SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

1. LITERATURE REVIEW
(BLENDING)
Presented by :Safiah Almurashi.

2. General Background
Blending is the word formation process in which parts of two or more words
combines to create a new word whose meaning is often a combination of the
original words.

3. The term blending has been defined by various researchers. They have focused
on its nature, formation, types and other features: (Algeo, 1977), defined
blending as it is a combination of two or more forms, where at least one has
been shortened. The shortening can be by simple omission of a part of a word
or it can be a result of overlapping sounds or letters.

4. Similarly, (Cannon, 1986) said that blending embraces a telescoping of two or
more separate forms into one, or, rarely a superposition of one form upon
another. It commonly includes overlapping and preserves some of the meaning
of at least one of the source words, though sometimes so much of the roots
are lost that a blend is unanalyzable.

5. Also, (Gries, 2004)stated that blending involves the coinage of a new lexeme
by fusing parts of at least two other source words of which either one is
shortened in the fusion and/or where there is some form of phonemic or
graphemic overlap of the source words .Furthermore, Bauer, Laurie (1983)
defined blending as a new lexeme formed from parts of two (or possibly
more) other words in such a way that there is no transparent analysis into
morphs.

6. However, in blending we usually take only the first part of one word and join it to the
end of the other word. There are five main ways for blending:
1. The most common way of blending is adding the beginning of one word to
the end of the other. For instance, brunch is a blend
of breakfast and lunch.
2. Combining the beginnings of two words. An example for that, cyborg is a
blend of cybernetic and organism.
3. Combining one complete word with part of another word. For instance,
guesstimate is a blend of guess and estimate.

7. 4.Blending two words around a common sequence of sounds. For example, the
word Californication, from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend
of California and fornication.
5.Blending multiple sounds from two component words, while mostly
preserving the sounds' order. An example of this is the word slithy, a blend
of lithe and slimy. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these types of
blends.
However, combining two words in their entirety, the result is considered
a compound word rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe is not a
blend, it is a compound.

8. The Relation between Blending and Compounding.
According to(Kemmer, 2003), there is differences between blending and compounding in that; Blending combine parts of
lexical source words, Whereas compounding combine the whole source words. However, (Yule, 2006). Argued that
compounding is similar to blending, compounding includes the combination of two separate forms to produce a single new
term. However, blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the
other word. This is supported by McCarthy, A. (2017). He claimed that blending is kind of compound in which at least one
of the components is reproduced only partially smog, combining elements of smoke and fog.

9. Classifications of Blending
1.structural Categories.
(Gries,2004) have classified blending structurally into three different types:
blends with overlapping, blends with clipping, and blends with clipping and
overlapping.

10. Blends with Overlapping
Overlapping in blends may happens with overlapping as the only type of shortening of the
words. The most common form is the one where the final part of the first word overlaps
the first part of the second word. The overlap can be one phoneme or several. An
example of this is slanguage from slang and language. Blends with overlapping may also
involve all of one form and the initial or final part of the other word.
For example:
Sinema "adult film" = sin + cinema
Cellebrity "famous criminal" = cell + celebrity
Cartune "musical cartoon" = cartoon + tune

11. Blends with Clipping
Blends with clipping does not contain any overlapping. Instead one part or
more is omitted. There are different patterns that are used when creating
these kinds of blends. The first way is to keep the entire part of the former
word and the latest part of the second word .
For example:
Foodoholic = food + alcoholic
Fanzine = fan + magazine

12. The second way is to use the first part of the first word and the final part of
the second part when both words are clipped.
For example:
Brunch = breakfast + lunch
Smog = smoke + fog

13. The third way is to keep the entire second word and only use the first part of
the first word.
For example:
Eurasia = Europe + Asia
The fourth way is to combine the first parts of both or all elements.
Agitprop = agitation + propaganda

14. Blends with Clipping and Overlapping
Some blends are formed by using both clipping and overlapping. For example:
Hungarican = Hungarian + American
Motel = Motor + hotel

15. Systematic Categories
Blends can be categorized according to whether they are syntagmatic or
associative. A blends that embody combinations of words that occur next to
one another in the speech chain are defined as syntagmatic blends. In most of
cases the first word ends with the same sound or sequence of sounds as the
second word begins with (Gries, 2004).
For example:
Chicagorilla = Chicago + gorilla

16. By contrast, associative blends are produced from words that are connected in
the word-maker’s mind. The words can share a common base morpheme or
affix, or they might be comparable in sound. They can also have a semantic
link.
For example:
Bonk = bump + conk
Shill = shiver + chill
Swellegant = swell + elegant

17. Previous studies conducted in blending
One study conducted in word formation by Bakaradze ate (2010). In the study of
telescopic word formation. They used Various resources, such as dictionaries, books,
scientific and popular articles, internet resources. During the study they have tried to
focus on numerous aspects of formation blend words and find an answer to them: 1.
Which part of speech makes the most frequent part of these coined words and what are
the productive units? 2. Which parts of two different words were used to blend in order
to make one telescopic word? 3. What is the aim of creation of such words? 4. How are
new hybrids (or words) given names? 5. In which fields of life are such creations used? 6.
What are the popular blendings like? Are they colloquial or can we find them outside the
boundaries of spoken language? They have found a great amount of shortened words as
well as blend words.

