Materials for the academic reading and writing workshop

Academic Reading and Writing Workshop Roberto Criollo
The Ultimate Guide Spring 2020

WORKSHOP CONTENT
_______________________________________________________________
MODULE ONE: EXPLORING ACADEMIC WRITING
1.1 What is Academic Writing?
1.2 Features of Academic Writing
1.1 Helping students to select their research topics
1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources
1.2.1 Books
1.2.2 Theses and Other Resources
1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources
1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology
1.4.1 Research Methods
1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research
1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research
1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research
1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research
1.4.1.2 Correlational Research
1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies
1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies
1.4.1.3 Experimental Research
1.4.1.4 Other Research Types
1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research
1.4.14.2 Causal-Comparative Research
1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research
1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology
1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?
MODULE TWO: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
2.1 Parts of the Thesis
2.2 Content of the Introductory Chapter
2.3 Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction
2.4 Rhetoric and Formulas
2.4.1 Introduction to the Problem
2.4.2 Purpose of the Study
2.4.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses
2.4.3.1 Research Questions
2.4.3.2 Hypotheses
2.4.4 Definitions of Terms
2.4.5 Significance of the Study
2.5 Sample Introductions

MODULE THREE: WRITING TRAINING AND FORMATTING
3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style
3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs
3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness
3.2 Editing the Paper
3.2.1 Editing for Grammar
3.2.1.1 The Sentence
3.2.1.2 The Paragraph
3.4 Formatting Your Paper
MODULE FOUR: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review
4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline
4.3 Formatting ) Style (i.e. American Psychological Association APA)
4.4 Developing the Outline
4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph
4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice
4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence
4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors
4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors
4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View
4.4.4 Some Practical Advice for the Review of Literature
4.4.4.1 Integrating Ideas from Sources
4.4.4.2 Common Errors in the Review of Literature
4.4.4.3 Solutions to the Problems
4.4.4.4 Revising Literature Review Paragraphs
MODULE FIVE: WRITING THE METHOD CHAPTER
5.1 Content and Function of Chapter III: The Methodology Chapter
5.2 Describing Subjects
5.3 Instruments
5.3.1 Locating and Developing Instruments
5.3.2 Developing One’s Own Instruments
5.3.3 Procedures for Instrument Design
5.4 Describing Instruments
5.5 Describing Procedures
5.6 Describing Data Analysis
5.7 Sample Methodology Chapters and Appended Instruments
MODULE SIX: WRITING THE RESULTS CHAPTER
6.1 Analyzing Data
6.1.1 Steps for Data Analysis Procedures
6.1.2 Guidelines for Using Tables
6.1.3 Considerations When Using Figures

6.1.4 Appendices
6.2 Content of Chapter Four
6.2.1 Hypotheses (Subheadings)
6.2.2 Variable
6.2.3 Time Sequence
6.4 Writing and Formatting the Chapter
6.5 A Note on Quantitative Data Analysis
6.5.1 Measures of Central Tendency
6.5.2 Measures of Variability
6.5.3 SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACADEMIC WRITING
TEXT ONE
This section will discuss the relationship between clothing and second language
learning. Irrelevant as it may seem at first, there is a strong correlation between the clothes a
person wears and how successful they could be at language learning. The notion of clothing
was first addressed by Hall (1956), who found that a person’s outwear reflects important social
information such as their status, their cultural level, and their personality. In a way, clothes
make an important statement about an individual’s lifestyle (Levi-Strauss & Klein 1973). In
recent times, linguists and researchers have explored the issue of clothing as it refers to
language learning success. The first study on this topic was conducted by McBriggs (1999a),
who found that successful learners in her classes tended to dress rather informally, jeans being
common among them. In another more impressive study, James & Brown (2002) correlated the
types of clothes worn by 100 subjects to their TOEFL scores, and found that as informality of
clothes increased, subjects’ scores in the exam would increase in equal proportion. There is,
however, one last study that does not support the relationship between clothing and language
learning. Such study was performed by McIntosh (2006), working with advanced French
learners in Canada. Upon correlating grades and types of clothes, she found that the correlation
was not significant, slightly below the 0.5 level in the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Coefficient. More research seems to be necessary to test the hypothesis, but it is, in fact, quite
possible that certain aspects of personality and social status reflected in a person’s clothes may
be related to language learning success.

TEXT TWO
As you know, practicing English is very important to learn it well. but, do students get
enough time to speak English? We were very interested in this topic, so the other day we went
to visit a teacher in his class and we sat down at the back of the room to observe how she
taught. It was very interesting and fun! We looked the students and the teacher and then, you
know, we wanted to see if the students participated in class, so we wrote everything in a
notebook. First the teacher said “hi, everybody!” and everybody said hi too. And we knew
then that students and teachers always greet each other in English, which is good, right? As you
can imagine, we stayed there the whole class looking at the guys, and they were kind of like, a
little embarrassed, but in the end we had a lot of stuff to talk about. In the results we counted
all the things and it was, ooops, totally freaking. We found that students don’t practice English
much. We spend the whole blessed day in the classroom, but we think it’s cool ‘cause we
learned a lot of stuff. We didn’t get bored or anything like that. We are gonna do it again
tomorrow or next week.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACADEMIC WRITING
Before looking at the text After looking at the text

1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology
Once you have developed a little literature review, it’s time to delimit your topic. That is, you
must identify specific researchable problems. To do this, you need to select the research
method that you are going to use. Let us start by defining the concept of thesis.
What is a thesis?
Simply stated, a thesis is a piece of research that is required by a university in order to award
an academic degree.
What is research?
“Research is the study of an event, situation, problem or phenomenon using systematic and
objective methods in order to understand it better and develop theories or principles about it”
(Richards, Platt, & Platt 1992; Vogt 1999).
1.4.1 Research Methods
There are some major types of research in the field of humanities. Below you will find
the description of each of these research types (Based on Long, Convey, & Chwalek 1985).
Exercise One: Fill in the blanks with the words you find appropriate in each case (the
same word may be used more than once). The words you can choose from are given
before each definition. When you finish, check your answers in the answer key at the end
of this book.
Questionnaires – Questions - Quantitative – Collecting – Qualitative - Hypotheses –
Interviews

1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research: It involves _________ data in order to answer __________ or
test ____________ about the current status of the situation under study.
1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research typically employs ____________ or, in some cases, ________ to
determine people’s opinions, attitudes, and perceptions about the situation being studied.
Survey research ordinarily uses __________ methods, but ___________ methods may be
necessary if the data are obtained from interviews.
1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research determines the current status of a __________ by
__________ it rather than simply asking about it. Observational research can be broadly
defined as ____________ observation or ____________ observation. A case study is a type of
observational research that ordinarily uses ___________ observation. In it, the researcher
performs an in-depth ____________ of the situation but usually is not directly involved in the
situation and does not ___________ or manipulate it.
1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research is a type of observational research that usually employs
_____________ observation as a form of inquiry in which the researcher is both an observer,
and as such is responsible to persons outside the situation being studied, and also a genuine
__________, and as such has a stake in the situation and its outcomes. Ethnographic research
usually occurs in a _________ setting, that is, the researcher __________ and studies behavior
as it normally occurs. It involves the intensive examination of a situation in which data are
___________ on many __________ over an extended period of time. These data may come
from in-depth interviewing, field notes, diaries, thematic musings of the ______________,
chronologs (running accounts of behavior), context maps or diagrams, schedules, taxonomies,
_____________ (relational diagrams showing who interacts with whom) questionnaires, rating
scales, checklists, and audio or video ___________. The analysis of the data is largely
______________, and it is also more inductive.
Records - Collected – Sociometrics – Participant – Researcher – Qualitative –
Variables – Naturalistic - Recordings
Participant – Control – Non-participant – Observing – Situation -
Investigation

1.4.1.2 Correlational Research: It involves collecting ___________ to determine the existence
of a _______________ between two or more variables and to estimate the relationship’s
______________. The relationship is usually described by a _____________ called the Pearson
Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient. This __________, which is between –1.00 and 1.00,
describes the __________ of a ____________ relationship between two __________ –that is,
how closely the points represented by ordered pairs of individual scores on each variable
approximate a straight line when ____________ in a coordinate system. Values of –1.00 and
1.00 indicate a perfect ________ relationship (inverse and direct, respectively), while a value of
.00 indicates no linear __________. Correlational research studies are usually classified as
relationship studies or prediction studies.
1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies examine the association between measures of different
_________ obtained at approximately the same time. In addition to investigating the
___________ between variables of interest, these studies often try to obtain a better
understanding of factors that make up a ___________ construct such as intelligence, self-
concept, or school ability.
1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies involve the establishment of an equation that is used to
_________ future performance on some variable, called the dependent ______ or the criterion,
from information obtained from other variables, called the ________ variables or the
predictors. In addition to predicting performance on the criterion, researchers often seek to
identify which ____________ are more important in explaining changes in the _____________.
Prediction studies are used to aid in the ________ or placement of individuals, to identify
individuals to perform certain tasks or to receive special services, etc.
Criterion - Extent – Selection - Number – Relationship – Linear – Predict - Data –
Magnitude – Predictors - Variables – Graphed – Statistic – Complex – Variable -
Experimental error – Internal – Dependent – Representativeness - Experiment –
Experimental – Validity - Evidence – Essential – Researcher – Independent –
Differences – Instructional programs – Produce – Variable - Controlled

