Intelligence theories part 1 ,2,3,4

Intelligence theories
Dr.Rama Reddy

• Stern berg : “Intelligence is the general
mental capacity of an individual to adjust his
thinking to new requirements. It is general
mental adaptability to new problems and
conditions of life.”
• Wechsler : “Intelligence is the aggregate or
global capacity of an individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally & to deal
effectively with his environment.”

Wagnon: intelligence is the capacity to
learn & adjust to relatively new & changing
conditions.
Woodworth &Marquis: it is the use of
intellectual abilities for handling a situation
or accomplishing any task.

Thorndike- power of good responses from the
point of view of truth or fact.

Intelligenence may be regarded as a sort of
mental energy available with an individual to
enable him to handle his environment in terms
of adaptation and facing novel situations as
effctively as possible.

Faculty theory
• Oldest theory - uni factorial
• Mind is made up of different independent
faculties like
-reasoning
-discrimination
-imagination
-memory
• Can be developed by training
• Would not allow uniqueness of an individual

Charles Spearman two factor theories
• developed a statistical procedure called factor
analysis.
• Intellectual abilities compose two factors
• G factor- universal/ general /common abilities
• S factor- specific factor ( environmental)

• "eductive" and "reproductive“ abilities are
strongly influenced by genetic make up of the
individual which according to him is
predominantly fixwd amongst individuals.
• It is only the specific factors which eventually
evolve in the individual that make the
difference

• His work paved path for the modern day
concepts of intelligence
• concept of Nature versus nurture was
rekindled by spearmans work on two factor
theory , there by demonstrating the influences
of environmental factors on genetics and the
ultimate outcome.

Thorndike multi factor theory
• opposed the theory of General intelligence.
• He proposed that they are Specific stimuli and
Specific response.
• According to the theory intelligence is said to be
constituted of multitude of separate factors or
elements each being a minute element or ability.
• A mental act involves a a number of these minute
elements operating together.

Thorndike states, each factor is an
independent element and hence it is not
possible to combine all these elements.
• (a) Abstract intelligence,
• (b) Concrete (technical) intelligence,
• (c) Social intelligence, etc.

Thorndike- 4 attributes of intelligence
Level
• Difficulty of a task.
• In a sequential order of increasing difficulty,
then the height that we can ascend
determines level of intelligence.

Range
• Number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty that one can solve.
• Theoretically an individual possessing a given level of intelligence
should be able to solve the whole range of task at that level.
• Range is determined not only by Level but also by the Breadth of
experience and by opportunity to learn.
• In intelligence tests range is representated by items of equal
difficulty.

Area
• Total number of situations at each level to
which the individual is able to respond.
• Area is the summation of all the ranges at
each level of intelligence

Speed
• Rapidity with which an individual can respond
• Speed is much closely related with altitude
than with other attributes.
• We should not therefore emphasis speed too
much in our intelligence test.

Thurstone group factor theory
• Intelligence , is neither an expression of
innumerable highly specific factors as
thorndike stated nor that of general factors as
stated by spearman
• human intelligence includes 7 primary mental
abilities.
• Though these abilities appear to be different,
they are related to each other.

thurstone’s
Thurston has developed a test called Primary Mental Abilities
test to assess these factors.

Guilford’s tri-dimensional theory
• Developed a model of intelligence in which he
explained that every intellectual activity can be
described in terms of three different basic
dimensions,
• operations- process of thinking,
• contents- terms in which we think like
words, symbols, etc.
• products- ideas we develop.

This model is provided with 120 primary abilities, and is a combination of 4
contents, 5 operations and 6 products (4x5x6=120)
tri-dimensional theory of intelligence represented by
cubical model

Vernon’s hierarchy
• May fill the gap between spearman and
thurstone
• Vernon studied contribution of environment and
genetics to intellectual development

• Vernon studied the effect of genes and the
environment on both individual and group
diffeences in intelligence.
• Intelligence is approximately 60 % attributable
to genetics

Reynold Cattell’s F/C int theory
fluid and crystallized
intelligence (respectively
abbreviated Gf and Gc)
are factors of general intelligence,
originally identified by Raymond
Cattell.
developed by John L. Horn

fluid reasoning is the capacity to reason and solve novel problems,
independent of any knowledge from the past necessary for
all logical problem solving.
Fluid reasoning includes inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

• Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills,
knowledge, and experience.
• It does not equate to memory, but it does rely on
accessing information from long-term memory.
• (WAIS) measures fluid intelligence on the
performance scale and crystallized intelligence on
the verbal scale

Gardner’s-multiple intelligence
• Frames of mind
• Novel approach to understanding of
intelligence
• Heighlights the inadequacy of available scales
to measure all the dimensions of intelligence
• Emphasises the impact of schooling on each
of these entities

Eyesenck’s-structural
• Neurological correlates
• Three correlates
• 1.reaction time
• 2.inspection time
• 3.average evoked potential
• Intelligent individual take less time to respond
and has a complex wave with higher
amplitude

Ceci’s-biological
• There are multiple cognitive potentials
• They are biologically based and controls
mental process
• Cognitive potentials are closely linked to
challenges and opportunites in individual
environment
• Knowledge, personality, motivation,education
(contextual factors) are essential for
demonstration of cognitive abilities

Emotional
• Daniel Goldman popularized the term, Based on
Mayer and Salovey, who suggest that there are 4
components to emotional intelligence.
1.Accurate perception and expression
2. Ability to access and generate emotions
3.Understanding emotions and emotional meanings
4. Emotional regulation
There is increasing evidence that emotional
intelligence is important for success and well-
being.

PIAGET’S THEORY - STAGE THEORY OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Intelligence is an adaptive process
• Involves the interplay of biological maturation
and interaction with the environment
• Piaget view intellectual development as an
evolution of cognitive processes such as
understanding the laws of nature , the
principles of grammar & mathematical rules

• Schemas are categories of knowledge that help
us to interpret and understand the world
• Assimilation - The process of taking in new
information into our already existing schemas
is known as assimilation.
• Accommodation - Accommodation involves
modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a
result of new information or new
experiences.
• New schemas may also be developed during
this process.

• As children progress through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behaviour to account for new knowledge
(accommodation).
• Equilibration helps explain how children can
move from one stage of thought into the next

Types of intelligence tests
• 1. Verbal-individual
• 2. Verbal-group
• 3. Performance-individual
• 4. Performance-group

• The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
• Malin’s intelligence scale
• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• Raven’s progressive matrices
• Culture fair intelligence tests
• Seguin form board test
• Bhatia’s battery of intelligence
• Draw a man test
• Gessell's Drawing Test of Intelligence
• Porteus mazes.

Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales

Sb 5
• Assessment range: 2-89 years
• Number of items: 129
• Content of assessment: Fluid Reasoning,
Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-
Spatial Processing, and Working Memory
• Process of assessment: Verbal and non-
verbal

• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales – Fifth
Edition (SB5) is designed to test intelligence and
cognitive abilities.
• This test can be used for ages 2 years 0 months to
89 years 11 months.
• 45 to 90 min
• Based on Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of
intellectual abilities.
• The SB5 measures five CHC factors by different
types of tasks and sub tests at different levels.

• Represents abilities assessed by all former
versions of the test.
• The Fifth Edition reintroduces the age-scale
format for the body of the test.
• Intended to provide a variety of content to:
-Keep examinees involved in the testing
experience
-Allow for the introduction of developmentally
distinct items across levels

• always been an “adaptive” test
• Individual responds to only that part of the
test that is appropriate for his or her
developmental level
• Each subtest starts with very easy items &
progresses to items that are more difficult
ones

Stanford-Binet Scale (SB 5):
Scoring and interpretation
Sub-testlet scores (10),
Factor indices (5),
Domain sores (2),
Full Scale IQ and Change-Sensitive Scores
Norms:
Sub-test scores:
Mean = 10, SD = 3
Composite scores:
Mean = 100, SD = 15

• Four cognitive areas in SBS which together determine
• the composite score and factor score, there are
• total 15 tests.
• i. Verbal reasoning : vocabulary, verbal relation,
• comprehension, etc.
• ii. Quantitative reasoning : number series, equation,
• etc.
• iii. Abstract reasoning: matrices, pattern analysis,
• paper folding/ cutting.
• iv. Short-term memory: memory for sentences,
• digits, objects, etc.

