Experiment

20-IME-110mechanics of material

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
RCET Campus
Lab Report of Thermo Fluids
Name:
Muhammad Abdullah
Roll Number:
2010-IM-110

Experiment: 1
To measure the temperature using different temperature measuring devices.
Introduction:
What is temperature?
The degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, especially as expressed according to a
comparative scale and shown by a thermometer or perceived by touch.
Temperature is a measure of the average heat or thermal energy of the particles in a substance. Since it is an
average measurement, it does not depend on the number of particles in an object. In that sense it does not
depend on the size of it. For example, the temperature of a small cup of boiling water is the same as the
temperature of a large pot of boiling water. Even if the large pot is much bigger than the cup and has millions
and millions more water molecules.
We experience temperature every day. When it is very hot outside or when we have a fever we feel hot and
when it is snowing outside we feel cold. When we are boiling water, we wait for the water temperature to
increase and when we make popsicles we wait for the liquid to become very cold and freeze.
Thermometer:
Thermometer is a temperature measuring device which use its capillary action to measure the heat in the body.
Its calibration of scale mainly depends on the type of material it has used.
Usually mercury due to its unique characteristics is used in the thermometer.
Thermo couple:
A thermocouple is a device for measuring temperature. It comprises two dissimilar metallic wires joined
together to form a junction. When the junction is heated or cooled, a small voltage is generated in the electrical
circuit of the thermocouple which can be measured, and this corresponds to temperature.
In theory, any two metals can be used to make a thermocouple but in practise, there are a fixed number of types
that are commonly used. They have been developed to give improved linearity and accuracy and comprise
specially developed alloys.
Thermocouples can be made to suit almost any application. They can be made to be robust, fast responding and
to measure a very wide temperature range.

Procedure:
Take the liquids whose temperature is to be measured.
Dip the thermometer in each liquid for one minute each.
Note the temperature for each liquid and measure the difference.
App diagram with schematic diagram
Thermocouple Thermmometer
Specification
Thermometer=100 C
Thermocouple range =-50 –1300C
-58---1998F
 Result:
Time
(second)
Thermometer
(°C)
Thermocouple
(°C)
30 82 89.5
60 81 87.3
90 81 85.6
120 79 83.5

150 77 81.5
200 78 80
 Comments:
We should also be vigilant because during measuring high temperatures safty should not
be ignored.
Conclusion:
The temperature difference is directly proportional to the heat in the liquid.
 Reference:https://www.quora.com/What-is-temperature, www.te.com/usa-
en/products/sensors/temperature-sensors/thermocouple-sensors.html?te
Experiment#2
To explain the working of the four stroke internal combustion engine
Introduction
Internal Combustion Engine:
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally
a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral
part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the expansion
of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion apply
direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to
pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance,
transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.
ClassificationsofInternal Combustion Engine:
Internal combustion engines can be classified in many ways on following basis:
Basic Design
According to the design, the internal combustion engines are of two types.
Reciprocating:
Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back and forth. The
combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is delivered to a
rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.
Rotary:
Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor and crankshaft.
The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block. A number of experimental
engines have been tested using this concept, but the only design that has ever become
common in an automobile is the Wankel engine in several Mazda models. Mazda builds
rotary automobile engines with one, two, and three rotors.
Engine Working Cycle

There are basically two types of working cycles on which the internal combustion engines
operates. These cycles are explained below.
Four-stroke cycle:
A four-stroke cycle has four piston movements over two engine revolutions for each cycle.
The four strokes are Intake, co mpression, Expansion and Exhaust.
Procedure
First of all fuel from the tank is drawn by the pressure due to the opening of the inlet valve.
Than the compression cycle occurs and combustion takes place as a result of the combustion the piston moves
outward and power is transferred and in the next cycle the outlet valve is opened and the combusts gases are
thrown outward and the cycle begins again.
Graphical explanation