1.4.1.3 Experimental Research: It involves the examination of the effects of at least one
independent __________ on one or more ____________ variables while other relevant
variables are controlled. Direct manipulation of at least one independent variable is the main
characteristic that differentiates __________ research from other methods. When well
conducted, experimental research provides the strongest _________ for cause-and-effect
relationships. Control of extraneous variables is __________ in experimental research studies.
The ____________ tries to remove the influence of any __________, other than the
___________ variables of interest, that might affect the dependent ___________. Variables that
typically need to be ____________ are those involving individual ___________ among
subjects, such as ability or interest readiness, and environmental variables, such as teachers or
___________ _____________ or experiences. Such variables may ___________ unwanted
differences between experimental groups. Uncontrolled extraneous variables that affect
performance on the dependent variables increase the chances of ___________ __________ and
jeopardize the experiment’s __________.
A good research design maximizes both the ___________ validity and the external validity of
an ____________. Internal validity is the extent to which changes in the dependent
____________ can be attributed to changes in an ___________ variable. External validity
refers to the generalizability or ______________ of the findings.
1.4.1.4 Other Research Types
1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research
In this type of ______________, the researcher _____________ collects data about
____________ events in order to __________ hypotheses. The main ____________ underlying
this type of research is ______________ the past and present, and, if possible, _____________
the future. It is not very common in the areas of TESOL/AL.
1.4.1.4.2 Causal-Comparative Research
Test — Anticipating — Research —Purpose—Systematically —
Understanding — Past

This research type is similar to ______________ research in that it tries to establish
cause-and-effect relationships between ________________ of interest. However, the difference
is that no experiment is ________________ and no variable is _______________. Here, the
________________is studied ex post facto –that is, __________ the fact. In these studies, a
_____________ of individuals possessing the target variables are studied and ______________
to another group of ______________ who do not ______________ the variables, and some
conclusions are drawn. Because of this characteristic, some authors refer to causal-comparative
research as, _________________ but it goes better as a type of descriptive research.
1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research
Although the underlying methodological _________________ may be one of the types of
research ________________ above, what makes a study methodological is the fact that it
_________________ on testing certain procedures for _________________ data, designing or
validating research___________________, and investigating aspects of statistics,
_________________, and evaluation. In other words, the subjects of methodological research
are research methodologies!!
1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Once the different research methods available for use have been shown, it is important
to draw a distinction between quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research refers
to those studies in which data are analyzed in terms of numbers. That is, when you calculate
percentages or statistics. In contrast, qualitative research includes “Studies of subjects that are
hard to quantify” (Vogt 1999). Thus, introspection, case studies, ethnographic studies, and
surveys where data is collected by interviews, are typical examples of qualitative research.
Group — Conducted — Causal-Comparative Research — Non-Experimental —
Compared — Manipulated — Experimental — Subjects — After — Possess —
Variables — Relationship
Instruments — Procedures — Measurement — Gathering — Described
— Focuses

It is important to mention that no paradigm is inherently better than the other. However,
there are some preferences depending on the country and the institution. American universities,
for example, will encourage and value hardcore quantitative research, whereas British
universities seem to find qualitative research more fulfilling, especially at the graduate level.
Choice of methodological paradigm will then depend on the institution requirements and on the
purposes of the research. Some studies lend themselves better for qualitative research, and some
others are rather hard to handle using percentages and statistics.
Finally, it must be emphasized that the quantitative-qualitative distinction does not refer
to a dichotomy of mutually exclusive paradigms, but rather to the fact that research
methodologies can be arranged along a continuum between qualitative and quantitative
paradigms. Thus, on one end of the continuum we will find introspection techniques, whereas
experimental research is the epitome of quantitative research. The qualitative-quantitative
continuum of research methodologies is illustrated in the figure on the next page, taken from
Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991).

What is a good
topic??
1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?
Once you have selected your topic, you need to evaluate it. What is a good topic for a
thesis? The following criteria may be helpful.
Find it out by answering the questions below!
 Is your topic directly related to our field of study? Or is it cross-disciplinary?
 Do you have a sound base knowledge about this topic? Do you master its basic concepts?
 Is the topic relevant and applicable to the field?
 Is the topic interesting?
 Is the topic feasible?
 Is the topic original?
 Do you have an idea of the kind of bibliographic resources you will need for your research?
Are they readily available?
 Do you know any professors in the staff who can help you and guide you in your research?
 Do you have a clear idea of the procedures you will need to carry out to develop your
project (i.e. the instrument you will use to collect your data, the type of analyses you will
follow to interpret your results)?
 Based on the instrument you intend to use, will you have access to the subjects or
institutions you intend to develop your research in?
 Will your research be extensive enough as to cover the institution thesis requirements? Or
will it be too short or too long?

3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis
As you know, a thesis is a piece of academic writing that must comply with certain
professional and stylistic conventions. In this section, we will learn about the most important
characteristics of academic writing.
3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style (Adapted from Swales & Feak 1994)
1. Avoid contractions
a) Learners with low motivation won’t acquire the language as effectively as highly motivated
learners.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms
Not... any  no
Not... much  little
Not...many  few
a) The analysis did not yield any new results.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
a) Professors do not earn much money, and this is reflected on their motivation.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
a) This problem does not have many viable solutions.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
3. Limit the use of run on expressions, such as “etc.”, “and so forth”
a) The Silent Way method involves the use of color charts, rods, etc.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
4. Avoid addressing the reader as “you”
a) You can see the results in Table 1.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
5. Limit the use of direct questions
a) What can be done to lower costs?
b) ______________________________________________________________________

6. Place adverbs within the verb.
a) Then the solution can be discarded.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
a) Anxiety can be reduced gradually.
b) ______________________________________________________________________
3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs
Another important characteristic of academic writing is that Latinate verbs (verbs derived from
Latin) are preferred since they are felt to be more academic. Phrasal verbs, in turn, are more
common in informal writing or in spoken English. Thus, we Spanish speakers are at an
advantage, for Latinate verbs are usually cognates. The following exercise was adapted from
Swales and Feak (1994). First, look at the verbs in the box and then change the phrasal verbs in
the sentences to make them more academic.
Exercise Five: Choose a verb from the box that reduces the informality of each sentence.
You may need to add tense (Adapted from Swales and Feak 1994).
1. Visual aids can help out the teacher in the demonstration of new vocabulary.
_________________________________________________________________________
2. This new teacher organization was set up to facilitate professional development.
_________________________________________________________________________
3. With this new methodology, students’ grades have gone up to a 60%.
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Some authors believe that cutting down the number of errors committed by students is
counterproductive: The more errors students make, the more they will learn.
_________________________________________________________________________
5. This research tries to find out the impact of visual aids on the acquisition of vocabulary.
_________________________________________________________________________
6. Even though teachers plan very carefully their lessons and provide complete and detailed
explanations, they will never get rid of linguistic errors in learner production.
Assist Reduce Create Raise Investigate
Establish Increase Determine Eliminate Fluctuate

_________________________________________________________________________
7. This research will look into the problem of low motivation in the high school classroom.
_________________________________________________________________________
8. This issue of interlanguage was brought up to explain the uniqueness of learner linguistic
systems.
_________________________________________________________________________
9. Even with limited professional training, some English teachers come up with very effective
materials and activities.
_________________________________________________________________________
10. Interest in language errors has been going up and down in the last few years.
_________________________________________________________________________
3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness
Finally, remember that the academic English tends to be direct and concise. Avoid long
and complex sentences, unnecessary details or words, and edit your paper to see if you can say
the same things in fewer words. Wordiness is considered poor style in English-speaking
universities!

