and grief comparable with that which
shattered the men and women who helped
to lift Christ from the Cross and bury Him” (Web Gallery of
Art). Moreover, the torsos of each figure are
elongated to emphasize solidity, and it is associated with the
remarkable way of Mannerism that had not

been seen in the age of Renaissance.
https://www.artble.com/artists/rosso_fiorentino
Name: The Annunciation
Artist: El Greco
Relative Style: Mannerism, Spain
Current Location: Museo del Prado, Madrid
Scale: 315 x 174 cm
URL:
https://www.artble.com/artists/el_greco/paintings/the_annunciat
ion
This artwork represents the scene in which the Virgin Mary
solemnly accept the annunciation by
Archangel Gabriel. In this painting, El Greco succeeded in
creating a unique perspective of the world by
incandescent light which is reflected off the figures with such
intensity that each seems to be its own
source of light. As “Mannerism exaggerates such qualities
(proportion, balance, and ideal beauty) often

resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally
elegant” (Peter 2017), this remarkable effect
conveys a mystic and graceful impression. This expressive style
is the distinctive feature in his artworks
that are painted in his final period, and this artwork is known as
the painting that most clearly shows this
significant feature among his works.
https://www.artble.com/artists/el_greco/paintings/the_annunciat
ion
Name: The Annunciation
Artist: Domenico Beccafumi
Date of Creation: 1545
Current Location: SS. Martino and Vittorio, Sarteano (Siena)
Scale: 237 × 222 cm
URL: https://www.artrenewal.org/Artwork/Index/21461
According to the article “Beccafumi was developing
characteristics usually associated with the

Mannerism of the next decade, creating both emotional and
compositional tension and instability instead of
the balance and harmony more typical of Renaissance art” (The
J. Paul Getty Museum). In particular, the
emotional and compositional tension is reflected in this painting
very well. This artwork also portrays the
scene in which the Virgin Mary solemnly accept the
annunciation by Archangel Gabriel as the El Greco’s
painting, yet, the way of expressing the sense of elegance and
dignity is very different from it. Most
importantly, the color usage plays a significant role in creating
a mystic mood. The overall color usage is
dim, and it gives a gloom impression to the viewer at first.
However, the contrast between light and shade
in which parts that were brilliantly bathed in warm light through
to very dark areas and the elegant facial
emotion and behaviors of each figure overwhelm the first
impression and gradually conveys the sacred
atmosphere. Moreover, the compositions of each figure
represent the Trinity creates comfortable rhythms
within the scene and also shows the association with classism.
https://www.artrenewal.org/Artwork/Index/21461

Bibliography
Glover, Michael. “Great Works: Madonna of the Long Neck,
1535-40 (219cm x 135cm), Parmigianino.”
The Independent, Independent Digital News and Media, 12 Jan.
2012,
www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/great-
works/great-works-madonna-of-the-long-neck-1535-4
0-219cm-x-135cm-parmigianino-6288590.html.
smarthistoryvideos. “Parmigianino, Madonna of the Long
Neck.” YouTube, YouTube, 15 Nov. 2011,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=suIUUGdNyWk.
Sibley, Gali. “The Deposition by Pontormo – One Of My
Favourites!” Gail Sibley, BFA, MA, 1 Apr. 2017,
www.gailsibley.com/2016/03/28/the-deposition-by-pontormo/.
smarthistoryvideos. “Pontormo, The Entombment of Christ.”
YouTube, YouTube, 19 Aug. 2012,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=ABhqENOxSrU.

“Assumption of the Virgin (1526-30) By Correggio in Parma
Cathedral.” Assumption of the Virgin by
Correggio: Analysis, www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-
paintings/assumption-correggio.htm.
Web Gallery of Art, Searchable Fine Arts Image Database,
www.wga.hu/frames-
e.html?%2Fhtml%2Fc%2Fcorreggi%2Ffrescoes%2Fduomo.html.
Russell, Peter. The History of Art in 50 Paintings. 1st ed.,
Delphi Classics, 2017
“Domenico Beccafumi (Italian, 1484 - 1551) (Getty Museum).”
The J. Paul Getty in Los Angeles,
www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/528/domenico-beccafumi-
italian-1484-1551/.
http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/great-
works/great-works-madonna-of-the-long-neck-1535-40-219cm-
x-135cm-parmigianino-6288590.html
http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/great-
works/great-works-madonna-of-the-long-neck-1535-40-219cm-
x-135cm-parmigianino-6288590.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=suIUUGdNyWk
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-paintings/assumption-
correggio.htm
http://www.wga.hu/frames-
e.html?%2Fhtml%2Fc%2Fcorreggi%2Ffrescoes%2Fduomo.html

