Historical Background on Genesis of Epidemics, Plant Quarantine & Phytosanitary Certification

Historical Background on
Genesis of Epidemics, Plant
Quarantine & Phytosanitary
Certification
Dr. Mir G. Hassan
Assistant Professor
(Plant Pathology)
Saffron Research Station
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural
Sciences & Technology of Kashmir
email: mirgulamhassan@gmail.com

Introduction
 The more civilized humans became, building cities and forging
trade routes to connect with other cities, and waging wars with
them, the more likely pandemics became.
 See a timeline below of pandemics that, in ravaging human
populations, changed history.
 With increasing international travel and trade globalization, the
persistence of trans-boundary plant/animal/human diseases in
the world poses a serious risk to world
humans/animal/agriculture/food security and jeopardizes
international trade.
 The world has experienced devastating major diseases
outbreaks and major economy losses such as ……….

430 B.C.: Athens
 Disease: Suspected to have been typhoid fever
 During: Peloponnesian War
 Deaths: two-thirds of the population died
165 A.D.: Antonine Plague
 Disease: Suspected to have been smallpox
 Appeared at Huns & spread throughout Roman empire
 Plague continued until about 180 A.D.

250 A.D.: Cyprian Plague
 City dwellers fled to the country to escape infection but
instead spread the disease further.
 Spread: Africa & Rome
 Recurring outbreaks over the next three centuries & hit
Britain in 444 A.D. obstructed defense efforts against the
Picts and the Scots
541 A.D.: Justinian Plague
 Appeared: Egypt, spread Palestine Byzantine Empire,
and Mediterranean.
 Recurrences over the next two centuries eventually
killed about 50 million people, 26 percent of the world
population.

11th Century: Leprosy
 pandemic in Europe in the Middle Ages,
 was believed to be a punishment from God that ran in
families. This belief led to moral judgments and
ostracization of victims.
1350: The Black Death
 Death of one-third of the world population.
 Possibly started in Asia and moved west in caravans.
Entering through Sicily arrived in the port of Messina, it
spread throughout Europe rapidly.

1492: The Columbian Exchange
• Diseases: Smallpox, measles and bubonic plague
• Europe As many as 90 percent dying throughout the north
and south continents.
• During 16th and 17th centuries 56 million Native Americans
deaths
1665: The Great Plague of London
• Deaths of 20 percent of London’s population.
• The worst of the outbreak tapered off in the fall of 1666,
around the same time as another destructive event—
the Great Fire of London.

1817: First Cholera Pandemic
• Small intestine infection originated in Russia, where one
million people died
• British soldiers brought it to India where millions more
died. The reach of the British Empire and its navy
spread cholera to Spain, Africa, Indonesia, China, Japan,
Italy, Germany and America, where it killed 150,000
people. A vaccine was created in 1885, but pandemics
continued.
1855: The Third Plague Pandemic
• Starting in China and moved to India and Hong Kong
and pandemic was considered active until 1960,
• the plague claimed 15 million victims

1875: Fiji Measles Pandemic
• Spreaded British Empire, the royal party of Queen
Victoria brought the disease from Australia &
Spreaded quickly, the island was littered with
corpses that were scavenged by wild animals,
One-third of Fiji’s population, a total of 40,000
people, died.
1889: Russian Flu
• Pandemic started in Siberia and Kazakhstan &
traveled to Moscow and Europe into North
America and Africa.
• By the end of 1890, 360,000 had died.

Disease: Spanish Flu, Year:1918,
Deaths: 50 million deaths worldwide
Observed: Europe, the United States & parts of Asia before swiftly spreading around the world
But the flu threat disappeared in the summer of 1919 when most of the infected had either
developed immunities or died.
Emergency hospital during Spanish Influenza epidemic, Camp Funston, Kansas

1957: Asian flu
• Appeared in Hong Kong and spread throughout
China and United States.
• The flu widespread in England over six months,
14,000 people died.
• A second wave followed in early 1958, causing
about 1.1 million deaths globally, with 116,000
deaths in the United States alone.
• A vaccine was developed, effectively containing
the pandemic.
1981: HIV/AIDS
• First observed in American gay communities but is
believed to have developed from a chimpanzee
virus, but 35 million people worldwide have died of
AIDS since its discovery, and a cure is yet to be
found

2003: SARS
• Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome is believed to have possibly started
with bats, spread to cats and then to humans in China, followed by 26
other countries, infecting 8,096 people, with 774 deaths.
2019: COVID-19
• Caused by a new coronavirus strain has not been previously found in
people, its spread through droplets from sneezes.
• The first reported case in China appeared November 17, 2019, in the
Hubei Province, but went unrecognized. Eight more cases appeared in
December with researchers pointing to an unknown virus.
• Dr. Li Wenliang ophthalmologist released safety information to other
doctors. Li died from COVID-19 just over a month later.
• On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization announced COVID-19
virus was officially a pandemic after barreling through 114 countries in
three months and infecting over 118,000 people.
• By mid-March the virus spreads beyond Chinese borders to all over
world. On February 11, the infection was officially christened COVID-19

Plant Diseases & Famines
 Many destructive plant pathogens have
emerged via human-assisted global
migration movement from their native
geographic range to a new environment.
 The Successful colonization and
establishment of the pathogen in the new
location often involves an expansion or shift
of host-range.
 These new hosts have not coevolved with
the pathogen and may have little resistance
or tolerance to infection.