This chapter will help you to develop a draft and write the introductory chapter to your
thesis. The first thing we need to do is look at the general structure of the thesis. A typical thesis
in the English language contains five chapters: An introduction, a literature review, a method
chapter, a chapter of results, and one for the conclusions. In addition, it should include a list of
the references used in the investigation, and one or more appendices. This structure is
illustrated in the model below, from American MA. Theses.
2.1 Parts of the Thesis
1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction to the Problem.
1.2 Purpose of the Study.
1.3 Hypotheses/Research Questions.
1.4 Definitions of Terms.
1.5 Significance of the Study.
1.6 Research Content and Organization (optional)
2. Literature Review
 Structure and content varies according to topic
3. Method
3.1 Subjects.
3.2 Instruments.
3.3 Materials (if applicable).
3.4 Tasks (if applicable).
3.5 Treatment (if applicable).
3.6 Pilot Study (if applicable).
3.7 Procedures.
3.8 Design and Data Analysis
4. Results
 Structure and content varies according to topic
5. Conclusions
5.1. Summary of Results
5.2 Implications
5.3 Limitations of the Study
5.4 Suggestions for Further Research

6. List of References
7. Appendices
At this point, it is important to state two things. First, that only in Mexico do BA.
students have to write a thesis. In the US and the UK, writing a thesis is done only by graduate
students. In addition, a thesis defense (dissertation) is almost exclusive of doctoral students.
The second point to be emphasized here is that that different countries will have different
content requirements. For example, the introductory chapter to a British thesis will be as
follows:
As you can see, British researchers introduce the problem in a different way and the
introduction is not the first chapter, but is similar to a preface. In addition, there will usually be
fewer research questions and no key terms will be defined.
Whatever content format you decide to use, the important thing is to be consistent and
not use a Mexican format, which varies considerably from the English-speaking ones. Even
more important, you should not mix or combine different formats. The example suggested here
is the American one simply because it is the one the author of this book is more familiar with
and the one he’s used to direct thesis. As a final remark, it can be said that this American format
was accepted by King’s College in two thesis directed by this author in 2002. British professors
seemed to have no problem with the fact that the theses were not written in their style (the
spelling used was British, though). Obviously, the quality of the content is more important than
its format.

It is extremely important to note that all the elements in the research are related to
one another. There are very close and important links between and among them, which
are shown in the figure below.
The Links Between Different Elements in the Thesis
Hypotheses
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Let us now focus on the content of Chapter One: The Introduction.
2.2 Content of the Introductory Chapter
The introductory chapter of your proposal provides an orientation to your study. In it,
you describe the problem you plan to investigate, state the purpose of your study, indicate the
questions and hypotheses you will address and tell why the study is important. A synopsis of
the theoretical framework underlying your study forms a major part of the introductory
chapter.
Exercise Three: Read each description of the different parts of the introduction and label
them according to the model shown above. Check your answers in the answer key.
________________________: Hypotheses are conjectures, subject to verification, that offer
possible solutions to questions associated with the problem under investigation. Research
questions ask about relationships among variables. Hypotheses speculate about the nature of
those relationships.
Purpose of the study Research Questions Research Method
Results
(answers to RQs)

______________________: Describe the importance of your study and the contribution to
knowledge that you expect it to make. Present evidence for the theoretical significance of your
study and also for its practical significance, if any.
________________: Any term that lacks precise meaning should be operationally defined.
________________________: Indicate precisely which aspects of the problem you intend to
examine. You should identify the variables that will be considered and state the major
questions your study is intended to answer.
________________________: Identify the context within which you will conduct your study
and give any background information needed to clarify this context. Next, provide a succinct
description, citing relevant sources, of how present knowledge about the problem has evolved
and what issues remain unsolved.
2.3 Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction
Problem statement: A problem statement is the concrete and explicit specification of the
exact problem that your will study. It should include all the facts, relationships, and
explanations that your analysis of the problem showed to be relevant. It follows your
description of the context of the problem. State what you intend to do in your research.
Research questions and hypotheses: As a result of your analysis of the problem, you should
formulate one or several major research questions that your study will address. Remember that
your study should be able to provide answer(s) for each of them. Be sure not to include
questions for which there are answers already or questions that are impossible to answer by any
known means. Ask yourself: Is my research method going to provide answers to each
question? Next, construct one or several hypotheses that provide possible answers to the
questions you have raised.
Finally, it is important to say that the purpose of the study can be translated into several
research questions. These questions are not to be answered based on personal opinions. They
are not to be answered with the literature, either. The role of the theoretical background is to
help us understand and interpret our topic (the hypotheses, on the other hand, are possible
answers to the research questions, based on the theoretical framework of the study). Only the
research method can give us valid the answers to the research questions. Once we are able to
answer the questions, we will also be able to achieve the purpose of our study.

2.4 Rhetoric and Formulas
2.4.1 Introduction to the Problem
There is no specific formula to introduce a problem, you can proceed in any way you can,
keeping in mind that all you have to do is introduce your problem. Remember to include
facts, and evidence to support your observation of the problem. Some people usually start
by describing a situation, and then presenting the problem that they detected in that
situation. The introduction proceeds from the general to the specific and is usually
organized as follows:
When the main general topic is too wide or complex, there may be additional
paragraphs before getting to the really specific topic to be analyzed. Swales (1981b) studied
research article introductions and he found the following structure in successful introductions.
Move 1: Establishing the research field.
Move 2: Summarizing previous research.
Move 3: Preparing for present research.
Move 4: Introducing present research.
Theoretical
Background
(General)
Theoretical
Background
(Specific)
Posing of problem in
actual research context

The structure of introductions found by Swales is very useful as it provides an outline to
the content to be presented in the introduction. At this point, it will be useful to look at two
examples.
GENRE 1: ACADEMIC DEFINITIONS
Definitions are the simplest type of academic texts. They form part of a larger category
of texts termed General to Specific Texts (GS, Swales & Feak 2012), and “are often used as
introductions to longer pieces of writing” (p. 33). In our field and at the undergraduate level of
instruction, definitions are usually taken from sources and used in our writing to give it support
or introduce important information that we will use later. Thus, we actually do not create
definitions, but only re-state them (paraphrase them). In other words, the important aspect is
not the definition itself, but how we put it in writing using our own words, citing original
sources.
Exercise: Using the sources and information below, write definitions that accurately and
completely paraphrase the information, citing the sources appropriately. Beware of
plagiarism!
Bilingual Acquisition: “The (more or less) simultaneous acquisition of two or more languages
before the age of three years such that each language is acquired with native competency”
(Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams 2003, p. 575).
Authenticity: “The degree to which language teaching materials have the qualities of natural
speech or writing (McNamara 2000, p. 27).
Multimedia tools: “Instructional tools that contain information in multiple formats, including
texts sounds, images, animation or movies” (Cennamo, Ross, & Ertmer 2010, p. 502).
Language learning and language use strategies: “Those processes which are consciously
selected by learners and which may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use of a
second or foreign language through the storage, retention, recall, and application of the
information about that language” (Cohen 2014, p. 4).
Cennamo, K.S., Ross, J. D., & Ertmer, P. A. (2010). Technology Integration for Meaningful
Classroom Use: A Standards-based Approach. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Cohen, A. D. (2011). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Routledge.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. (2003). An Introduction to Language. Boston:
Thomson & Heinle.
McNamara, T. (2000). Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style
Before you develop your outline, you should be aware that you must cite references in
the body of your paper and in your list of references using the APA Style. Now, what is that?
In case you have never used it before or even heard about it, let’s review it together.
The term “APA style” refers to a standardized way of citing references in your text and
in the list of references at the end of your thesis. The most important consideration is that there
must be a one-to-one correspondence between the references in your text and those in your list
of references: If a book is cited in the text, it should be in the list of references; and if a book is
in the list of references, it should be cited somewhere in the text. The most common ways of
citing references will be described below. For others, refer to the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (5th
Ed).
4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text
The main advantage of APA style over others is that it makes footnotes unnecessary.
There are two ways to cite references in the body of your text. First, the author’s name may
be part of your sentence, as in the following examples:
A typical finding about the families of mildly retarded children was reported by Richardson
(1981), who administered group IQ tests to all youngsters’ ages 7 to 9 in a major city in
Scotland.
Scott and Karan (1987) described three levels of prevention of mental retardation:
Primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Note that the date of publication appears in parentheses and all the authors of a given
study are listed in the order in which their names appear on the publication. Also, only last
names are used. Do NOT write the authors’ full names or initials.
Second, the authors’ names may not be part of your sentence, but are cited to support a
given point you are making. Look at the two examples below.
Executive function is another key factor in the poor performance of children who are
mentally retarded (Baumeister & Brooks, 1981; Borkowski & Day, 1987; Sternberg,
1982).

