HISTORY

1. Rioja, Anna Milca V.
BSHM 4-3
1. Importance of rules in Human beings
Rules are regulations or principles governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere.
a. Protect social beings by regulating behavior. It is usually coupled with means to impose
consequences on those who violent them
b. Help to guarantee people certain rights and freedom. These are the laws/rules that are
outlined in what is called in constitution which protects human rights
c. Produce a sense of Justice among social beings. This is to prevent exploitation and
domination
d. Essential for a healthy economic system e.g., to ensure product safety, employee-safety
and product quality
2. Moral vs. Non-Moral standards
Moral standards are those relating to human behavior, especially the distinction between good
and bad behavior. It involves rules about action which are normally right and wrong and values
on objects which are morally good and bad.
Non-moral standards are rules unrelated to moral or ethical considerations; either not
necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense
Examples: rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules
3. Dilemma and Moral dilemma
Dilemma is a situation which a tough choice has to be made equally undesirable ones.
Moral dilemmas are a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two courses
of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle, involves conflict between
moral requirements.
4. Three Levels of moral dilemma
a. Personal dilemmas
are those experienced and resolved on the personal level. Examples: making conflicting
promises, choosing between the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the child’s
mother
b. Organizational dilemmas
These are ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations; include moral
dilemmas in business, medical filed and public sector. Examples: withdrawing life support from
a dying patient (human life should not be deliberately shortened vs. unpreventable pain should
not be tolerated

2. Rioja, Anna Milca V.
BSHM 4-3
c. Structural dilemmas
These are cases involving network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms;
encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations, may be larger in scope and extent
than organizational ones
5. Only human beings are ethical
Some human beings’ traits that make it possible for them to be moral:
a. Only human beings are rational, autonomous and self-conscious
We can achieve certain values and goods that outweigh those that non-rational, non-
autonomous and non-self-conscious beings are capable of realizing.
For instance, in order to attain the kind of dignity and self-love respect that we have, a being
must be able to conceive of itself as one among many and must be able to consciously select his
actions rather than be led by blind instinct.
b. Only human beings can act morally or immorally.
Strictly speaking an animal which devours another animal cannot be said to be immoral. And no
matter how ‘good’ an animal’s action seems to be, it cannot be technically said to be moral
Only beings can act morally can be required to sacrifice their interests for the sake of others.
Animals could not really sacrifice their own good for the sake of others but would even pursue
their good at the expense of others.
c. Only human moral beings are part of the moral community.
Moral community is defined in terms of the essential social relations that exist between or
among beings.
In truly meaningful ways, only human beings can communicate with each other, engage in
economic, political and familial relationships, form deep personal relationships and external
real concern to other members of the moral community
Only human beings can possess or practice values such as love, honor, social relationship,
forgiveness, compassion and altruism; and participate in a collective cognition.
6. Freedom as a foundation of morality
Morality is a question of choice and is about to choosing ethical codes, values or standards to
guide us in our daily lives. Philosophically, choosing is impossible without freedom

3. Rioja, Anna Milca V.
BSHM 4-3
Animals cannot be truly ethical for they are not really autonomous or free. Likewise, a
beneficial robot cannot be said to be moral, for it has no freedom or choice but to work
accordingly to its built-in program
Morality requires and allows choice. In daily lives, people make the choice to give to charities,
donate time and money to schools, mentor children, open businesses or protest against animal
cruelty. Practically, the sum of our choices defines our specific “morality”.
7. Minimum requirement for morality, Reason, and Impartiality
James Rachels (1941-2003) holds that moral judgments must be backed by sound reasoning
and that morality requires the impartial consideration of all parties involved.
Reason entails that the human feeling may be important in ethical decisions, but they ought to
be guides by sound reasoning. It helps us to evaluate whether our feelings and intuitions about
moral cases are correct and defensible.
Impartiality involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view are equally
important. Also called even handedness or fair- mindedness, it is a principle of justice stating
that decisions ought to be based in objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice,
or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.