The Acropolis of Lindos (Lindus, Greek: Λίνδος) is a natural citadel located on a rocky outcrop which rises above the modern town. It was fortified successively by the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Knights of St John and the Ottomans. Lindus or Lindos was one of the most important towns in ancient Rhodes. It was situated on the eastern coast, a little to the north of a promontory bearing the same name.
1. Acropolis of Lindos Live version of this article
By the Editors of the Madain Project
The Acropolis of Lindos (Lindus, Greek: Λίνδος) is a natural citadel located on a
rocky outcrop which rises above the modern town. It was fortified successively by
the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Knights of St John and the
Ottomans. Lindus or Lindos was one of the most important towns in ancient
Rhodes. It was situated on the eastern coast, a little to the north of a promontory
bearing the same name.
Overview
Principal landmark of Lindos (ancient Lindus) and cult center over the centuries
was the rock of the acropolis. The few sporadic finds bear witness to human
occupation of the site already in the Neolithic and the Bronze Age (circa fourth to
second millennia BCE).
The founding of the sanctuary of Athena Lindia on the acropolis is dated to
geometric times (circa 9th century BCE). However, many scholars maintain that
an earlier cult existed here, going back to Mycenaean times, of a pre hellenic
female deity, Lindia, who was associated with nature and fertility. This view is
supported also by the myth of Danaos, who together with his daughters are
credited with founding the sanctuary, on their return from Egypt.
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2. The first arrangement of the space took place in the time of the tyrant
Kleoboulos, in the mid sixth century BCE. It was then that the first stone temple
was built at the highest point of the acropolis, which was possibly surrounded by
a fortification wall. A staircase led from the entrance to the temple, which was
enclosed by an enceinte (peribolos). No major changes to this arrangement
appear to have been made in the next two centuries.
In the Lindian Chronicle there is reference to a fire, dated to the year 392 BCE,
which caused damage to the temple, necessitating its reconstruction. Recent
research has shown that the new temple was built around 300 BCE and was part
of an overall plan for the monumental rearrangement of the sanctuary, which was
implemented in stages in the Hellenistic period.
In the first half of the third century BCE, the propylaea and the monumental
staircase leading to them and to the temple were built. At the end of the third
century BCE the large stoa (portico) was constructed. These buildings gave the
acropolis a terraced theatrical aspect, constituting a model for public architecture
in Hellenistic times. Later, in the first century BCE, the terrace of the stoa was
extended by constructing a series of vaults and cisterns.
The acropolis continued to be fortified during the Byzantine, Medieval and
Ottoman periods as well. The residence of the Byzantine garrison commander
was probably located here. The Knights of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem
captured the castle in October 1307 CE. Construction of the Hospitaller fortress
commenced in the fourteenth century CE and was completed in the fifteenth
century CE, under the Grand Masters of the Order Antoine Fluvian and Pierre
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3. D'Aubusson. Seat of the commander was the building at the top of today's
stepped ascent. Its entrance was protected by a machicolation. The
headquarters wes probably built by Grand Master Foulques de Villaret, who
sought refuge in the citadel in 1317 CE, after an internal dispute in the Order and
the attempted assassination.
On 30th October 1522 CE the garrison of Lindos surrendered the keys of the
castle to the Ottoman Turks. A small Turkish garrison remained until 1844 CE. In
the period 1902-1905 CE, the Danish Archaeological Mission conducted
excavations on the acropolis; during the Italian occupation, restoration
interventions were carried out.
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4. Archaeological Remains
circa 380 BCE
Temple of Athena Lindia
The core of the sanctuary of Athena Lindia was the temple dedicated to the
goddess, built on the highest point of the rock of the acropolis. Worship of
Athena possibly replaced an earlier cult of an unknown deity, in the cave
opening directly under the temple. The cave continued to be a place of
worship in later times, as the shape of the Virgin Spiliotissa. The
architectural remains belong to a temple built in the late fourth century BCE,
after the destruction of the earlier temple by fire in 392 BCE. The temple is in
the Doric style-order, amphiprostyle and of approximate dimensions are
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5. 22x8 meters. It comprises a pronaos, a cella and an opisthodomos.
Preserved in situ are the crepis in the opisthodomos, a large part of the west
wall and a small part of the east one.