At one time, many children with IQ scores of 75 who are adapting poorly to school
would have been placed in special programs for youngsters with mental retardation;
they are not being placed there today (Reschly, 1981).
Note that when more than one citation appears in parentheses, they are in alphabetical
order by the name of the first author when there are more than one. Also, citations are
separated by semi-colons (look at the first example).
After the first time you have cited one reference with multiple authors (three or more)
you may use et al. after the first author’s name. Here is an example:
(First mention of the reference)
Learning disabled youngsters are substantially less proficient than their nondisabled
peers in computing the basic number facts of addition, subtraction, and multiplication
(Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982).
(Second mention of the reference)
Fleishner et al. (1982) also reported a higher incidence of counting strategies among
third- and sixth-grade LD children than among normally achieving math students when
they solved 12 basic addition facts.
4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source
Present the secondary source in the reference list and cite the original work with the
secondary source in the text. For example, if a study by Margould (1981) was cited in Tournaki
(1990), in your text you should say:
Margould’s (1981) study (cited in Tournaki, 1990) reported that underachieving students
typically feel frustrated and dislike school learning.
In your reference list at the end of your paper, you would list only Tournaki’s article,
not Margould’s.
4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper
Citations in your reference list should be in alphabetical order by authors’ last name.
Note that after the first line of the citation, all others are indented. Also, note that if there are
multiple authors, a comma follows each name and an ampersand (&) precedes the last author.
Only authors’ last names and initials are used: Never give the author’s first names or any titles

(e.g., Ph.D.). Also notice that the publication year always appears in parentheses after the
authors’ names. Formats for a variety of citations from different sources are presented below.
4.3.3.1 Journal Article
Ackerman, P.T., Anhalt, J. M., & Dykman, R.A. (1986). Arithmetic automatization failure in
children with attention and reading disorders: Associations and sequelae. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 19, 222-232.
The authors’ names appear in the order in which they appear on the article. The words
in the article title are not capitalized (except the first word or the first after a colon). The words
in the journal name are capitalized and the journal name is underlined, the volume number is
underlined, but the pages are not. An alternative to underlining is using italics. The words
“volume” and “pages” are not used. The journal “number” such as in “volume 3”, “number 2”
is not given, unless each issue of the journal begins pagination with page sequentially so that,
when they are bound, they will function like a book. In the latter case, the reference would
appear as follows:
Becker, L.J., & Selingman, C. (1981). Welcome to the energy crisis. Journal of Social Issues,
37(2), 1-7
4.3.3.2 Book
Wadsworth, B.J. (1978). Piaget in the classroom. New York: Longman.
Note once again that the author’s initials are used (not first or middle names), followed
by the publication year in parentheses. The book title is underlined with only the first word
capitalized. The publication location is followed (after a colon) by the publisher.
4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book
Ashcraft, M. H. (1987). Children’s knowledge of simple arithmetic: A developmental model
and simulation. In J. Bezanz, C. Brainerd, & R. Kail (Eds.), Formal methods in
developmental psychology (pp. 302-338). New York: Apringer-Verlag.

Note that after the author and publication year, the chapter title (with only the first
word and the first word after a colon capitalized) is presented. Then, the editors are listed,
followed by the book title (underlined, first word only capitalized), and pages or volume in
parentheses (this time with the pp. or Vol. Written). This is followed by the publication
location and publisher.
4.3.3.4 ERIC Document
Gottfredson, L.S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforce pattern scores? Baltimore,
MD: John Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization of Schools. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182-465).
Note that after the author, year and title, the location and affiliation of the author
appears, followed by the ERIC Document Number in parentheses. For updates on the new
changes to APA style, visit:
https://sfcollege.libguides.com/apa7/new
Well, you are now ready to use APA style in your theses. Always refer to this guide
when in doubt… go ahead and start taking notes for chapter II!

SUMMARIZING: THE ABSTRACT
Another important genre in academic writing is the abstract, since the writing process always
begins with reading, understanding and summarizing other texts. Texts to be summarized
include research articles and reports, and theses or dissertations. The important information in a
research paper includes the following:
Title: _________________ Author(s): __________________ Year: _________________
1. Purpose of the study:
2. Methodology:
a) Participants
b) Instruments
c) Procedures
4. Main results:
5. Conclusion(s):

Example One
Thesis Topic: ______________________________ Move _______________
Areas where ESP has been most strongly emphasized are science, medicine, and law
(Dudley-Evans & Saint-John 1998; Swales 2000). However, there are some other minor fields
where English is also necessary for employees to carry out their daily activities. English in
these areas is commonly known as English for Occupational Purposes (Dudley-Evans & Saint-
John 1998, Willis 1996). In Puebla, one of the occupations with greater demand for English
language courses is that of tourism. More specifically, the hotel industry welcomes every year
a great number of guests from the United States and, to lesser extent from other English-
Speaking Countries. However, most people working in hotels in Puebla have taken general
English courses which may not be sufficient to allow them to perform optimally in their work.
It is then necessary to consider the need of systematically analyzing the language needs of
people in the hotel industry in order to be able to design English courses that fulfill the working
requirements made to these employees.
English language teaching has widely diversified in order to be able to satisfy the
demands of an ever-changing population of learners. Thus, since its emergence 35 years ago,
the field of ESP has grown considerably to extend to domains such as science, medicine, law,
and business (Hutchinson & Waters 1987, Robinson 1991, Swales 2000). These developments
in ESP have grown parallel to the increasing acknowledgment of the learners’ needs and wants
as a central part of curriculum development in general language teaching (Brindley 1984,
Holliday 1994, Munby 1978, Nunan 1988, White 1988, Willis 1996, Yalden 1985). It is now
recognized that any language program will be only as relevant as it fulfills the learners’
requirements within a wider social context.
The main purpose underlying this thesis is to perform a needs analysis of the
receptionists in the Aristos and Royalty hotels in order to be able to develop a curriculum that
can be used for these and other hotel employees or potential employees. Such analysis includes

their present level of proficiency, the usefulness of previous English language courses, their
perceived need of this language in their work, the level that they consider necessary to perform
successfully, the skills that they need to develop, their possible interlocutors, and the main
communicative events and tasks that they need to master.
Example Two
Thesis Topic:______________________________ Move _______________
However, since the TCU English program of the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de
Puebla was first developed and started in 1995 as a response to the need of internalization
resulting from the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), no systematic curriculum
evaluation had been carried out. After five years, then, it was necessary to look back, analyze
and reflect on the program’s impact and results. Former evaluations undertaken by outsiders
and external consultants had mainly focused on the static characteristics (Brown, cited in
Johnson 1989) of the program, such as teacher profile, facilities, and equipment, being mainly
decision-facilitating (Brown, cited in Johnson 1989; Brown 1995) in nature. The instruments
used had also been merely qualitative and were thus limited. In sum, the results of such
evaluation, however useful, did not provide specific information that directly allowed for
curricular innovation. It was clear, then, that a comprehensive evaluation of all curriculum
components, using appropriate and systematic research procedures, was necessary. The main
focus of this particular research is on the teaching component of the TCU English curriculum.
The delivery system is an important element in curriculum development and evaluation because
it is in the classroom where ultimately all of the purposes, goals, and instructional objectives of
the program become or do not become a reality (Brown 1995).
The purpose of this paper is to find out TCU English students’ perceptions about
their teachers and the English lessons, in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of
the delivery systems and be able to implement relevant improvements on them. A careful
analysis of the students’ responses would reveal the areas that need to be improved in the
lessons and in the teacher profile.

Curriculum evaluation is a complex process involving many factors and variables such
as the subjects, the goals, the objectives, the testing procedures, the delivery systems, and the
materials (Brown 1995, Henning 1987). In addition, this process can be addressed from
different points of view, summative or formative, qualitative or quantitative, affective or
cognitive (Henning 1987), focusing on the processes of the products of instruction (Brown,
cited in Johnson 1989); it can be carried out using different instruments and it can be
implemented at different stages of the course development (Brown, cited in Johnson 1989;
Henning 1987). Therefore, curriculum evaluation must be a systematic effort of a group of
participants working together addressing different curriculum components from different points
of view using a number of distinct research methodologies that allow the evaluation to be
comprehensive (Criollo 1998).

Purpose of the Study
What do you intend to do (in methodological terms)? How? What for?
Significance of the Study
What will your research contribute to our understanding of the theory? What important information will it
provide?
How could the results of your research be used in a real context to improve teaching practices? How will it
help learners and teachers?

Move 1: Establishing Research Field
Communicative competence: The ability to use language for communication. According to
Canale and Swain (1980), communicative competence consists of linguistic (or grammatical)
competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
Pragmatic competence: According to Ellis (1994), it ‘consists or the knowledge that speaker-
hearers use in order to engage in communication, including how speech acts are successfully
performed’ (p. 719).
Invitations: Speech acts in which the speaker attempts to have the hearer do something.
Unlike other speech acts, invitations threaten the speaker’s positive face. Also, they may affect
the hearer’s negative face (Scarcella & Brunak 1981, p.1; Criollo & Maeda 1998)
Pragmatic transfer: ‘Transfer of L1 sociocultural communicative competence in performing
L2 speech acts or any other aspects of L2 conversation, where the speaker is trying to achieve a
particular function of language’ (Beebe, Takahashi, & Uliss-Weltz 1990).
Move 2: Summarizing Previous Research
In previous research on pragmatic competence of nonnative speakers of English, Beebe,
Takahashi and Uliss-Weltz (1990), found that highly proficient Japanese speakers of English
performed significantly differently from native speakers in the performance of refusals. They
concluded that their subjects’ pragmatic competence in the second language (L2) was
influenced by their mother tongue (L1). Unlike lexico-grammatical transfer, which occurs in
the first stages of learning, pragmatic transfer is said to take place only when learners have
reached a high level of proficiency.
Move 3: Preparing for present research
Refusals are responses to a first speech act.
Invitations require speakers to initiate the interaction. They are more challenging for L2
learners because they threaten the speaker’s positive face. Also, they may affect the hearer’s
negative face (Scarcella & Brunak 1981, p.1; Criollo & Maeda 1998).
There are no studies that focus on this illocutionary acts.

