The document summarizes research on the use of motorcycle simulators. It finds that high fidelity simulators are mostly used for research while low fidelity simulators are used mainly for training. Several studies evaluated rider behavior, assistance systems, and training programs using simulators. However, the review notes a lack of studies directly comparing simulator behavior to on-road behavior and measuring the transfer of training to real-world riding.

1. A literature review on Human Factors research
using motorcycle simulators
a
Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, the Netherlands
b
Simulation & Test Solutions, Siemens Industry Software NV, Research Park 1237, Interleuvenlaan 68, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
c
Department of Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1 , 2628 CN, Delft, the Netherlands
N. Kovácsováa*
, M. Di Gesub*
, A.L. Schwaba
, A. Tosob
, M. Gubitosab
, M.P. Hagenziekerc
, J.C.F. de
Wintera
This work has been funded by the FP7 Marie Curie
programme (FP7-PEOPLE-2013-ITN #608092).
*
These authors contributed equally to this work.
[5][1]
[2]
[3]
[4] [2]
[6]
Over the past years, dozens of motorcycle simulators have been introduced
worldwide. Although a large number of research papers are available
describing the hardware features of specific motorcycle simulators [7],
comparatively little knowledge is available on the actual use and validity of
these simulators.
The aim of the present review is fourfold:
(1)to summarise the results of objective and subjective evaluations of
motorcycle simulators used in human-oriented research,
(2)to summarise which rider characteristics and behaviours have been studied
on these simulators,
(3) to investigate how motorcycle simulators are used for training,
(4) to review studies examining rider assistance systems.
 A literature search was performed using (1) Google Scholar, Scopus, and
the Transportation Research Board search engine, (2) conference
proceedings of the Driving Simulation Conference, the International
Motorcycle Conference, and the International Motorcycle Safety Conference,
(3) the reference lists of collected papers.
 Search terms: motorcycle simulator, riding trainer, powered two wheeler,
PTW simulator, single track vehicle simulator, in combination with one of
three keywords: behaviour, training, and evaluation.
 Studies were included when conducted on a simulator providing a physical
Human Machine Interface (HMI), and when the virtual environment was
presented on a screen, wall, or monitor. Studies not containing a description
of participants or which lacked a research design were excluded.
2. Method
[1] Vieira, R., Steidle, M., Vieira, A., & Santos, R.A.P. (2014). Conceptual architecture of motorcycle simulators for the training of novice riders. Proceedings of the 10th
International Motorcycle Conference, Cologne, Germany.
[2] Lenkeit, J.F., Hagoski, B.K., & Bakker, A.I. (2011). A study of motorcycle rider braking control behavior (Final Report. DRI-TR-09-12-4). Washington, DC: NHTSA.
[3] Filtness, A.J., Rudin-Brown, C.M., Mulvihill, C.M., & Lenné, M.G. (2013). Impairment of simulated motorcycle riding performance under low dose alcohol. Accident Analysis
and Prevention, 50, 608-615.
[4] Stedmon, A.W., Hasseldine, B., Rice, D., Young, M., Markham, S., Hancox, M., Brickell, E., & Noble, J. (2011). “MotorcycleSim”: An evaluation of rider interaction with an
innovative motorcycle simulator. The Computer Journal, 54, 1010-1025.
[5] Huth, V., Biral, F., Martín, Ó, & Lot, R. (2012). Comparison of two warning concepts of an intelligent Curve Warning system for motorcyclists in a simulator study. Accident
Analysis and Prevention, 44, 118–125.
[6] Will, S., & Schmidt, E. (in press). Powered Two Wheelers' workload assessment with various methods using a motorcycle simulator. IET Intelligent Transport Systems.
Retrieved from http://digital-library.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/iet-its.2014.023
[7] Nehaoua, L., Arioui, H., & Mammar, S. (2011). Review on single track vehicle and motorcycle simulators. 19th Mediterranean Conference on Control & Automation, Corfu,
Greece (pp. 940-945).
[8] Guth, S. (2014). Motorcycle riding simulation to assess instrument and operation concepts and informing riding assistance systems. Proceedings of the 10th International
Motorcycle Conference, Cologne, Germany.