Two are isothermal processandtwoare adiabaicprocessinwhichone iscompresionandotherisexpension.
Conclulsion
Isothermal and adiabaticprocesse ahas so muchvalue thattheycan be usedto generate poweranddue tothisreason
the engine woksandthisisthe basic principle.
Refrances; https://www.google.com/search?q=Experiment+%232+working+principle+of
combustion+engine&rlz=1C1CHZN_enPK984PK984&oq=Experiment+%232+working+principle+of+combustion+engine&
aqs=chrome..69i57j33i160l2.26546j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
Experiment: 3
To demonstrate the working principle of a concentric heat exchange operating
under counter flow condition.
Introduction
Heat exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat between two or more fluids—i.e., liquids, vapors, or
gases—of different temperatures. Depending on the type of heat exchanger employed, the heat transferring
process can be gas-to-gas, liquid-to-gas, or liquid-to-liquid and occur through a solid separator, which prevents
mixing of the fluids, or direct fluid contact. Other design characteristics, including construction materials and
components, heat transfer mechanisms, and flow configurations, also help to classify and categorize the types of
heat exchangers available. Finding application across a wide range of industries, a diverse selection of these
heat exchanging devices are designed and manufactured for use in both heating and cooling processes.
This article focuses on heat exchangers, exploring the various designs and types available and explaining their
respective functions and mechanisms. Additionally, this article outlines the selection considerations and
common applications for each type of heat exchanging device.
 Procedure:
 Turn on the taps and allow the hot and cold waters in such a way that the water should pass through the valves
and turn on the temperature measuring unit to calculate the value of hot water and cold water
 Allow the hot and cold water to flow in such a way that the respective waters Should pass through their
respective channel and control the flow rate of the fluid by variable float meter.
 Set up the water to water heat transfer unit, and valves V2,V4 and V6 are the valves for the hot water. While
valves V1, V3 and V5 are the valves for the cold water.
 When the water flow is started,the valves show the temperature of water at the specific valve.

 Using the thermometer displayed on the apparatus,note values of the temperature at different valves.
 Also note the value to heat supplied and after heating the fluid note the value of the heat emitted.
 Now calculate the %efficiency of the fluid flowing in the water to water heat transfer unit.
 T1, T2, T3 are the temperature of the hot water at inlet and T4, T5, T6 are the temperature of cold fluid.
Specification
For coldwater: Tc in =19C
Tcout =24C
Tc mid=29C
For hot water:
Tc in =53C
Tcout =45C
Tc mid=48C
 Result:
Sr.
No.
mhw Mcw Th in Th mid Th out Tc in Tc mid Tc out Heat
rejected
1 0.033 0.025 53.9 48.8 45 19.5 24.4 29.7 1.23
2 0.066 0.055 54.9 50.7 47.1 19.5 24.4 29.2 1.96
Heat absorbed %Efficiency

1.066 86.67
2.02 97.02
Explanation of results and observations
This is clear from the calculation that the heat will be transferred maximum if the difference between the temperatures
will be maximum.
Conclusion
Comments:
Reference: https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/process-equipment/understanding-heat-exchangers/
https://www.google.com/search?q=heat+exchanger&rlz=1C1CHZN_enPK984PK984&oq=heat+exchanger&aq
s=chrome..
To demonstrate the working principle of a concentric heat exchange operating
under parallel flow condition.
Experiment: 4
Introduction
Heat exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat between two or more fluids—i.e., liquids, vapors, or
gases—of different temperatures. Depending on the type of heat exchanger employed, the heat transferring
process can be gas-to-gas, liquid-to-gas, or liquid-to-liquid and occur through a solid separator, which prevents
mixing of the fluids, or direct fluid contact. Other design characteristics, including construction materials and
components, heat transfer mechanisms, and flow configurations, also help to classify and categorize the types of
heat exchangers available. Finding application across a wide range of industries, a diverse selection of these
heat exchanging devices are designed and manufactured for use in both heating and cooling processes.
This article focuses on heat exchangers, exploring the various designs and types available and explaining their
respective functions and mechanisms. Additionally, this article outlines the selection considerations and
common applications for each type of heat exchanging device.
Difference in the counter and parallel flow during heat exchange experiment
The main difference in the counter and parallel flow is that the cold and hot fluid flows in opposite and parallel
directions direction with their respective inlet valve to enter. In the counter flow the valve which was used for
the hot water is used for the cold water and vice versa.
 Procedure:

 Turn on the taps and allow the hot and cold waters in such a way that the water should pass through the valves
and turn on the temperature measuring unit to calculate the value of hot water and cold water
 Allow the hot and cold water to flow in such a way that the respective waters Should pass through their
respective channel and control the flow rate of the fluid by variable float meter.
 Set up the water to water heat transfer unit, and valves V2,V4 and V6 are the valves for the hot water. While
valves V1, V3 and V5 are the valves for the cold water.
 When the water flow is started,the valves show the temperature of water at the specific valve.
 Using the thermometer displayed on the apparatus,note values of the temperature at different valves.
 Also note the value to heat supplied and after heating the fluid note the value of the heat emitted.
 Now calculate the %efficiency of the fluid flowing in the water to water heat transfer unit.
 T1, T2, T3 are the temperature of the hot water at inlet and T4, T5, T6 are the temperature of cold fluid.
Specification
For coldwater: Tc in =19C
Tcout =24C
Tc mid=29C
For hot water:
Tc in =53C
Tcout =45C
Tc mid=48C
 Result:
Sr.
No.
mhw Mcw Th in Th mid Th out Tc in Tc mid Tc out Heat
rejected
1 0.033 0.025 53.9 48.8 45 19.5 24.4 29.7 1.23
2 0.066 0.055 54.9 50.7 47.1 19.5 24.4 29.2 1.96

Heat absorbed %Efficiency
1.066 86.67
2.02 97.02
Explanation of results and observations
This is clear from the calculation that the heat will be transferred maximum if the difference between the temperatures
will be maximum.
Conclusion
The heat transfer in the fluid is directly proportional to the hot and cold temperatures and in the counter flow a
large amount of heat is transferd rather than low
Comments:
Reference: https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/process-equipment/understanding-heat-exchangers/
https://www.google.com/search?q=heat+exchanger&rlz=1C1CHZN_enPK984PK984&oq=heat+exchanger&aq
s=chrome.
Experiment NO: 5
To determine the temperature distribution for the steady state conduction of heat through the wall
of cylinder and demonstrate the effect of change in heat flow.
Introduction
The conservation of mass is the fundamental concept of physics. It is the part of thermodynamics physics. Within a
given problem domain, the amount of mass always should remain constant. Hence mass is neither created nor
destroyed. The mass of any object is simply the volume that is occupied by the object multiplied with the density of
the object. Also, for a fluid, the density, volume, and shape of the object can all change within the domain with
time. And mass may move through the domain. In this topic, we will discuss the concept of Mass Flow rate
formula with examples. Let us begin!
Concept of Mass FlowRate
The conservation of mass is telling us that the mass flow rate through a tube must be constant. We can compute the
value of the mass flow rate from the given flow conditions.

Mass Flow Rate is the rate of movement of a massive fluid through the unit area. Obviously this flow rate depends
on the density, velocity of the fluid and the area of the cross-section. Therefore, it is the movement of mass per unit
time. It is measured in the unit of kg per second. Thus we can say that the mass flow rate is the mass of a liquid
substance passing per unit time.
The mass flow formula: Mass FlowRate = (density) × (velocity) × (area of the cross-section)
Mathematically, (m = rho times V times A)
 Procedure:
Turn on the centrifugal pump and apply set the liquid to flow through the channel and fill it with water
While water is filling in the side channel than take a reference point on the tube and note the reading
from one certain position to the other and note the value of the time period for the respective
measurement of the volume.
Than measure the value of the flow rate by the following formula:
Flow rate =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Specification
Maximum capacity of the water chanell = 100lr
 Results:

Sr. No. Volume (L) Volume (m3) Time (sec) Flow Rate
(m3 s-1)
1 3.5 0.0035 10.45 0.00033
2 4.5 0.0045 10.76 0.00081
3 5.7 0.0057 7.16 0.00079
4 6 0.006 6.98 0.00086
Conclusion
Mass flow rate mainly depends on the velocity of the fuid flowing through the area of the croos
section.
Refrances:https://www.britannica.com/technology/pressure-gauge#ref38055
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics-formulas/mass-flow-rate-formula/
Experiment: 6
To calibrate the bourdon pressure gauge using the dead weight column
apparatus
Introduction:
The Bourdon-tube gauge, invented about 1850, is still one of the most widely used instruments for measuring
the pressure of liquids and gases of all kinds, including steam, water, and air up to pressures of 100,000 pounds
per square inch (70,000 newtons per square cm). The device (also shown in the figure) consists of a flattened
circular tube coiled into a circular arc. One end is soldered to a central block and is open to the fluid whose
pressure is to be measured; the other end is sealed and coupled to the pointer spindle. When the pressure inside
the tube is greater than the outside pressure, the tube tends to straighten, thus turning the pointer. The pressure is
read on a circular scale.
Metal bellows and diaphragms are also used as pressure-sensing elements. Because of the large deflections for
small pressure changes, bellows instruments are particularly suitable for pressures below atmospheric. Two
corrugated diaphragms sealed at their edges to form a capsule, which is evacuated, are used in aneroid
barometers to measure atmospheric pressure (see altimeter).