Are the patterns of pragmatic transfer found in previous studies of refusals also present in
invitations?
Move 4: Introducing Present Research
Purpose:
1) To analyze and describe pragmatic performance of highly proficient Japanese nonnative
speakers of English, in their performance of invitations.
2) To Compare and contrast nonnative and native invitations, in order to find whether and to
what extent they are different.
3) To compare nonnative performance in their L1 and L2, in order to find evidence of
pragmatic transfer from Japanese into English.

4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review
The main function of the Literature Review is to present the theoretical framework of
your study, based on the information that you have collected about your problem. You need to
write about:
 Specific theories related to the problem.
 What is known about the problem from other empirical studies.
 Important variables and how they relate to the problem.
 What needs to be done to advance knowledge concerning the problem.
As you can see, this is a very important chapter because here you demonstrate your
knowledge of the topic, and discuss its main issues. It is important that you analyze the topic
from all different possible points of view. How can you get all this information, though? It
may be easier to start from an outline.
4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline
In order for you to be able to collect and organize all the information necessary, you can start
from this outline:
I. Specific concepts and theories related to the problem (you may need more space!).
________________________________________________________________________________________
II. Important variables and how they relate to the problem (you may need more space!)
________________________________________________________________________________________
III. Your point of view about the topic (the points that you want to make!)
________________________________________________________________________________________
IV. Different authors’ points of view about the topic (either supporting or refuting your
points of view)
________________________________________________________________________________________
V. What is known about the problem from other empirical studies (i.e. results of research,
also supporting or refuting your points of view).
________________________________________________________________________________________
Once you have come up with a list of items for the different sections of your literature
review, get one of those large checked notebooks and organize your literature review there.
First of all, divide every page in three columns, horizontally. Then label each column as: 1)

Point to develop, 2) Information from sources, and 3) My point of view. Then, using your
preliminary list of references, get copies of all the materials that you need, using the
information given in Chapter One of this book. Put all of your copies together in a big binder,
that will be your thesis bible. Then fill out the information into the different sections. The
division of the notebook should be as shown below.
POINT TO DEVELOP
(concepts from outline)
NOTES FROM BOOKS MY POINT OF VIEW
2.1 Defining Reading According to Nunan (1989),
reading is “…..
Reading is a very important and
difficult language skill
4.4 Developing The Outline
4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph
It is very easy to develop paragraphs for the review of literature from the outline that
you wrote. In fact, the structure of a paragraph in a literature review is very simple... just look
below!
Structure of a Paragraph in the Literature Review
A concept is introduced / A point is made (topic sentence)+ It is supported with
references or previous research results + More support is added + If there is information
refuting (contradicting) the point made, it is added + More negative evidence is added, if there
is + The different points of view are compared and contrasted + A conclusion (restating the
topic sentence) is drawn.
As you can see, writing a literature review is not brain surgery. All you need to do is
follow this structure. To further illustrate this, let’s look at some examples.

Read the following paragraphs and find the topic sentences. Analyze them and try to find
the structure above, underlining the different elements in the structure with different
colors. Determine to what extent they follow this structure and state whether you see
some differences. Note: This is an open question, the answer is not in the answer key.
Paragraph One: Learning Styles
In this section of the literature review, a brief overview of the main factors involved in
second language acquisition and their influence on the process will be presented. In the end,
learning styles, the factor on which this thesis is focused, will be explored in more detail. In an
early attempt to identify such factors, Altman (1980) mentioned age, sex, previous experience
in language learning, proficiency in the language, personality factors, language aptitude,
attitudes and motivation, general intelligence, sense modality preference, sociological
preference, cognitive styles, and learning strategies as some important learner differences that
have an impact on the process of second language acquisition. In a later paper, Skehan (1989a),
considered only four factors, three of which are included in the previous author’s classification:
language aptitude, motivation, and language learning strategies. He added anxiety, and also
considered cognitive and affective factors that included some learning styles and personality.
All these factors can also be found in Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991). Finally, these last two
authors provided a more complete and extensive list of factors impinging in the process of L2
acquisition, taking on from the classifications made by Altman (1980) and Skehan (1989a). As
can be seen, all three authors consider learning styles (or cognitive styles) one of the factors that
make a difference in the process of language acquisition.
Paragraph Two: Learning Styles
In order to understand best the importance of learning styles in the language classroom,
it is first important to provide a definition of what learning styles are. Reid (1995) defines
learning style as “an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing,
processing, and retaining new information ands skills”. In a similar way, Brown (2000) states
that every person has their own natural way to perceive, transform, learn, and possess
knowledge and information in their environment. Using a more narrow concept, Larsen-
Freeman & Long (1991, p. 192) define ‘cognitive style’ as “the preferred way in which learners
process information or address a task”. Their definition is limited in that, as will be seen when

a classification of learning styles is given (Reid 1995), there are learning styles which do not
depend on cognitive processes. Finally, it is important to mention that learning styles will not
vary across teaching methods and content areas, they will persist (Reid 1995 and 1998); and,
even though they develop gradually in children, they are supposed to be more or less permanent
in adults (Brown 2000). It can then be concluded that learning styles are the somewhat
permanent ways in which learners perceive, process, and understand the information around
them.
Paragraph Three: Curriculum Design
The notions of curriculum and syllabus are crucial in the development of this project,
and it is then necessary to outline a definition of both. Richards, Platt, & Platt (1992, p. 94)
provide a most comprehensive definition of curriculum as “an educational programme” that
includes an educational purpose (“the end”), some content, teaching procedures and learning
experiences (“the means”), and some evaluation mechanisms. In this view, curriculum includes
everything around a language program, from planning to implementing and evaluating.
Similarly, Nunan (1988a) defines curriculum as “an educational program”, which consists of
planning, implementation and evaluation. In a further definition, Allen (1984, cited in Flinders
& Thornton 1997) explains that curriculum is seen as a general plan that “involves
philosophical, social and administrative factors”, all of which are included in an educational
program. Finally, Candlin (1984, cited in Reid, 1999) argues that curriculum is based on
making general statements about learning language, learning purpose and experience,
evaluation and the relationship between teachers and learners. In sum, curriculum can be seen
as a general educational program with some objectives, some pedagogical philosophies, and
some assessment and evaluation mechanisms. This is the definition of curriculum that will be
considered for the purposes of this research.
Comments about the organization of the paragraphs:

4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice
Exercise Six: On the following pages, look at the two sample notes for the literature
review. Read the information carefully and develop each outline into a paragraph.
Remember to use the structure outlined above. When you’re done, check with the answer
key!
CONCEPTS FROM
OUTLINE
NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW
2.4.3. The Relationship
between L1 Literate
Skills and L2 Writing
Cook’s study (1988) on
Spanish-speaking advanced
ESL students, which intended
to find evidence to support
Kaplan’s hypothesis of the
digressive patterns of
rhetorical organization found,
instead, that there was a
correlation between L1 and L2
writing.
De Jesus (1983) reported a
moderate correlation between
L1 and L2 writing ability,
concluding that L1 writing
proficiency is a fair predictor
of L2 writing proficiency.
In an impressive study with 14
adult Anglophone students of
French, Cumming, Rebuffort,
and Ladwell (1989a) found
that their subjects’ use of
equivalent proportions of
higher-order problem solving
strategies while writing
summaries in both languages
seemed unrelated to their L2
proficiency level (beginning
and intermediate). Instead,
literate expertise in the mother
tongue correlated with the
qualities of these summaries.
If students read and write
well and often in their first
language, they can become
good writers in a second
language.