• Examiner starts at appropriate start point, & if
examinee
• answers items correctly, this is assumed to be
the “basal level” of ability
• Continues until examinee answers incorrectly
for a certain number of items (this is the
examinee’s “ceiling level” for that subtest)

Scoring SBS- 5
• Points are summed for each of the subtests &
converted to a “scaled score”
• Scaled subtest scores have a mean of 10 & a
standard deviation of 3
• “standard scores” have a mean of 100 & a
standard deviation of 16.

• During test, test user can also do behavioral
observation:
• How to cope with frustration
• How to respond on easy items
• Amount of support needed
• General approach to the task
• How anxious
• How much fatigue
• How much cooperative
• Distractible
• Compulsive

• Persons excluded from the standardization
sample
• limited English proficiency,
• severe medical conditions,
• severe sensory or
• communication deficits, or
• severe emotional/behavior disturbance (Roid,
2003).

Kamat Binet Test Of Intelligence (KBI)
The original test was the Stanford Binet scales.
This test was developed based on the concept of
age norm.
Kamat undertook a revision of the Stanford Binet
Scales to suit Indian conditions.
The tests has subtests from Age III to XXII.

Administering The KBI
• Begin with the tests of the year of the child.
• He/ She may pass on some but fail in few.
• Work upwards till the child fails on all items.
• Then work below the child’s chronological age
until all items are passed.

Scoring And Interpreting The KBI
For each item passed the child earns a credit
of 2 months, 4 months or 6 months
depending on the corresponding age.
IQ = Mental Age × 100
Chronological Age
The IQ thus obtained is classified.

Wechsler Intelligence Scales
Wechsler
Adult
Intelligence
Scale
(Age range: 16-90
years)
Wechsler
Intelligence Scale
for Children (Age
range: 6-16 years)
Wechsler Preschool
and Primary Scale
of Intelligence
(Age range: 2 1/2-7
years)
Wechsler-Bellevue-I:
1939
Wechsler-Bellevue-II:
1946
WPPSI: 1967
WAIS: 1955 WISC: 1949 WPPSI-R: 1989
WAIS-R: 1981 WISC-R: 1974 WPPSI-III: 2002
WAIS-III: 1997 WISC-III: 1991
WAIS-IV: 2008 WISC-IV: 2003

WAIS: Structure
Four factors measured by 10 core subtests and 5
supplemental subtests
Verbal Comprehension:
Similarities: Abstract verbal reasoning
Vocabulary: The degree to which one has learned, been
able to comprehend and verbally express vocabulary
Information:Degree of general information acquired
from culture
Comprehension (Supplemental): Ability to deal with
abstract social conventions, rules and expressions

WAIS: Structure
Perceptual Reasoning :
Block design: Spatial perception, visual abstract
processing and problem solving
Matrix reasoning: Nonverbal abstract
problem solving, inductive reasoning,
spatial reasoning
Visual puzzles: non-verbal reasoning
Picture completion (Supplemental): Ability to
quickly perceive visual details
Figure weights (Supplemental): Quantitative and
analogical reasoning

WAIS: Structure
Working Memory :
Digit span: Attention, concentration, mental control
Arithmetic: Concentration while manipulating
mathematical problems
Letter-number sequencing(Supplemental): Attention and
working memory
Processing Speed:
Symbol search: Visual perception, speed
Coding: Visual-motor coordination, motor and mental
speed Cancellation (Supplemental): Visual-perceptual
speed

WAIS: Scoring and interpretation
Factor indices:
Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
Working Memory Index (WMI)
Processing Speed Index (PSI)
General Ability Index (GAI): Combined
score on the six core subtests that comprise the
VCI and PRI
FullScale IQ (FSIQ): Total combined
performance of the VCI, PRI, WMI, and PSI (Mean =
100, SD = 15)

RPM
80
• Developed by J. C. Raven in 1936.
• nonverbal group test
• It is usually a 60-item test used in measuring
abstract reasoning and regarded as a non-
verbal estimate of fluid intelligence.
• Was designed as a measure of Spearman’s ‘g’
factor of general intelligence.
• Designed to measure the test taker's
reasoning , eductive ability,
reproductive ability of pattern .