Sharon Ressa
Artistic Revolution of the Iberian Peninsula
500 – 1500 CE
The Iberian Peninsula was the center of rivaling religious
occupations from the 8th
through 15th centuries CE, spanning the Byzantine,
Romanesque and Gothic styles
in art. As a result of wars between Christian Visigoths from the
north and Muslim
armies from the south, most of Spain and Portugal was under
Islamic rule from 711
to 1492. Despite this fact and because of it, the Iberian
Peninsula became a territory
supporting two distinctly different religious cultures; Christian
and Muslim. Having
separated centuries ago over the interpretation of Christ’s role
in the religious
history of both cultures, this time period would see them re-
integrated again
artistically, architecturally and scientifically. The collaboration
brought about
innovation and a spirit of relatively peaceful coexistence and
prosperity.
Beginning in the late 5th century, in the wake of the collapse of
the Holy Roman
Empire (West), the Christian Visigoths traveled into the Iberian
Peninsula seeking
territory to establish their kingdoms. The Visigoths were mostly
warriors who

viciously took control of what is now northern Spain. Their art
of this period, gold
metalwork and gems, reflected their wealth and hierarchy, yet
they remained
reverent to the Roman church. In 711 after the Muslims came to
power, they did not
destroy their Visigoth enemies. They acknowledged them and
allowed them to live
among their citizenry. From that association, two cultures
became intertwined
artistically in the use of materials such as Ivory, in geometric
designs, and in
adaptations of architecture from churches to mosques.
Education for all people was
made possible to enrich and improve society. The Visigoths
would be known as
Mozarabs, Christians under the rule of Islam. The Mozarabs
adopted Islamic dress,
language and customs, but remained true to their religious
practices.
In the 11th century Islamic rule began to crumble in northern
Spain. This forced the
Muslims south to Cordoba to reestablish their control of the
Iberian Peninsula. They
rebuilt their city and prospered in their new location. Islamic art
of this period,
expensive artifacts and jewelry, would reflect the power and
prestige of the
monarchy and the wealthy patrons, both Islamic and Christian,
of Cordoba.
Seeking to regain power, the Christian armies from Europe took
advantage of
Islam’s failing hold and during the Reconquest regained control
of Spain and the

Iberian Peninsula, finally removing all Islamic rule in 1492. As
Christianity came
to be the predominant religion once more, the Iberian Peninsula
still reflected the
imprint of its Islamic dynasties. To this day the Iberian
Peninsula is enriched by
both its Christian and Islamic past.
Object #1
Title: Votive Crown
Location: Huertas de Guarrazar (Toledo) Spain
Date: 7th Century
Materials: 16.8 cm, gold, sapphires, emeralds, pearls, rock
crystal and amethysts
Style: Byzantine/Visigoth
Current location: Musee Nacional du Moyen Age, Thermes de
Cluny, Paris, France
www.musee-moyenage.fr/
The votive crown is known as one of the most significant
treasures of the Visigoths
of the Iberian Peninsula. During the 7th Century, the Visigoths
were known for their
metalwork. Designed in the Byzantine style, the votive crowns
were constructed in
Spain as a tribute to the Roman Catholic Church. The cross
hangs from a chain and
the crown is more ornamental, being too small to wear. The
crown would be placed

over an altar or used in a liturgical procession. An interesting
note to these
Visigoths of medieval Spain, the sanctity that they placed on
religion was
hypocritical to the viciousness of their practices. When the
Muslims overthrew the
Visigoths, the citizens of Spain were grateful for the Muslims
were a tolerant and
inclusive culture.
Object #2
Title: Great Mosque at Cordoba, Hypostyle Hall
Location: Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain)
Date: 786-968 AD
Material: Stone and Red Brick
Style: Gothic
Context: Umayyads (1st Islamic Dynasty)
Current location: Cordoba, Spain
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-
europe-and-colonial-
americas/ap-art-islamic-world-medieval/a/the-great-mosque-of-
cordoba
The Great Mosque of Cordoba came to exist first, it was
believed, as a Roman
temple, then a Christian church before being converted to an
Islamic mosque. In this
photo is the hypostyle (filled with columns) prayer hall. It is
stunning in the many

symmetrical two-tiered horseshoe style arches in red stone and
brick. It is reflective
of the influence of Romanesque architecture with Islamic
design. This extraordinary
example of Islamic art would eventually once again become a
Gothic cathedral.
Object #3
Title: Portico of the Glory
Date: 1188
Artists: Maestro Mateo and Bernard the Elderly
Location: Santiago De Compostela, Cathedral of St. James
Material: Stone Sculpture
Style: Romanesque/Gothic
Current Location: La Coruna Province, Spain
http://library.artstor.org.library.4cd.edu/#/search/Santiago%20d
e%20Compostela%2
0portico ;size=24;page=2;sort=0
During the 11th century, the Islamic rule of Spain began to
fragment which allowed
Christian armies to begin to retake territories of Spain and
Portugal. At the same
time in Spain the St. James Cathedral of Santiago de la