CONCEPTS FROM
OUTLINE
NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW
2.2 Defining Syllabus “Description of the contents of
a course of instruction and the
order in which they are to be
taught” (Richards et al. 1992, p.
368).
Nunan (1988a): “syllabus is
seen as being concerned
essentially with the selection
and grading of content, while
methodology is concerned with
the selection of learning tasks
and activities”.
Widdowson (1984, p. 26)
defines syllabus as a general
plan of activities that can be
applied in a class to facilitate
the learning process.
Yalden (1984, p. 14): syllabus
is considered as an instrument
by means of which the teacher
can achieve a degree of
accomplishment between needs
and social or individual actions
in the class.
A syllabus is useful because
it specifies the content of the
course to be taught
4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence
As stated above, one of the most important things in the literature review has to do with
having a point of view. The outline above will help you develop and clearly state your main
points, but you need much more than that. You need to use words that express relationships
between the information you provide. In the same way, you need to manipulate the information
so that it best expresses your point of view towards the different concepts and theoretical
models you are presenting. These words are called logical connectors, and can be of great help
in the development of your literature review.
Swales and Feak (1994) provide the following list of connectors and their meanings.
The table was modified to show you the correct punctuation that precedes and follows each
one, and their place within the sentence. Look at the table and see which of these connectors

you know and have used. Look up the unfamiliar ones in the dictionary, study their meaning,
and practice writing some sentences where you use them.
4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors
Table 1: Academic English Connectors and Their Meaning (Adapted from Swales and
Feak 1994)
Subordinators
Sentence
Connectors
Phrase Linkers
Addition Furthermore, …
In addition, …
Moreover, …
In addition to…, …
Adversative …, although
Although …, …
Even though…, …
Despite the fact that..
However, …
Nevertheless, …
Despite …, …
In spite of …, …
Cause and Effect …because…
Since…, …
…, since …
Therefore, …
As a result, …
Consequently, …
…, hence…
Thus, …
Because of…
Due to…
As a result of…
Clarification In other words, …
That is, …
i.e., …
Contrast While …, …
…, whereas …
In contrast, …
However, …
On the other hand, ...
Conversely, ...
Unlike ... , ...
Illustration For example, ...
For instance, ...
Intensification On the contrary, ...
As a matter of fact, ...
In fact, ...

4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors
Different points of view can be taken and different arguments can be built from any
given piece of information, depending on which part you emphasize and which one you de-
emphasize. This is a matter of deciding on your stance and then using the appropriate logical
connectors that express your position. Let’s look at some examples from everyday language.
Information: John is very old and ugly, John is filthy rich.
No point of view: John is very old, ugly, and filthy rich.
Different points of view using connectors:
1. John is old and ugly. However, he is filthy rich
2. John is filthy rich. Nevertheless, he is old and ugly.
3. John is old and ugly. In addition to that, he is rich.
4. In spite of John’s age and ugliness, he is filthy rich, and consequently, women love him.
5. Despite the fact that John is old and ugly, women love him because he is filthy rich.
6. John has some qualities, for example, he is filthy rich. On the other hand, he has the
unwanted characteristics of being old and ugly.
7. While Peter is young and handsome, John is old and ugly. In fact, John’s appearance is
disgusting.
8. Unlike John, who is filthy rich, Peter is an abbreviated piece of nothing. As a result,
women prefer John.
And so on... we could come up with endless examples looking at the information from different
points of view, but I think that it is not necessary because you got the point, right? Now let’s
work with some exercises related to actual theory.
4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View of the Literature
In the following exercises, you will be asked to manipulate the information as to express
different points of view, using support from sources. Also, you will use connectors that clearly
reflect your point of view and the relationship between separate pieces of information. Have
fun!
Exercise Seven

Point to be made: To explain how language acquisition takes place.
Information from bibliography:
External factors  the kind of input the learner is exposed to (Ellis 1994).
Internal factors  individual learning styles, learning strategies, and motivation (Ellis 1994).
Additional information: External factors are relevant. Ultimate success is usually caused by
internal factors.
Task: Use various logical connectors to put the information together in several short sentences.
Remember: you will not write paragraphs, just sentences that express the point of view
indicated.
a) Simply explain the factors that cause acquisition.
b) Compare and contrast external and internal factors.
c) Emphasize the role of external factors.
d) Emphasize the role of internal factors.
Exercise Eight
Point to be made: To explain the construct of writing ability.
Information from bibliography:
Lexico-grammatical ability  the ability to use correct structures and vocabulary (Hadley
1993).
Cognitive ability  the ability to self-consciously use linguistic and intellectual resources
(Bartholomae and Petrosky, 1986; Elbow, 1990; Nelson, 1991; Reid, 1993; Shaughnessy,
1977).
Discourse ability  The ability to organize one’s ideas in a cohesive and coherent manner
(Scarcella and Oxford, 1992)
Sociolinguistic ability  the ability to use language that is appropriate in a social context
(Scarcella and Oxford 1992)

Additional information: All these abilities seem to be inextricably linked. Some people
organize them into the broader concept of ‘communicative competence’ (Scarcella and Oxford,
1992).
Task: Using connectors to express your point of view, write several paragraphs where you take
different positions.
a) Simply explain the components of the writing ability construct.
b) Compare and contrast different abilities.
c) Emphasize the importance of grammatical ability over cognitive ability.
d) Emphasize the importance of cognitive ability over grammatical ability.
e) Emphasize the importance of discourse and sociolinguistic ability.
f) Explain the importance of all the elements and their relations.
4.4.4 Some Practical Advice for the Review of Literature
4.4.4.1 Integrating Ideas from Sources
 You must clearly distinguish between your own opinions, ideas, and words, and those of
others. Readers should always be able to know whether what they’re reading is a citation or
a quotation.
 As citing somebody else’s work and using their concepts is the main characteristic of the
literature review, reported speech is used very often. Below is a list of common verbs and
expressions you can use to cite the authors’ work (Swales & Feak 1994).
Verbs:
State
Maintain
Remark Propose
Observe Suggest Declare Define
Emphasize Comment Report Assert
Claim Contend Point out
argue Imply Explain
Phrases:
According to _________, … In the opinion of _________, …
__________expresses the view that… __________ holds the view that…
As _________states, … As reported by ________, …
Expressions referring to previous research:

________’s study shows that … _______’s research suggests that…
_____’s results demonstrate that… __’s research provides evidence of
From ’__s results, it may follow that As shown in ___’s research, …
 Finally, make sure that you organize your review of literature in a coherent way. Revise
your paragraphs for singleness of topic, cohesion, and coherence. Similarly, make sure that
there are clear links between the different sentences, paragraphs, and sections of the
literature review by providing logical connectors. Some strategies to ensure coherence are
the following:
1. Use a pronoun (this, that, these, those) in the first sentence of a paragraph to refer back to
the subject discussed in the last sentence of a preceding paragraph.
2. Repeat a key word from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the next.
3. Repeat a key phrase from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the next.
4. Use a transitional expression at the beginning of a new paragraph.
5. Use synonyms as transitions.
4.4.4.2 Common Errors in the Review of Literature
The most common errors made in the literature review are show below: Beware!
1. Failing to include all the theoretical background necessary for understanding the topic.
2. Not having a point of view.
3. Failing to support one’s statements.
4. Lots of quotations, and very long ones.
5. Plagiarism.
6. Errors in referencing sources (APA style).
4.4.4.3 Solutions to the Problems
1. Review the literature thoroughly and, in doubt, ask your thesis director if your lit review is
complete or you should add something else.
2. Make sure you develop you lit review from an outline where you clearly state your point of
view and the points you want to make. Also, make sure you use connectors and transitions
that accurately express your point of view. This part will be dealt with separately.

3. Make sure you start from an outline, where you can relate your own statement to other
research results and points of view of other authors, so you can see which statements have
enough support and which ones are rather unsustainable.
4. Make sure you use paraphrase. It will develop your understanding skills and will tell the
reader that you really understood what you read. Also, it gives coherence to the whole
chapter. A quote is usually distracting.
5. Make sure you always give references and not use the authors’ words as if they were your
own.
6. Refer to the APA style guide to make sure you’re doing it the right way!
4.4.4.4 Revising Literature Review Paragraphs
To better illustrate some of the common problems involved in writing chapter two, some
examples will be presented as an exercise to develop your analytical capability. When you
write your own paragraphs, follow the same editing process.
Exercise Nine: Read carefully the paragraphs below and determine what errors are being
committed in each case. Then decide what must be done in order to correct these errors.
Check your answers in the Key.
1) There are many classifications of memory, such as: iconic, echoic, kinesthetic, and
the others which receive data from the five senses. Primarily, considering memory as a place
and considering the time that the information is retained, scientists have used the terms: short-
term memory. Short-term memory is the stage in which the information is temporally stored
(supposedly 20 seconds or less). This information may then pass to the long-term memory. On
the other hand, long term memory is the “permanent” storage (supposedly more than 20
seconds) of the information which passed through the short-term memory.
Errors:
2) As a matter of fact, the attention of language learning research has to be focused on
the “Conscious management of this two-way traffic” (Stevick; 1996:29) for applying and
improving strategies.
Errors:
3) There are five essential steps in vocabulary learning. Brown & Payne’s (1994) study
(cited in Hatch & Brown, 1995) present a model with the following steps: “(1) having sources

for encountering new words, (2) getting a clear image, either visual or auditory, or both, for the
forms of the new words, (3) learning the meaning of the words, (4) making a strong memory
connection between the forms and the meaning of the words, and (5) using words.”
Errors:
4) The ESP is become more important for the business. As increasing access to this
international transactional world is gained, a number of factors have emerged as being
potentially relevant. First, Charles (1996) has convincingly shown that a key factor for the
resulting discourse is whether participants are attempting to establish a new business
relationship or merely consolidating a prior one. Second, the mode of communication is also
significant, as indeed we might expect. Third, the primary power in the business is typically
complementary to that of the academic setting. Finally, national cultural values and
expectations add further variability in ways that are historically rich and subtle, salubriously
steering the readers away from facile stereotyping. In conclusion, the business and the
commerce is very important for to develop English classes.
Errors:
You are now ready to develop your literature review! In doubt, remember to do it in a
systematic way, and always refer to APA style and to the paragraph structure model given
above. Good luck!