Raven’s Progressive Matrices(RPM)
Ms. Aachal Taywade, Nagpur. 81

Raven’s Progressive Matrices

Versions of RPM
• Three versions:
Name of version Age group Total items Time required
Standard
progressive
matrices
12 yrs & above 60 items in 5 sets
of 12
60 min
Colored
progressive
matrices
Below 11 yrs. 36 items in 3 sets
of 12
15-30 min
Advanced
progressive
matrices
High intelligence 12 practice items
36 test items
40-60 min

Psychometric properties
• Test – retest reliability : .70-.90
• Internal consistency validity: .80-.90
• Autism spectrum disorder patients perform
higher as they are predisposed towards visual
reasoning.

Draw – a – man test

… Draw – a – man test
• Goodenough - Harris Draw a person test
(DAP).
• Florence Goodenough developed in 1926,
later revised by Dr. Dale Harris.
• No time limit, hardly takes 15-20 min.
• Scoring according to the perfection, as per
given in manual.
• Scores- 1 to 51. mental age- 3 yr. 3 month to
15 yr. 9 month.

… Draw – a – man test
• Reliability validity coefficients are adequate.
• Not wise to use with children above 12 yrs of
age.
• Cultural background & SES highly influences
the performance.
• Asses cognitive developmental levels.
• Also used as a projective test of personality
which is not endorsed by first creator.

Bhatia battery of intelligence testing
• C. M. Bhatia Constructed this test for Indian
population in 1955.
• 5 subtests:
• Koh’s block design
• Alexander pass a long
• Pattern drawing test
• Immediate memory
• Picture construction

Subtests of Bhatia battery
Parts of
pictures
have to be
meaningful
ly
combined.
Digit span
forward
&
backward
NEW.
Each of 8
cards has
a pattern.
Draw w/o
lifting.
All
designs
from
original
Alexander
pass a
long test
Includes
the 10
designs
from
original
17
designs of
Koh’s test

Seguin Form Board (SFB)
Aim: The individual has to insert geometrical
shaped blocks into corresponding recesses as
quickly as possible.
Norms available from 3years to 20 years.
Used particularly for young children and
supplemented with other tests.
Advantages:
Spontaneous arousal in children.
Amenable & brief.
Valid ‘g’ obtained.

History
 a psychological test first developed by
child neuropsychiatrist Lauretta Bender
 To evaluate "visual- motor maturity",
to screen for developmental
disorders, or to assess neurological
function or brain damage.
 Bender first described her Visual Motor
Gestalt Test in an 1938 monograph
entitled: A Visual Motor Gestalt Test and
Its Clinical Use.

 The test has been used as a screening
device for brain damage.
 Bender herself said it was "a method of
evaluating maturation of gestalt functioning
children 4-11's brain functioning by which it
responds to a given constellation of stimuli
as a whole, the response being a motor
process of patterning the perceived gestalt."

 It measures perceptual motor skills, perceptual
motor development, and gives an indication of
neurological intactness. It has been used as a
personality test and a test of emotional
problems.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bender-Gestalt_Test
http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Bender-Gestalt-Test.html

 The new or revised Bender-II contains
16 figures versus 9 in the original.

Purpos
e
 The Bender Gestalt Test is used to evaluate
visual maturity, visual motor integration skills,
style of responding, reaction to frustration,
ability to correct mistakes, planning and
organizational skills, and motivation.
 Copying figures requires fine motor skills, the
ability to discriminate between visual stimuli, the
capacity to integrate visual skills with motor
skills, and the ability to shift attention from the
original design to what is being drawn.

Precaution
s
 Additionally, the test should not be given to an
examinee with a severe motor or visual
impairment, as the impairment would affect his
or her ability to draw the geometric figures
correctly. The test scores might thereby be
distorted.

 The Bender Gestalt Test should never be used
in isolation.
 When making a diagnosis, results from the
Bender Gestalt Test should be used in
conjunction with other medical, developmental,
educational, psychological, and
neuropsychological information.
 Finally, psychometric testing requires
administration and evaluation by a clinically
trained examiner. If a scoring system is used, the
examiner should carefully evaluate its reliability
and validity, as well as the normative sample
being used.