In the cella there was a low parapet, behind which stood the table for
offerings and the statue of the goddess Athena. Visible in the walls are
grooves to receive wooden supports and nail holes for holding the
revetments that covered the temple interior. On either side of the doorway
was probably placed the "list of the priests' ', a very important inscription in
which the names of the priests from 406 BCE until 28 CE are written. Parts
of it were used to pave the floor of an early christian basilica on the site of
the tetrastoon, in the settlement. The temple was constructed of local
sandstone (poros), which was coated with stucco, as were the other
buildings on the acropolis.
In the period circa 1936-40 CE, the two colonnades of the prostaseis were
restored and parts of the side walls of the temple were completed. During
the recent restorations (2000-2005 CE), all the earlier completions were
removed and replaced with new building material. Concurrently, errors in the
previous intervention were corrected, the column height was recalculated
and certain ancient stone blocks were repositioned. Fragments of the
ancient threshold were identified, completed with new material and set back
in their original place.
circa 1200/1300 CE
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6. Church of Saint John
The Church of Saint John (Ayios Ioannis) was built in the 12th or 13th
century CE, possibly on the site of an earlier Christian basilica from the sixth
century CE, as the surviving architectural elements attest. It is one of the
architectural types of the cross-in-church. Two rows of pillars divide the
church into three aisles, which terminate in three apses at the east end. The
three-sided apse at the center projects from the external wall.
Later on "knights' headquarters" was built to the north of the church, and
was connected to via a single door opening into the wall of the narthex.
During the period of Ottoman rule the Byzantine church was converted into a
mosque.Traces of the mihrab or prayer niche are visible in the central apse.
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7. Most of the pillars and of the south wall of the church no longer exist. They
were dismantled in the course of the excavations, in order to remove ancient
inscriptions built into their fabric. The existence of the Christian church bears
witness to the continuity of worship activity on the acropolis.
circa 50 BCE
Hellenistic Stoa
The stoa, in the Doric style and open colonnades plan, consists of two
roofed wings, symmetrically arranged on both sides of the grand staircase of
the propylaea. Unity of the construction, which is about 89 meters long, was
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8. ensured by continuing the alignment of the wings' columns along the front of
the staircase.
Built in the first century BCE, the terrace was extended in front of the stoa,
by the construction of fourteen vaults (inspect). In the middle of the terrace
was a staircase (inspect), replacing the previous one, which led to the stoa.
Part of the earlier staircase is now visible in the first vault to the west.
Beneath the terrace there are two complexes of five cisterns, in which
rainwater was collected from the roofs of the stoa and the propylaea. Their
overall capacity is estimated at 300 cubic meters. The wellheads of the
cisterns are visible.
Excavations have revealed the foundation of the stoa,parts of the walls and
seven columns up to a low height. In the period circa 1936-1940 CE, 21 of
the 42 columns of the stoa were restored, the walls were partially completed
and the terrace and the east vaults were reconstructed. In the recent
interventions, 26 columns of the stoa were restored, along with the
corresponding parts of the crepis, entablature and the west wall of the
eastern wing.
circa 200 CE
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9. Stoa of Psithyros
The Stoa of Psithyros was constructed during the Roman period in the
second century CE alongside the temple of Athena Lindia. The Roman-era
stoa (portico) was dedicated to the oracular demon Psithyros. It defined the
southern edge of the courtyard located in the upper terrace of the acropolis
between the propylaea and the temple. The stoa is in the ionic style-order,
4-4.6 meters wide and had a colonnade at its facade, consisting of five or
seven columns with a probable height of 4.26 meters.
Its identity is based on an inscribed stone-base dating back to circa 200 CE.
It refers to Seleukos who built a temple in honor of Psithyros and suggested
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10. that the god should not be honored with an offering of less than one
drachma.
The excavations by the Danish archaeological mission brought to light five
sections of the colonnade's stylobate and a certain number of drums were
attributed to the monument. As part of the restoration interventions funded
by the NSRF, a column with its capital was restored to a complete height.
The stylobate and sections of other columns were also restored, using
mainly ancient material.
circa 180 BCE
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11. Votive Semicircular Exedra
The semicircular rock-cut exedra served as the base of a statue set up in the
alcove visible above its back-rest. At the same time it was a comfortable
seat where pilgrims to the sanctuary could rest awhile. In front of the exedra,
carved in the rock, is a low rectangular base for an altar.
Later, during the third or fourth century CE, a metrical inscription was incised
on the back of the exedra; it refers to Aglochartos, one of the last priests of
Athena Lindia, and extols his activity in planting olive trees on the acropolis.
This kind of freestanding exedrae were quite common in ancient
sanctuaries.
circa 432 BCE
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12. Fortifications
The high, precipitous crag of Lindos, atop of which is the acropolis, was a
natural fortress and safe haven for the city's inhabitants in all historical
periods.