Compostela was seeing an
increase in pilgrimage. The Way of St. James became a
destination of many clergy
from Europe. King Ferdinand II of Spain commissioned Maestro
Mateo to construct
a portico for the cathedral. He, along with Bernard the Elderly,
created the Portico
of Glory in what is considered a transition from Romanesque to
Gothic style. This
portico symbolizes Jeremiah, Daniel, Israel and Moses with
their respective books,
individualized faces, drapery folds and contraopposto footing.
Object #4
Title: The Journey to Emmaus and Noli Me Tangere
Date: Ca. 1115-20
Original Location: León, Spain
Material: Ivory with traces of gilding
Size: 27 cm x 13.2 cm
Current Location: Metropolitan Museum of Art
http://mon.academyart.edu/luna/servlet/detail/AMICO~1~1~104
236~81129:Plaque-
with-the-Journey-to-Emmaus-a
This miniature sculpture came from Leon, Spain during the 12th
century. It is a
small ivory piece possibly found on a reliquary. As this was the
time when St.
James Cathedral was becoming popular as a pilgrimage
destination, it could have
been prepared for display there. The two allegories from top to

bottom: First, two
pilgrims are on their way to Emmaus and are speaking
unknowingly to Christ about
their distress over the Ascension and, second, Mary Magdalene
is being told by
Jesus, “(Noli me tangere) Do not touch me for I have not as yet
ascended to the
Father” (John 20: 11-17). It should be noted that both this
sculpture and the Pyxis
for Prince al-Mughire were both made from Ivory, an expensive
commodity that
reflected the art’s value and its future location of prominence.
Object #5
Title: Beatus of Facundus, The Four Horsemen
Date: 1047
Location: León, Spain
Materials: Illuminated Parchment
Size: 300x210 mm
Context: Spanish Mozarabic, miniature made for King
Ferdinand
Current location: Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional, Ms Vit. 14.2, f
135
www.bne.es
The Beatus manuscript has been linked to the fact that Christian
Spain had been
conquered and occupied by Muslims. From northern Spain, 700
years after the Book
of Revelations, a Christian monk named Beatus illustrated a

collection of writings
he compiled of the details of the Apocalypse. Although the time
for the Apocalypse
passed in 800 AD, the drawings remained and reflect an
allegorical and colorful
style of visions of the Apocalypse. Many copies of the
illustrations followed,
specifically this version of The Four Horsemen created by
Facundus for the Beatus
de León, commissioned by King Ferdinand and Queen Sancha.
Object #6
Title: Folio from a non-illustrated manuscript (Left)
Date: Late 13th-early 14th century
Location: Islamic Spain
Medium: Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on parchment
Size: 53.5 cm X 55.9 cm
Context: Islamic Art
Current location: Metropolitan Museum of Art
URL https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/450486
Title: Leaf from a Beatus Manuscript: the Angel of the Church
of Philadelphia with
Saint John (Right)
Date: Circa 1180
Location: Medieval Spain
Medium: Tempera, gold, and ink on parchment
Size: 44.4 cm X 30 cm
Context: Mozarabic artwork
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/466200?pos=
18&rpp=30&pg=1&

ao=on&ft=illustrated+manuscript
To appreciate these written documents, they have been set side
by side. The first
image is a folio of a manuscript from the two-volume Quran, the
religious text of
Islam. The folio was created on parchment with ornamentation
and emphasis placed
on the script with gold medallions and lettering. The Quran was
such a sacred
document that the reader would only use the script as a
reference tool. He was to
have memorized it before reciting from it. On the right the work
is identified as a
leaf from a monastic Beatus manuscript with illustrations and
embellished with
illustrated lettering and gold leaf. My side-by-side view of
these documents
illustrates how both religious cultures created art through their
written texts. Their
artistry reflects Spain’s progressive cultures and religious
pluralism.