Descriptio
n
 The Bender Gestalt Test is an
individually administered pencil and
paper test used to make a diagnosis of
brain injury.
 There are nine geometric figures drawn
in black. These figures are presented to
the examinee one at a time; then, the
examinee is asked to copy the figure on
a blank sheet of paper.
 Examinees are allowed to erase, but
cannot use any mechanical aids (such
as rulers).

 The average amount of time to complete the
test is five to ten minutes.
 One method requires that the examinee view
each card for five seconds, after which the card
is removed. The examinee draws the figure
from memory.
 Another variation involves having the examinee
draw the figures by following the standard
procedure. The examinee is then given a clean
sheet of paper and asked to draw as many
figures as he or she can recall.
 Last, the test is given to a group, rather than
to an individual (i.e., standard
administration).

Administration
 Administration of the Bender-Gestalt II
consists of two phases:
 Copy Phase
○ Examinee is shown stimulus cards with
designs and asked to copy each of the
designs on a sheet of paper
 Recall Phase
○ Examinee is asked to redraw designs from
memory

 Motor and Perception supplemental
tests screen for specific motor and
perceptual abilities/difficulties.
 Kit consists of Examiner’s manual, 16
stimulus cards, observation form, motor
test, and a perception test

 Administer stimulus cards in the
correct numeric sequence and do not
allow examinee to turn or manipulate
them.
 Copy Phase:
 Inconspicuously measure how long the
examinee takes to complete the items –
record time in minutes and seconds
 Document your observations – carefully note
the examinee’s approach to drawing each
design

 Recall Phase:
 Administered immediately following the copy
phase
 Examinee is given a new sheet of paper an
asked to draw as many of the designs that
were previously shown.
 Motor Test:
 2 – 4 minutes
 Draw a line between the dots in each figure
without touching the borders
 Perception Test:
 2 – 4 minutes
 Circle or point to a design in each row that
best matches the design in the box

Results/Scorin
g
 Angular difficulty: This includes increasing,
decreasing, distorting, or omitting an angle
in a figure.
 Bizarre doodling: This involves adding
peculiar components to the drawing that
have no relationship to the original Bender
Gestalt figure.
 Closure difficulty: This occurs when the
examinee has difficulty closing open
spaces on a figure, or connecting various
parts of the figure. This results in a gap in
the copied figure.

 Cohesion: This involves drawing a part of a
figure larger or smaller than shown on the
original figure and out of proportion with the
rest of the figure. This error may also
include drawing a figure or part of a figure
significantly out of proportion with other
figures that have been drawn.
 Collision: This involves crowding the
designs or allowing the end of one design
to overlap or touch a part of another
design.
 Contamination: This occurs when a
previous figure, or part of a figure,
influences the examinee in adequate
completion of the current figure. For
example, an examinee may combine two
different Bender Gestalt figures.

 Omission: This involves failing to adequately
connect the parts of a figure or reproducing only
parts of a figure.
 Overlapping difficulty: This includes problems in
drawing portions of the figures that overlap,
simplifying the drawing at the point that it
overlaps, sketching or redrawing the overlapping
portions, or otherwise distorting the figure at the
point at which it overlaps.
 Perseveration: This includes increasing,
prolonging, or continuing the number of units in a
figure. For example, an examinee may draw
significantly more dots or circles than shown on
the original figure.

 Fragmentation: This involves destroying part of the
figure by not completing or breaking up the figures in
ways that entirely lose the original design.
 Impotence: This occurs when the examinee draws a
figure inaccurately and seems to recognize the error,
then, he or she makes several unsuccessful attempts
to improve the drawing.
 Irregular line quality or lack of motor coordination:
This involves drawing rough lines, particularly when
the examinee shows a tremor motion, during the
drawing of the figure.
 Line extension: This involves adding or extending a
part of the copied figure that was not on the original
figure.