Evaluation of simulators
Three main characteristics of a motorcycle simulator evaluation were
distinguished:
Subjective impressions of acceleration and deceleration are often poor (e.g.,
[8]).
A wider field of view, a foot peg control, and a washout filter on a motion-
base simulator have been proposed for increasing the feeling of movement [9].
Rider behaviour and characteristics
Studies assessing rider behaviour focused on:
ohazard perception [10]
obraking behaviour [2]
ospeed or lane positioning while
negotiating bends [11]
Forty-nine studies
Ten studies Twenty-one studies
Ten studies Eight studies
Rider assistance systems
Examples of evaluated rider assistance systems (e.g., [5], [16]):
ocurve warning
ointersection support
Feedback of various modalities was examined:
oflashing signals
oa visual icon
obeeping and ‘emotional’ sounds
oa vibrating helmet
oa force feedback throttle
oa haptic glove
Rider training
The majority of training studies used the low-cost Honda Rider Trainer (HRT)
simulator:
ofor improving hazard/risk perception skills among novice riders (e.g., [13])
ofor learning how to operate a moped and motorcycle (e.g., [14])
Longitudinal research exists showing that hazard perception skills are
retained in the long term [15].
Long-term studies investigating the transfer of training to the real road were
not found.
3. Results
 High fidelity simulators were mostly used for research purposes, whereas
low fidelity simulators were mostly used for training.
 Simulator motion may not always be required or desirable in behavioural
research and training.
 A lack of research in which recorded motorcycle rider behaviour in the
simulator is statistically associated with recorded on-the-road rider
behaviour.
 A lack of studies that measure transfer of training to the road.
4. Discussion
[9] Cossalter, V., Lot, R., & Rota, S. (2010). Objective and subjective evaluation of an advanced motorcycle riding simulator. European Transport Research Review, 2, 223-
233.
[10] Liu, C.C., Hosking, S.G., & Lenné, M.G. (2009). Hazard perception abilities of experienced and novice motorcyclists: An interactive simulator experiment. Transportation
Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 12, 325-334.
[11] Crundall, E., Crundall, D., & Stedmon, A.W. (2012). Negotiating left-hand and right-hand bends: a motorcycle simulator study to investigate experiential and behaviour
differences across rider groups. PloS One, 7, e29978, 1-17.
[12] Di Stasi, L.L., Álvarez-Valbuena, V., Cañas, J.J., Maldonado, A., Catena, A., Antolí, A., & Candido, A. (2009). Risk behaviour and mental workload: multimodal
assessment techniques applied to motorbike riding simulation. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 12, 361-370.
[13] Di Stasi, L.L., Contreras, D., Cándido, A., Cañas, J.J., & Catena, A. (2011). Behavioral and eye-movement measures to track improvements in driving skills of vulnerable
road users: First-time motorcycle riders. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 14, 26–35.
[14] Watanabe, E., Yamamoto, T., Sekine, T., & Okano, M. (2005). Effectiveness verification of practice using the simple motorcycle simulator (No. 2005-32-0080). SAE
Technical Paper.
[15] Vidotto, G., Bastianelli, A., Del Prete, F., & Tagliabue, M. (2011). A longitudinal study to evaluate riding trainer effectiveness in teenagers. Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Road Safety and Simulation, Indianapolis, Indiana (pp. 14-16).
[16] Pieve, M., Tesauri, F., & Spadoni, A. (2009). Mitigation accident risk in powered two wheelers domain: improving effectiveness of human machine interface collision
avoidance system in two wheelers. Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Human System Interactions, Catania, Italy (pp. 603-607).
References
o frontal collision warning
o lane change supportFixed base simulator:
Honda Rider Trainer
[1]
Rider view of vehicle hazards
Audio, visual, and haptic warnings
[5]
[16]
1. Introduction
o characteristics associated with functional
fidelity: (1) simulator leaning and (2) steering
o characteristic associated with physical fidelity:
(3) scenery tilting
[9]
o riding under the influence of
alcohol [3]
 The simulator was used as an
assessment tool for comparing groups
of riders (e.g., experienced, non-
experienced, riders with advanced
training) or for comparing riders with
car drivers.
[12]
Motion cue
capabilities
of the UNIPD
simulator mock-up