Biotechnology - IB classes

1. Biotechnology

2. Human Genome Project
• The HGP achieved the goal
of obtaining a sequence of
the human genome
• Began formally in 1990
• The project originally was
planned to last 15 years, but
it finished in 2003
• Project goals:
• To identify all the
approximately 20,000-25,000
genes in human DNA
• To determine the sequences of
the 3 billion chemical base
pairs that make up human
DNA,

3. • To store this information in
databases,
• To improve tools for data
analysis.
Researchers have found
about 25 000 genes and
noticed the important
role of the ‘junk’ DNA

4. Chromosome Y
• Contains over 200 genes
• Contains over 50 million
base pairs, of which
approximately 50% have
been determined

5. Chromosome X
• Contains over 1400 genes
• Contains over 150 million
base pairs, of which
approximately 95% have
been determined

6. Chromosome 1
• Contains over 3000 genes
• Contains over 240 million
base pairs, of which ~90%
have been determined

7. Genetic engineering
Insulin production
• Donor DNA from another species (in this case form
human) is incorporated into a bacterial plasmid
(E.coli)
• The bacterium is able to manufacture human
insulin
• The DNA for insulin has to be produced from
mRNA rather than inserting the DNA gene for
insulin directly

10. Other uses of gentically modified
organisms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Producing antibiotics
Producing factor VIII (involved in blood clotting)
Producing antigens for the manufacture of vaccines
Producing anti-thrombin in the goat's milk
Chymosin (rennin) production used in cheese-making

11. Restriction endonucleases
• Naturally occurying
enzymes in bacteria
• Bacteria use restriction
enzymes to defend
themselves against viruses
• The restriction enzymes cut
up the viral DNA to
prevent the virus from
being replicated
• These enzymes cut DNA at
specific sequences

13. PCR
(The Polymerase chain reaction)
• PCR is a technique that can be used to amplify small
quantities of DNA
• PCR involves repeated cycles
• The first stage of the cycle involves denaturing of DNA
(separating 2 strands) using heat
• The second stage involves annealing with a primer
selected to match a particular target within DNA. This is
done at slightly cooler temperatures
• The final stage involves the extension of the primer
using the DNA polymerase from a bacterium
Thermophilus aquaticus
• These processes take place in a thermal cycler, which
alternates between the three required temperatures

17. DNA profiling
(DNA fingerprinting)
Each of us has a unique sequence
of nucleotides in our DNA
The length of DNA varies from
person to person
The number of repetitive DNA
sequence differs between
individuals
How can we use these features of
the gentic material?

18. •
•
•
In paternity cases,
In evolutionary studies,
In criminology
How to do it?
1. Take some of a person's DNA,
2. Cut DNA up using restriction enzymes into lots of
small parts,
3. Because each of us has a unique sequence of
nucleotides in our DNA, the lengths of these fragments
will vary from person to person,
4. Separate DNA fragments using electrophoresis
according to their size and charge
5. The result is a pattern of bands unique to each of us

20. Gel electrophoresis
• It involves separating
charged molecules in an
electric field
• Samples are placed in wells
cast in a gel
• The gel is immersed in a
conducting fluid and electric
field is applied
• The sample of DNA (or
proteins) will move a certain
distance through the gel
according to the charge on
the molecule and its size

22. Cloning
A clone is…
• a group of genetically identical organisms
• a group of identical cells from a single parent cell
How can we clone artificially?
1. Firstly, we need cells separated from the embryo when
they are still pluripotent (capable of developing into all
types of tissue)
2. Then, we transplant these cells into surrogate mother