 Retrogression: This involves substituting
more primitive figures for the original
design—for example, substituting solid
lines or loops for circles, dashes for dots,
dots for circles, circles for dots, or filling in
circles. There must be evidence that the
examinee is capable of drawing more
mature figures.
 Rotation: This involves rotating a figure or
part of a figure by 45° or more. This error is
also scored when the examinee rotates the
stimulus card that is being copied.
 Scribbling: This involves drawing primitive
lines that have no relationship to the
original Bender Gestalt figure.

 Simplification: This involves replacing a part of
the figure with a more simplified figure. This
error is not due to maturation. Drawings that are
primitive in terms of maturation would be
categorized under "Retrogression."
 Superimposition of design: This involves
drawing one or more of the figures on top of
each other.
 Workover: This involves reinforcing, increased
pressure, or overworking a line or lines in a
whole or part of a figure.

Key Principles of Gestalt
Systems
 Emergence - is the process of complex pattern
formation from simpler rules.
 Reification – is the constructive or generative aspect of
perception, by which the experienced percept contains
more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus
on which it is based. Reification can be explained by
progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated
by the visual system as "real" contours.
 Multistability (or multistable perception) - is the tendency of
ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth
unstably between two or more alternative interpretations.
 Invariance - is the property of perception whereby simple
geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation,
translation, and scale; as well as several other variations
such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different
component features.

Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923).
Through the 1930s and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated
many of the laws of grouping through thestudy of visual perception.
 Law of Proximity—The law of proximity
states that when an individual perceives an
assortment of objects they perceive objects
that are close to each other as forming a
group.
 Law of Similarity—The law of similarity
states that elements within an assortment
of objects are perceptually grouped
together if they are similar to each other.
This similarity can occur in the form of
shape, color, shading or other qualities.

 Law of Closure—The law of closure states that
individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters,
pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not
complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture
are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap.
Research shows that the reason the mind completes
a regular figure that is not perceived through
sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding
stimuli.
 Law of Symmetry—The law of symmetry states that
the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and
forming around a center point. It is perceptually
pleasing to divide objects into an even number of
symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical
elements are unconnected the mind perceptually
connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities
between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood
that objects are grouped to form a combined
symmetrical object.

 Law of Common Fate—The law of common
fate states that objects are perceived as lines
that move along the smoothest path.
Experiments using the visual sensory modality
found that movement of elements of an object
produce paths that individuals perceive that
the objects are on. We perceive elements of
objects to have trends of motion, which
indicate the path that the object is on. The law
of continuity implies the grouping together of
objects that have the same trend of motion
and are therefore on the same path.
 Law of Continuity—The law of continuity
states that elements of objects tend to be
grouped together, and therefore integrated into
perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an
object.

 Law of Good Gestalt—The law of good
gestalt explains that elements of objects
tend to be perceptually grouped together if
they form a pattern that is regular, simple,
and orderly. This law implies that as
individuals perceive the world, they
eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so
they can observe a reality in its most
simplistic form.
 Law of Past Experience—The law of past
experience implies that under some
circumstances visual stimuli are
categorized according to past experience.

important to think of problems
as a whole. Max Wertheimer
considered thinking to happen
in two ways:
 Productive thinking is solving a
problem with insight.
 Reproductive thinking is solving a
problem with previous experiences and
what is already known.

The school of Gestalt practiced a
series of theoretical and
methodological principles:
 Principle of Totality—The conscious
experience must be considered globally (by
taking into account all the physical and
mental aspects of the individual
simultaneously) because the nature of the
mind demands that each component be
considered as part of a system of dynamic
relationships.
 Principle of psychophysical isomorphism -
A correlation exists between conscious
experience and cerebral activity

The following methodological
principles are defined:
 Phenomenon experimental analysis—In
relation to the Totality Principle any
psychological research should take as a
starting point phenomena and not be solely
focused on sensory qualities.
 Biotic experiment—The school of gestalt
established a need to conduct real
experiments that sharply contrasted with and
opposed classic laboratory experiments. This
signified experimenting in natural situations,
developed in real conditions, in which it would
be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity,
what would be habitual for a subject.

Intelligence theories part 1 ,2,3,4

Intelligence theories part 1 ,2,3,4

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