18. Another study conducted by Mirzaie,Naghmeh(2014). In the study of new blends in English language.
They conducted the three types of blends and their structures; blends with clipping, blends with both
overlapping and clipping and blends with just overlapping. They used linguistic sources, Wikipedia, Google,
as well as other internet sites. The study result showed that most of the blends were made by clipping
and the second most common form was clipping and then overlapping.

19. Also, in a study of word formation process in everyday communication on Facebook, Mustafa, et (2015),
they attempted to find the common word formation process in ‘status’ on Facebook, created by
Malaysian young adult users. Daily discussions involving five FB members were recorded in order to collect
a sample of authentic data describing the participants ' online communication activities. finding of this
study was that in term of formation of blends, the participant users on Facebook used blending such as
‘brunch’ (breakfast + lunch), and ‘shopaholic’ (shop+alcoholic). This study conducted only by Malaysian
young adult users, it did not include any other races.

20. Similarly, Giyatmi, et (2017). In study of blending words found in social media. The researches have
defined the kinds of blending in English words that were found in Social Media. Also, they explained on
how to form blends used in social media. Three conclusions were found; There were several English
blends found in social media such as 1 English blends in Facebook, 2 English blends in BBM, 65 blends in
Twitter, and 47 English blends in Instagram. In term of the types of blending, there were only two types
of blending seen in social media such as blending with overlapping and blending with clipping. Based on
the way of dealing with blending, there were found 10 ways of how to form blends in social media.

21. Blending in Arabic
The blends produced in Arabic are frequently made from the first letters of
the first word and the last letters of the second word.
For example:
‫ﺑ‬
‫ﺮ‬
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺋ‬
‫ﻲ‬
=
‫ﺑ‬
‫ﺮ‬
+
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ء‬
‫ز‬
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﻜ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ن‬
=
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﻜ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ن‬
+
‫ز‬
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ن‬
‫ر‬
‫ﻛ‬
‫ﻤ‬
‫ﺠ‬
‫ﮫ‬
=
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﻮ‬
‫ﺟ‬
‫ﮫ‬
+
‫ر‬
‫ﻛ‬
‫ﻮ‬
‫ب‬
‫ﻛ‬
‫ﮭ‬
‫ﺮ‬
‫و‬
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺋ‬
‫ﻲ‬
=
‫ﻣ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺋ‬
‫ﻲ‬
+
‫ﻛ‬
‫ﮭ‬
‫ﺮ‬
‫ﺑ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺋ‬
‫ﻲ‬

22. There are view studies have investigated blending in English and Arabic. One study conducted by
Abdulsada, Mohammed(2008). In the study of process of word formation in English and Arabic. They
examined word formation in both English and Arabic. The data was a set of words gathered in both
English and Arabic. The result of the study indicated that; in English, blending has many forms. While in
Arabic, blending has only a few forms.
All of the above findings are dealt with blending. Most of them investigated types and forms of
blending in various languages some of studies conducted in modern technology mostly that were
found in Social Media. However, further research will continue on new blending such as blending of
social dialects.

23. References
• Mirzaie, Naghmeh. (2014). New Blends in English Language. 2. 15-26.
• Mustafa, S. Z. B., Kandasamy, M., & Yasin, M. S. M. (2015). An analysis of word formation process in everyday communication on Facebook. International Journal of Education and
Research, 3(6), 261-274.
• Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2017). Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure. Edinburgh University Press.
• Giyatmi, G., Wijayava, R., & Arumi, S. (2017). Blending words found in social media. Journal Arbiter, 4(2), 65-75.
• Bakaradze, E. K. (2010). Principle of the least effort: Telescopic word formation. International Journal of Arts and Sciences, 3(16), 86-105.
• Abdulsada, Mohammed. (2008). Process of Word Formation in English and Arabic. 2. 71-87.
• Cannon, Garland. 1986. Blends in English word formation. Linguistics 24/4:725-753.
• Bauer, Laurie (1983): English Word-Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
• Algeo, John (1977): Blends, a structural and systemic view. American Speech 52, 47– 64 .
• Yule, George (2006) The Study of Language. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 53-9.
• Gries, S. Th. (2004) Shouldn’t It Be Breakfunch? A quantative analysis of blend structure in English. Linguistics 42, pp. 639-640.
• Kemmer, Suzanne (2003) Schemas and lexical blends. In Motivation in Language: From Case Grammar to Cognitive Linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, p.75.
• Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2017). Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure. Edinburgh University Press.

24. Thank you