These instruments employ mechanical linkages and so are primarily useful for measuring static pressures or
pressures that change slowly. For rapidly changing pressures, electrical pressure transducers that convert
pressure to an electrical signal are more suitable. These include strain gauges; moving contact resistance
elements; and inductance, reluctance, capacitative, and piezoelectric devices. Electromechanical transducers,
which are used in hydraulic controllers, where speed and power are needed, convert changes in pressure of fluid
to electrical signals.
 Apparatus:
 Dead weight calibration apparatus
 Weights
 Supply of water
 Bourdon pressure gauge:
Bourdon tube pressure gauges are the most common type in many areas and are
used to measure medium to high pressures. They cover measuring spans from
600 mbar to 4,000 bar.
Specification
Mass in kilogram=0.5kg
Mass in kilogram=1 kg
Mass in kilogram=2kg
 Procedure:
Fill the funnel of the piston with water by pump.
Than fill it in the piston and apply the load.
Note the readings of pressure from the pressure gauge and theoraticaly and
compare the values.

Observations and calculations:
 Results:
Sr. No. Mass Force Pm=
𝐹
𝐴
𝜌 PGauge %error =
𝜌−𝑃
𝑃 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
∗
100
1 0.5 4.9 1929 0.2 3.55
2 1 9.8 38582 0.4 3.55
3 1.5 14.7 57874 0.58 0.2
4 2 19.6 77165 0.78 1.07
5 3 29.4 115748 1.115 -0.65
Conclusion
The pressure in the apparatus depends on the area of cross section and the load applied in the piston and the
pressure gauge meter are also calibrated in this way.
Refrance https://www.britannica.com/technology/pressure-gauge#ref38055
Experiment no 7
To determine the energyhead losses in pipes for different elbow, enlargement,
contractionand valve positions.
Introduction

The total energy loss in a pipe system is the sum of the major and minor losses. Major losses are associated
with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous effects of the fluid and roughness of the pipe
wall. Major losses create a pressure drop along the pipe since the pressure must work to overcome the frictional
resistance. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is the most widely accepted formula for determining the energy loss
in pipe flow. In this equation, the friction factor (f ), a dimensionless quantity, is used to describe the friction
loss in a pipe. In laminar flows, f is only a function of the Reynolds number and is independent of the surface
roughness of the pipe. In fully turbulent flows, f depends on both the Reynolds number and relative roughness
of the pipe wall. In engineering problems, f is determined by using the Moody diagram.
2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION
In engineering applications, it is important to increase pipe productivity, i.e. maximizing the flow rate capacity
and minimizing head loss per unit length. According to the Darcy-Weisbach equation, for a given flow rate, the
head loss decreases with the inverse fifth power of the pipe diameter. Doubling the diameter of a pipe results in
the head loss decreasing by a factor of 32 (≈ 97% reduction), while the amount of material required per unit
length of the pipe and its installation cost nearly doubles. This means that energy consumption, to overcome the
frictional resistance in a pipe conveying a certain flow rate, can be significantly reduced at a relatively small
capital cost.
Procedure
Set up the apparatus and make it ready for the experiment and turn on the centrifugal pump and valve to
allow the liquid to flow in the pipes. Use the pump to remove trapped air in the funnel of the respective
representatives of the elbows. Adjust the flow rate and calculate the distance between the heights of the column
of the respective elbows.
Specification
The volume flow rate is in liters per seconds