PARAGRAPH WRITING EXAMPLE
POINT TO
DEVELOP
NOTES FROM BOOKS MY POINT OF VIEW
2.1 Bilingualism
2.1.1 Defining
Bilingualism
“Bilingualism is simply the alternate use
of two languages and it must address four
questions such as degree, function,
alternation and interference. All these
aspects cannot be separated or treated in
isolation of one other” (Romaine 1995, p
320)
Romaine (1995) believes that
“bilingualism cannot be understood
except in relation to social context, so
major emphasis is placed on the
sociolinguistic perspective”.
“Bilingualism is a complex facility, and
any attempt to describe it, of necessity
calls on distinctly different perspectives”
(Walters 2005, p.1)
“Being bilingual equals being able to
speak two languages perfectly” (Hamers
& Blanc 2000, p.)
(Mackey, 1967 cited in Hakuta 1986)
argues that “bilingualism, far from being
exceptional, is a problem which affects
the majority of the world’s population.
He notes that there are about thirty times
as many languages as there are countries,
implying that to the extent that countries
attempt to maintain linguistic unity (such
as through education in one national
language), there will be bilingualism”.
In bilingualism is important
to take into account four
aspects (degree, function,
alternation, interference) and
also perspectives, for
example sociolinguistic,
cognitive, psychological, etc.

5.1 Content and Function of Chapter III: The Methodology Chapter
The purpose of the methodology chapter is simply describing the methodology used to
undertake your research. It is divided into four sections:
3.1 Subjects
3.2 Instruments
3.3 Procedures
3.4 Data Analysis
As a thesis chapter, Chapter Three is the shortest chapter, usually from 2 to 4 pages.
However, the description of these four points must be very accurate. In fact, it should be clear
enough as to allow for a replication of the research. This possibility of being replicated adds to
the reliability of the research. Now let’s look at the content of the first section.
5.2 Describing Subjects
In this section you will give a detailed description of the subjects who participated in
your research: who, how many, their age range, their gender, their proficiency level, the
criteria you used for selecting them, and all additional information relevant for the purposes of
the research. For example, in a sociolinguistic study, it would be important to give social
information about subjects, such as their social class, their occupations, monthly income, and so
forth. Write this description in an impersonal way, following the guidelines for academic
writing outlined in Chapter Three of this guide.
5.3 Instruments
As with everything else, instruments can be adopted, adapted, or designed. In this
section, the advantages of adopting and designing instruments will be given. In addition,
systematic steps for instrument design, which will also be useful for instrument adaptation, will
be outlined.
5.3.1 Locating and Developing Instruments
 Advantages of using existing instruments
 It saves time.
 Reliability and validity data information is available.
 You can compare your results to those of others who have used the same instrument.
5.3.2 Developing One’s Own Instruments

 Advantages:
 The instruments are totally appropriate for the research.
 The research is more original.
5.3.3 Procedures for Instrument Design (Long, Convey, & Chwalek 1985).
1. Establish the domain definition
2. Develop an item pool
3. Check items for content validity
4. One-to-one administration
5. Field test
6. Analysis For tests, item difficulty and validity; internal consistency and reliability.
7. Revisions
8. Finalization of instrument
9. Administration of instrument
Once you have selected or designed the instrument you’re going to use for your
research, you must write a detailed description of it.
5.4 Describing Instruments
You must specify what kind of instrument it is (questionnaire, checklist, etc.), its author:
Is it from Nunan (1995)? Did you adapt it from Nunan (1995)? Did you design it yourself?. If
it is an instrument you designed, you must explain the design procedures in detail, and provide
information about the provisions and estimates you made for validity and reliability (be sure to
identify the type of validity –content, criterion referenced, construct- and reliability -internal
consistency-). In addition, you must explain the purpose of the instrument and describe its
structure. How many sections does it have? How many items are there in each section?
Additional information may be necessary according to the specific nature of the instrument that
you are using (i.e. if the instrument is a transcription from a lesson, you must indicate how the
videotaping was made, how long it was, and what transcription procedures and/or conventions
were used).
5.5 Describing Procedures

Procedures refers to the steps you followed to undertake your research. This part is
usually written in passive voice, which is impersonal and formal. Look at this example from an
error analysis research paper. The procedures are as follows.
1. Collect samples  Samples were collected.
2. Identify errors 
3. Describe errors 
4. Explain errors 
5. Draw conclusions about students’ errors
Also, we need to connect sentences together in such a way that the different steps
logically follow one after another. For this, we use transitions such as First (of all),
second(ly), next, then, afterwards, finally.
For example: First of all, samples were collected.

Chapter Four is the most interesting part of your thesis, the chapter where you
describe and discuss your findings. Even if it may be easier to write than previous chapters
(because all you do in it is describe what you found), writing a good Chapter Four involves
a careful and systematic procedure. The first thing you have to do is analyze your data.
6.1 Analyzing Data
It involves organizing, manipulating and synthesizing your data. Its purpose is to
help you locate important highlights in your results. Analysis should reduce raw data to a
form that allows the phenomena represented by those data to be represented, described, and
interpreted (Long et al, 1985).
6.1.1 Steps for Data Analysis Procedures (from Long et al., 1985).
 Conduct a series of descriptive analyses.
 Check the plausibility of critical assumptions upon which your analyses depend.
 Carry out the analysis as planned.
 Conduct supplementary analyses as needed.
 Create tables and figures to illustrate difficult points or that help you summarize the
information.
6.1.2 Guidelines for Using Tables (from Long et al, 1985).
 The table should refer to each table and discuss its highlights.
Prepare text and tables so that each can stand apart from each other. A reader should be
able to understand the text without looking at the table, and each table should also be
self-explanatory.
Make sure you include descriptive titles, careful format, subheadings and notes or
endnotes if some clarification is necessary.
6.1.3 Considerations When Using Figures (from Long et al., ibid.).
 Figures include graphs, charts, diagrams, maps, photographs, and drawings.
 Figures area particularly useful to demonstrate data, ideas, or relationships that are more
easily explained and comprehended in a visual than in a written medium.

 Figures should not substitute textual descriptions, but rather complement them.
The figure’s job is to help in the interpretation of a finding by illustrating it.
Situations in which a figure would be helpful
 To show percentages.
 To illustrate results of pre- and posttests, and compare them.
 To scatter plots in correlational analysis.
 To avoid lengthy explanations of complicated relationships of different variables.
Remember that the figure should be simple enough to communicate the intended idea.
6.1.4 Appendices (from Long et al., ibid.)
In an appendix, you include supporting materials that are either too long or not
directly related to the purpose of your paper. Such materials include raw data, very
complicated figures or tables, tables providing supplementary information, samples of
detailed instructions, permission slips, original instruments, or instruments that are not
easily accessible, detailed statistical formulas.

6.2 Content of Chapter Four
In Chapter Four, you should provide:
1. Summary descriptive data for the entire sample, for individual groups, and for other
reasonable aggregates.
2. Results of the planned statistical analyses that address the hypotheses and research
questions.
3. Results of important subsequent analyses, and
4. Decisions concerning each hypothesis and the apparent resolution of each research
question.
Use tables frequently throughout the chapter, and include supporting figures as needed.
You can organize this chapter according to:
6.2.1 Hypotheses (Subheadings)
Each subheading should be followed by:
 A brief restatement of the hypothesis.
The data related to that hypothesis with accompanying tables and figures.
The statistical decision concerning the hypothesis, along with evidence from the
appropriate statistical procedures, and
An assessment of whether the data support or fail to support your research hypothesis.
6.2.2 Variable
You can also organize your chapter by variables, such as age, sex, achievement subtests,
and so on. Finally, your chapter four can be organized in terms of time sequence.
6.2.3 Time Sequence
For example, pretest results, posttest results.
Before writing the text for the results chapter, construct all the tables and figures you
intend to include. Then decide on the organization that best fits the nature of your study.
Let us now move on to describe the software that can help you analyze your data.