Object #7
Title: Elements from a Necklace
Date: Late 15th-16th century
Location: Granada, Spain

Material: Gold, cloisonne enamel
Size: Wheel medallion 3x3/16 in.; 4 lotus bud plaques 3 5/16 x
21/16 x 3/16; largest
cylindrical beads 2x3/4 in. cylindrical beads 1 7/8 x 11/16 in.
Context: Islamic metalwork
URL https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-
art/17.190.161a-j
Later in the 15th century, jewelry, like this fragmented
necklace, was produced by
goldsmiths of the Nasrid Dynasty in Granada, Spain. This
particular Nasrid
workshop produced items for both Muslims and Christians. As
the end of Muslim
occupation in Spain was imminent, it is still significant that
Christians and Muslims
were carrying out their lives in a co-existence reflected in their
jewelry. The
necklace was inscribed with “Hail Mary, Full of Grace,” the
greeting of Archangel
Gabriel to Mary at the Annunciation. Although these pieces
look Islamic in artistic
design, this necklace was believed to be for a wealthy Christian
patron.
Works Cited

Alkhateeb, Firas. "Christianity and the Muslim Conquest of
Spain."
lostislamichistory.com, 9 Mar. 2013,
lostislamichistory.com/christianity-and-
the-muslim-conquest-of-spain/. Accessed 20 Nov. 2017.
Dodds, Jerrilyn, editor. Al-Andalusia: The Art of Islamic Spain.
2012.
www.metmuseum.org. Accessed 10 Oct. 2017.
Ekhtiar, Maryam D., and Claire Moore. Art of the Islamic
World. 2012.
Georgievska, Marija. "The Treasure of Guarrazar."
TheVintageNews.com, 8 Apr.
2017, www.thevintagenews.com/2017/04/08/the-treasure-of-
guarrazar-one-
of-the-most-important-visigothic-treasures-in-the-iberian-
peninsula/.
Accessed 22 Nov. 2017.
"The Great Mosque of Cordoba." Khan Academy,
www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-

and-colonial-
americas/ap-art-islamic-world-medieval/a/the-great-mosque-of-
cordoba.
Accessed 22 Nov. 2017.
Lourie, Elena. "A Society Organized for War: Medieval Spain."
Past & Present, no.
35, 1966, pp. 54-76, {http://www.jstor.org/stable/649966},
Accessed 13 Oct.
2017.
O'Neill, John P., editor. The Art of Medieval Spain AD 500-
1200. 1993.
Russell, J.C. "Chronicles of Medieval Spain." Hispanic Review,
vol. 6, no. 3, 1938,
pp. 218-35, {http://www.jstor.org/stable/469668}, Accessed 11
Oct. 2017.
Guggenheim Museum, Ressa Exhibit

Grading Rubric for Virtual Exhibit, Art History, Raymond
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Research was aggressive, utilizing several
authoritative print & digital sources
Material was assessed thoroughly & critically
Assimilation of the sources was sophisticated
& relevance to topic is clear
Format of citations is consistent in
bibliography
Research was thorough, utilizing at least
three authoritative print & digital sources
in addition to textbook

Material was assessed critically
Assimilation of the sources was careful &
relevance to topic is clear
Format of citations is consistent in
bibliography
Research was moderate, utilizing print
& digital sources in addition to textbook
Some material was assessed critically
Sources are relevant to topic
Format of citations is inconsistent
Research was limited to textbook
Material was used verbatim &
without critical assessment
Some material seems out of place
Lacks appropriate citations
20 -- 17 -- 15 -- 13 --
GRADE & COMMENTS

A
EXEMPLARY
B
VERY GOOD
C
DEVELOPING
D
NOT ADEQUATE
T
H
E
M
E
Thematic label is meaningful & compelling and
ideas reflect critical & original thought on topic
Object analysis (factual and/or formal) is
present and persuasive
Exhibit is organized & cohesive; each object is
effectively displayed; the flow of the gallery is
clear
Thematic label is meaningful and ideas
reflect critical thought on topic
Object analysis (factual and/or formal) is

present
Exhibit is organized; each object is clearly
displayed
Thematic label is basic to coursework
and reflects some thought on topic
Object analysis (factual and/or formal)
is partially presented
Exhibit is somewhat organized
Thematic label is unclear or
superficial
Object analysis (factual and/or
formal) is incomplete
Exhibit lacks structure
20 -- 18 -- 16 -- 14 --
A
R
T
W
O
R
K
S

Object selection reflects research and careful
consideration of aesthetic and cultural qualities
Object information is complete & images are
clear
Information is well ordered, directly supports
theme & creates momentum
Object selection reflects careful
consideration of aesthetic and cultural
qualities
Object information is complete & images
are adequate
Information is ordered & supports theme
Object selection reflects expedient
choices
Object information is incomplete
Information is ordered according to
writer’s interest
Object selection reflects expedient
choices
Lacks essential object information
Information is poorly ordered