The height is in mm.
Observations and calculations:
Explanation of results and
observations
This is obvious from this apparatus that the head losses
mainly depends on the conditions like surface tention of the liquid the cross section area through which the
liquid is passing and the bent angle of the elbow.
Conclusion:
When a liquid pass though the bent in the pipe there is the significant reduction of the decrease in the velocity
of the liquid this significant loos we have studied in this experiment.
Comments:
The head losses also depends on the type of the material used in the elbows
LAB SESSION # 9
To determine the Coefficient of Performance of heat Pump.
Introduction
A heat pump is a system used to heat or cool an enclosed space or domestic water by transferring thermal
energy from a cooler space to a warmer space using the refrigeration cycle, moving heat in the opposite direction in
which heat transfer would take place without the application of external power. When used to cool a building, a heat
pump works like an air conditioner by transferring heat from inside the building to the outdoors. When used to heat a
building, the heat pump operates in reverse: Heat is transferred into the building from the outdoors. Common heat
pump types are air source heat pumps, ground source heat pumps, water source heat pumps and exhaust air heat
pumps. Heat pumps are also often used in district heating systems.
The efficiency of a heat pump is expressed as a coefficient of performance (COP), or seasonal coefficient of
performance (SCOP). The higher the number, the more efficient a heat pump is and the less energy it consumes.
When used for space heating these devices are typically much more energy efficient than simple electrical
resistance heaters. Heat pumps have a smaller carbon footprint than heating systems burning fossil fuels such
as natural gas,[1]
but those powered by hydrogen are also low-carbon and may become competitors.[2
Procedure
Switch on the vapor-compression refrigeration apparatus after taking care of all necessary
precautions. Allow running of the apparatus for a while so that the readings shown become stable.
Change the condenser water flow rate using the knob provided, for each set of readings. Insert the
values in the table of observations.
Sr
no
Flow
rate
Headlossacross
longbend
K=ΔhX2
/v2
v/t H1 H2 ∆H
1 o.0034 109 105 4 2.6×10-3
2 0.0001 131 124 7 3.66×10-3
3 0.00025 172 161 11 2.966×10-3
4 0.0003 236 221 18 4.66×10-3

CAlculatuions
Work input rate across compressor wcom = 4500/ X (I)
Heat Output across condenser qcon = mw x Cp w (T6 – T5) (II)
Coefficient of Performance COP = Heat Output / Work Input (III)

Refrance https://www.p-a-hilton.co.uk/products/refrigeration/mechanical-heat-pump
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pump
Experiment: 8
To determine the temperature distribution for the steady state conduction
of heat through the wall of cylinder and demonstrate the effect of change
in heat flow.
Introduction:
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through stationary matter by physical contact. (The matter is
stationary on a macroscopic scale—we know there is thermal motion of the atoms and molecules at
any temperature above absolute zero.) Heat transferred from an electric stove to the bottom of a pot
is an example of conduction.
Some materials conduct thermal energy faster than others. For example, the pillow in your room may
the same temperature as the metal doorknob, but the doorknob feels cooler to the touch. In general,
good conductors of electricity (metals like copper, aluminum, gold, and silver) are also good heat
conductors, whereas insulators of electricity (wood, plastic, and rubber) are poor heat conductors.
Microscopic Description of Conduction
On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs as rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules
interact with neighboring particles, transferring some of their kinetic energy. Heat is transferred by
conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to
another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid
objects in thermal contact. Conduction is greater in solids because the network of relatively close
fixed spatial relationships between atoms helps to transfer energy between them by vibration.
Fluids and gases are less conductive than solids. This is due to the large distance between atoms in
a fluid or (especially) a gas: fewer collisions between atoms means less conduction.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Heat Transfer Through Conduction
In addition to temperature and cross-sectional area, another factor affecting conduction is the
thickness of the material through which the heat transfers. Heat transfer from the left side to the right
side is accomplished by a series of molecular collisions. The thicker the material, the more time it
takes to transfer the same amount of heat. If you get cold during the night, you may retrieve a thicker
blanket to keep warm.
Heat flow
Heat flow is the movement of heat. Heat can flow in a vacuum by a process called radiation, which is the
transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves. Heat flows in solids by conduction, which occurs when two
objects in contact with each other transfer heat between them.
 Procedure:
 Set the apparatus

 Give some value of current and voltages .Afterwards note the values for the
temperatures by rotation the valve.
 Now increase the value of the current and voltages, and note the values for the
temperatures.
 Get the values and note down.
Schematic diagram

Specifications
o Material = Brass
o Ri= 7mm
o Ro= 50mm
o Temperature at 7mm = T1
o Temperature at 20mm =T3
 Observations:
Sr.
No.
Voltages Current Power
on
heat
source
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1 10 1.6 16 38.6 34.9 20.4 26.2 24.3 22.9
2 15 2.44 36.6 56.4 48.2 39.6 32.7 27.8 24.8
3 20 3.23 64.6 78.9 65 51.3 40.2 32.2 27.1
Conclusion:
As the temperature increase the thermal conductivity also increase as a result the electrical also
changes.

Experiment

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