The first fortified enceinte was built by the tyrant Kleoboulos in the mid sixth
century BCE. A wall reinforced with a rectangular tower was constructed on
the same site in the Hellenistic period, circa third century BCE. Today, small
parts of the fortifications and the foundations of two towers on the north side
of the acropolis are still visible.
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13. The fortified character of the castle was maintained in Byzantine times. The
ramparts of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem were built on top of the
Byzantine wall, making the castle of Lindos one of the mightiest according to
the decree of Grand Master Orsisi (circa 1474 CE). The wall was reinforced
with towers, the oneat the south-west corner of the castle and a second,
west of the headquarters, surviving until today.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Ottomans constructed
bastions at the three corners of the castle, in order to effectively confront the
ballistic capability of cannon.
Reliefs
circa 180 BCE
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14. Stern of a Warship (triemiolia)
The relief served as the base of a bronze portrait statue of Hagesandros son
of Mikion, whom the Lindians honored on the occasion of a naval victory of
the Rhodians. The stern of the warship (triemolia), which preserves traces of
red pigment, is rendered in detail, with the aphlaston at the right end and the
richly bedecked captain's seat in the form of a bird's wing. Discernible on the
back of the base, within a small temple (naiskos), is a standing female figure
with Kalathos on the head. Preserved on the rock in front of the relief is a
row of holes, in which were set the iron railings that protected the
monument. It was cut into the rock at the foot of the steps leading to the
acropolis.
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15. According to the inscription on the hull of the ship, the work was created by
the renowned Rhodian sculptor Pythokritos son of Timocharis. The
Rhodians' preference for representations of ships in art was closely linked
with their maritime tradition and their confidence in the martial ability of their
ships.
Interventions and Restoration Efforts
circa 1985-2008 CE
Despite the positive aesthetic result that the Italian restoration works
achieved on the Acropolis of Lindos, it soon became apparent that it was
catastrophic for the ancient monuments. The Poor quality of the new
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16. building material used, the reinforced concrete in the joints between
architectural elements, the corrosion of the ion reinforcement, as well as the
erroneous placements of ancient elements of one monument in another, are
some of the more serious problems that demanded radical and immediate
addressing.
The ministry of culture began systematic study and restoration of the ancient
site in 1985 CE, by including the project in a jointly-funded program of the
European Union, implementation of which was undertaken by the committee
for the consolidation, restoration of the monuments on the acropolis of
Lindos.
The project included restoration works on the Hellenistic stoa and the temple
of Athena Lindia, where the most serious static problems had been noted.
The method of dismantling the monuments in parts was applied, in order to
avoid major disruption at the archaeological site and to preserve the Italian
intervention as part of the history of the site. Concurrently, however, earlier
errors were corrected.
After dismantling the columns, the ancient architectural elements were
cleaned and conserved, and the possibility of reusing them in their original
location or position was assessed. Unfortunately, their condition proved to
be much worse than was initially estimated. The oxidation of the iron
elements, the reinforced concrete in the joints and the rapid rate of erosion
of the added building material had resulted in the fragmentation not only of
column members, which did not even retain their original column, were
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17. removed of necessity, because they were no longer capable of bearing
loads. In the end, only a small percentage of the ancient material was
reused.
The materials used in the restoration works are sandstone (poros) for the
new architectural elements, titanium for the dowels and the empolia
(elements for connecting the drums) and special mortars for joints or
completions. FOr the joints between the architectural members, the ancient
method of free-bedding of the elements was repeated, not only for didactic
reasons but also to secure anti-earthquake protection and reversibility of the
architectural solution applied.
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21. See Also
Greek Theatre of Lindos
Acropolis of Rhodes
Acropolis of Athens
Acrocorinth
References
Homer. Iliad. Vol. 2.656.
Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historica (Historical Library). Vol. 12.75.
Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historica (Historical Library). Vol. 5.58.
Philostr. Icon. 2.24.
Herodotus. Histories. Vol. 2.182.
Strabo. Geographica. Vol. xiv. p.655. Page numbers refer to those of Isaac Casaubon's
edition.
Athen. 12.543, Strabo. Geographica. Vol. xv. p. 687. Page numbers refer to those of Isaac
Casaubon's edition.
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22. Richard Talbert, ed. (2000). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton
University Press. p. 60, and directory notes accompanying.
Lund University. Digital Atlas of the Roman Empire.
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