20 -- 18-- 16 -- 14 --
V
O
IC
E
Voice is strong & clear
Writer is engaged with topic
Descriptions are substantive & articulate
Prose shows attention to clarity, word choice,
grammar, & spelling
Voice is clear
Writer is engaged with topic
Descriptions are articulate
Prose is clear; there are a few grammatical
& spelling mistakes
Voice is clear, but developing
Writer is moderately interested in topic
Descriptions are detailed
Prose has several grammatical &
spelling mistakes

Voice is inconsistent and writer
seems disinterested with topic
Descriptions are weak
Prose needs attention to clarity,
grammar and spelling
20 -- 18-- 16 -- 14 --
Your Virtual Exhibit
Art History
Amy Raymond
This project is your opportunity to venture beyond our study
guide art works and
discover more art from the time periods that we cover in this
class. You will create an exhibit
theme, identify 6 to 10 objects, develop thematic and object
labels, and then install your exhibit
in a virtual gallery. Your theme or topic might explore a
question (“What is Mannerism?”), a
common subject (“The Male Gaze in European Painting”),
techniques (“Theophilus and Stained
Glass”), or architecture (“Palladio and the Villa Rotonda”).
You can select objects from books,

museums, or online, and only two objects may be from our
study guides.
There are no restrictions on where you locate objects online. I
recommend
museum websites, such as the Metropolitan Museum of New
York, the J. Paul Getty Museum,
the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Louvre Museum, the
State Museums of Berlin, the
British Museum, the Vatican Museums, the Uffizi Gallery and
other museums in Florence, the
Prado in Madrid, the De Young Museum, and the Legion of
Honor Museum in San Francisco.
Other recommended online sources include the Google Art
Project, Wikiart.org, the Art History
section at besthistorysites.net, SmartHistory.org, and the Met’s
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art
History.
We will complete this project in steps (with graded feedback):
1) Initial Thoughts (20 Points). Submit a potential topic or idea
(under 250 words). What idea
do you want to explore? What object or group of objects would
you like to learn more about?

What is a point about art that you wish to make? Research your
topic thoroughly and select
one object that may be central to your exhibit.
2) Theme (20 Points). Submit the theme or topic that you will
explore with artworks. You should
think of this as akin to a thesis for a research paper. Submit a
title with a 2-3 sentence description
and a list four references that were most helpful in your
research thus far. Your sources must
include at least three print sources, eBooks or eArticles. (Do
not list your textbooks or wiki
sources. Please check Easybib.com or use NoodleTools to be
sure that you are citing your sources
correctly. MLA or Chicago are acceptable citation styles.)
3) Objects (20 Points). Submit a list of the 6-10 objects that
you have selected for your exhibit.
Each object should have object information that includes Name,
Artist, Material, Date of
Creation, Scale, Current Location, Image and a URL of the
image used.
4) Three-Object Post (20 Points). Please post an exhibit label
that introduces your theme

(approximately 400-600 words), and post images and labels for
three of your objects. Each object
label should include its object info (from previous step) and a
brief description (200-400 words)
that clarifies how this object explores the central idea of your
exhibit.
5) Peer Comments (40 Points). You will be assigned to review
the “Three-Object Post” written
by two of your classmates. Both laudatory and critical
comments are mandatory. Critical
comments must offer ideas for improvement or stipulate
realistic paths for enhancing their
exhibit. For editorial comments, do not rewrite the entirety of
someone else’s label, but offer
one or two suggestions for re-phrasing or clarifying some
statements.
6) Online Exhibit (80 points). Submit your final project to me,
which includes your thematic
label(s), your images and labels for 6-10 objects, and your
bibliography. You should also submit
a design of your gallery space that clearly demonstrates how
your objects and thematic label(s)
would be installed in this exhibit. This may be as simple as a
scanned hand-drawing of the gallery

space, a pptx, or a CAD or BIM project (as long as it is saved in
a format that is easily viewed, such
as pdf, jpeg, pptx or mp4). You may submit a text-based
document, a slide presentation or a
virtual space with links to images and labels. The format of
this final presentation is up to you.
Your grade will be based on your research, your critical and
creative thought on the topic, the
compelling nature of your theme, the clarity of your labels, and
the appropriateness and variety
of your object selection, all as stated in your Virtual Exhibit
Rubric.
There are more detailed instructions in the Virtual Exhibit
Module on Canvas.

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