Imagine that you are carrying out a research in the TCU English program where your
main purpose is to know to what extent teachers and students use the target language
in class, because you hypothesize that the use of Spanish is causing a low achievement
in the speaking skill. Check your purposes and your RQs
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.2 Purpose of the Study
The aim of the present paper is to analyze and describe the use of the target
language in the TCU English classroom, in order to determine whether and to what extent
his use reflects the approach and design outlined by the communicative approach.
Specifically, this paper will focus on the uses that teachers and students make of the target
language, such as greeting, opening and closing exchanges, lecturing, explaining
vocabulary, asking and responding questions, giving instructions, performing tasks, asking
for explanations, asking for permission, and saying goodbye. The communicative approach
is said to advocate the use of the target language for communicative purposes in the
classroom. Therefore, all or most of the exchanges that take place in the classrooms
observed should occur in the target language.
1.3 Research Questions
This paper addresses the following research questions:
1. What is the role of the target language in the TCU English classroom?
2. Do teachers use the target language in class for communicative purposes? If so, to what
extent?
3. Do students use the target language in class for communicative purposes? If so, to
what extent?
4. What are some communicative functions that teachers perform in the target language?
5. In what other communicative functions do teachers fail to use the target language?
6. What are some communicative functions that students perform in the target language?
7. In what other communicative functions do students fail to use the target language?
8. Do the uses that the target language is put to in the classroom reflect the principles and
design of communicative teaching?

9. What conclusions can be drawn about the use of the target language in the TCU English
lessons?
10. What changes, based on these conclusions, can be implemented to improve teaching
practices?
In order to answer your RQs, you performed a series of observations to 13 different
groups using the checklist below.
APPENDIX ONE: CHECKLIST FOR RECORDING USE OF THE TARGET
LANGUAGE
As every participant in the class talks, tally the occurrence of their participation on
the left, indicating the language in which such participation is produced: E = English,
S = Spanish. Eng&Sp= English and Spanish, NA= This function was not used in class.
Teacher
1. Greeting Ss
2. Taking the attendance
3. Starting class
4. Lecturing
5. Explaining vocabulary
6. Explaining grammar points
7. Asking questions
8. Responding to questions
9. Handling critical incidents
10. Giving instructions
11. Assigning homework
12. Closing procedures
13. Saying goodbye
14. Other:
15: Other:

Students
1. Greeting T
2. Attendance
3. Talking to partners
4. Performing tasks
5. Asking questions
6. Asking for explanations
7. Asking for permission
8. Responding to questions
9. Confirming instructions
10. Saying goodbye
11. Other:
12: Other:
After performing the observations, you summarize the information (get the numbers
and the totals) and you enter it in Excel like this. Notice how information is
abbreviated.
TEACHER Eng&Span English Spanish NA
Greeting Ss 2 7 1 3
Attendance 2 5 2 4
Starting class 1 11 0 1
Lecturing 2 9 0 2
Expl. Voc. 6 5 1 1
Expl. Gramm. 6 5 1 1
Ask Q's 3 10 0 0
Respond Q's 6 5 1 1
Handle C.I. 2 5 4 2
Instructions 6 7 0 0
Homework 3 8 0 2
Closing P. 3 8 0 2
Saying G. 1 11 0 1
Other 0 0 0 12
Other 0 0 0 13
43 96 10 149
STUDENTS
Greeting T. 1 6 3 3
attendance 3 4 2 4
talk to peers 6 1 5 1
Perform tasks 5 4 2 2

Ask Qs 6 5 1 1
Ask. f. Explan. 7 2 2 2
Ask. f. Permiss. 4 7 0 2
Respond. to Qs 8 3 0 2
Foll. Instructions 6 1 3 3
Saying G. Bye 2 8 0 3
Other (Voc.) 0 1 0 12
Other (repetition) 0 1 0 12
Other (comments) 0 0 1 12
Tutorials 0 1 0 12
Talking to the T 0 0 1 12
Total 48 44 20 112
Exercise Eleven: Now practice processing and analyzing the data. How would you
present the results, in order to answer your RQs and achieve the purpose of your
research? How many and what graphs would you develop? Develop and format at
least 2 graphs.
Check your answer to this exercise by looking at the information below, or check the
Answer Key.
6.4 Writing and Formatting the Chapter
After processing the data in Excel, developing the graphs, and planning the presentation of
the results, it is time to move this info into our text body and write up our beautiful Chapter
IV.
1. First of all, you need to move the graphs from Excel to word, and you can do this by
copying and pasting them.
2. After you have copied and pasted the graphs in the order in which they have to appear,
you have to format them like this:

Exercise Twelve: Write 3 important things you notice about the format
1.________________________________________________________________________
2.________________________________________________________________________
3.________________________________________________________________________
Now it is time to write the text. Look at the following example of the text written for
this graph.
4.1 Teachers’ Use of English for Communicative Purposes in 13 TCU Classrooms
First of all, it was very important to determine the total amount of the English
language used for communication in the classrooms by teachers. For this purpose, the total
numbers of the total communicative functions performed as recorded on the observation
forms was estimated and turned into percentages for the use of English, Spanish, and
“English and Spanish”. It was found that, out of 149 participations, teachers performed
64% of the times in English, while only 7% of the different functions were performed in
Spanish. Finally, English and Spanish were used in the 29% of the observation. Figure 1
below shows these percentages.
Figure 1: Percentage of Use of the Target Language By 13 TCU
Teachers
Eng&Span
29%
English
64%
Spanish
7%

These results show that teachers used English for communicative purposes most of
the times, and sometimes they also used a combination of English and Spanish. Only a
little percentage of Spanish was used. This is a positive aspect of the lessons, and is
consistent with the principles the communicative approach which state that English
should be used for communication in the classroom. Thus, students have the
opportunity to listen to the target language, obtaining comprehensible input and
developing their understanding skills. However, teachers’ performance can be improved
by lowering the use of Spanish in class to a minimum and avoiding using both languages
together as this may be confusing for students.
Exercise Thirteen: Write 3 important things you notice about how the information is
presented. What information is presented before the graph? What information is
presented after the graph?
1.________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2.________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Figure 1: Percentage of Use of the Target Language By 13 TCU
Teachers
Eng&Span
29%
English
64%
Spanish
7%

3.________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Now look at the following example in which a table is used. Check the similarities in
format as compared to the graph.
In addition to determining the extent to which teachers used the target language in
class, it was relevant to determine the purposes for which they used it. For this purpose, the
total number of times teachers individual functions in English was estimated in order to
find out which functions were mostly performed in English, and in which ones the target
language was used the least. It was found that the functions in which teachers used English
the most were starting the class (11), saying goodbye (11), and asking questions (10).
These results can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1. Communicative Situations with the Highest Use of English by Teachers
Communicative Situation English Spanish
Eng/Span
1. -Starting class 11 0 1
2. -Saying good bye 11 0 1
3. -Asking questions 10 0 3
As shown in the table, opening, lesson-related and closing sequences are performed
in English. None of the teachers observed used Spanish in any of these functions. These
suggests that class most class activities are developed in the target language from the
beginning to the end, being consistent with the communicative approach. Thus, teachers
seem to be performing well on their job, using the target language for communication with
their students. However, it was also important to determine in which situations teachers
failed to use English.
Exercise Fourteen: Is the general discourse structure of this text similar to the
discussion of the graph that we saw before? Why?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Exercise Fifteen: The next section discusses functions for which teachers tended not to
use the target language. Using the structure of the previous paragraph as a model,
put the text and the table in the correct order.
Table 2: Communicative Situations with the Lowest Use of English by Teacher
Communicative Situations English Spanish
Eng/Span
1. -Handling critical incidents 5 4 2
2. -Explaining vocabulary 5 2 6
3. -Explaining grammar points 5 1 6
The functions in which teachers failed the most to use the target language were
handling critical incidents (5), explaining vocabulary (5), and explaining grammar points.
These results are shown below in Table 2.
These results show that teachers preferred to use the native language when dealing
with problematic situations such as handling critical incidents, or explaining vocabulary
and grammar. In this case, many of them shifted from English to either Spanish or both
English and Spanish. Even though the use of Spanish seems to be justified in these
situations, it is obvious that the lessons might improve by finding ways to incorporate the
use of the target language in most of all classroom situations. In sum; however, teachers’
use of the target language in class is at an acceptable level, and these results are consistent
with the teacher rating performed by Hernandez Guerrero (2000) where students agreed
that teachers use the English in class.
Exercise Sixteen: Now practice writing the text for the following part of the chapter.
Compare your paragraphs with those in the Answer Key.
The next section of this chapter deals with students’ use of the target language in the
classroom.
4.2 Students’ Use of English for Communicative Purposes in TCU Classrooms
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

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