1845-1846, Irish famine, late blight (Phytophthora infestans) epidemic of potato.
2.5 million people died due starvation & emigration of up to 2.5 million

Overview of Phytopthora Infested Potato field

The severe wheat shortage in Madhya Pradesh during 1946 and 1947 due
to wheat rust

1868, Coffee Rust (Hemileia vastatrix. ),
Symptoms
(A) Leaf symptoms on abaxial
surface
(B) Detail of suprastomatal
uredinial pustules
coalescing over lower leaf
surface
(C) Uredinium showing
arrangement of spores
(D) Urediniospores
In 1870, Ceylon production
declined from 45 million kg to
2.3 million kg in 1889
1975, Coffee Rust, Central &
South America.
2012, Coffee Rust, Central
America, Caribbean Over $1
billion in damage to coffee
plants.
Up to 500,000 job losses.
Many farms lost over 75% of
production.

1878 – 1885, Grapes Downy mildew, France, Spread throughout Europe
with devastating impact on wine industry. Led to use of copper in
Bordeaux mix, the first chemical widely used to protect plants.

Disease and symptoms of sudden oak death and ramorum blight.
(a) bleeding cankers often observed on oaks and beech, that eventually die. (b) Tan oak death in Big Sur,
California. Ramorum foliar on Rhododendron (c) and tan oak(d)

Dutch Elam Disease
Although believed to be originally native to Asia, and was accidentally introduced during
World War I into America and Europe. Early work on the disease was done
by Dutch pathologists in the 1920s, the disease has been called Dutch elm disease (DED)
and is caused by three species of ascomycete fungi Ophiostoma ulmi (also known as
Ceratocystis ulmi), O. novo-ulmi. The third species, O. himal-ulmi, was discovered in 1993
and is endemic to the Himalayas.

Learning from history, predicting the future: the UK Dutch elm disease outbreak in relation
to contemporary tree disease threats, Volume: 366, Issue: 1573, Pages: 1966-1974, DOI:
(10.1098/rstb.2010.0395)

Wheat Stem Rust (Puccinia graminis var. tritici)
 Devastating
epidemic in the
North America,
during 1916,
1935, 1953, &
1954.
 The pathogen
attacks all
above-ground
parts of the
plant.
 Reduce grain
yield by up to 90
per cent.

Barberry Eradication In Stem Rust Control In Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye
A worker pours salt on a barberry bush in Minnesota, ca. 1925. Applying salt to kill a bush’s roots
was the main method of destroying them before the widespread use of herbicides in the 1950s.

 During 1950s, outbreak of Panama disease [Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Race-1)]
 Wiped out Gros Michel banana production cultivar .
 New outbreak of strain Tropical Race 4 (TR4) threatens 80% of the varieties in cultivation.
 Tropical Race 4 has first been identified in Taiwan
 Rapidly spread through Southeast Asia, almost all banana producing countries.
 In August 2019, TR4 arrived in Colombia, the region comprising the world's biggest
banana exporters.
 The pathogen is resistant to fungicides and its control is limited to phytosanitary
measures.[1] So now the industry is once again facing disaster.
Banana Panama Disease [Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc)]

Great Bengal Famine 1770 & 1943
 Brown Spot Bipolaris oryzae (Syn.Name; Cochiobolus/Helminthosporum)
 Territory West Bengal, Bangladesh, and parts of Assam, Odisha, Bihar, and
Jharkhand.
 Hastings's reported 3rd of the population in 1772 & in 1943 over 3 million
people starved to death and the streets and highways were littered with
their bodies.

1963, Bacterial leaf blight caused by X. oryzae pv. Oryzae
 Distribution worldwide
 Destructive in Asian countries during the heavy rains of monsoons
 First noticed by the farmers in Fukuokka area of Japan in 1849
study of the disease Commenced in Japan in 1901.
 In India it was first reported from Koloba district of Maharashtra
 The disease was considered to be of minor importance until it
broke out in an epidemic form in Shahabad district of Bihar in 1963.
 Yield losses up to 80%.

Southern corn leaf blight Race T Bipolaris maydis
(Cochliobolus heterostrophus teleomorph state)
 There are 3 races O, C, & T; Symptoms vary depending on the infectious
pathogen's race.
 The losses of corn were catastrophic, reaching as high as 50-100% in some areas
of the US. The actual food energy losses were considered to be greater than
those caused by the potato late blight epidemic of the 1840's.
 The economic losses from southern corn leaf blight disease totaled about 1
billion dollars.

1989, Cacao Witches' broom,
Brazil Losses up to 100%.
Overall wiped out 75% of production.

Papaya Ring spot virus
 Dr. Garritt P. Wilder, a botanist at the Bishop Museum, is credited with
introducing the Solo papaya in Hawaii to 1910. PRSV was discovered in Hawaii
in the 1940s.
 In 1950s virtually eliminated large papaya production on Oahu island, papaya
industry to relocate to Puna district on Hawaii island in the early 1960s.
 In 1990s, the virus had almost destroyed the papaya industry in Hawaii's.

1990s-2000s: Citrus canker (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri)
 Rod-shaped Gram-negative with polar flagella.
 Symptoms: lesions on the leaves, stems, and fruit of citrus trees, including
lime, oranges, and grape fruit.
 Causing vitality of citrus trees, leaves and fruit to drop prematurely.
 Originated from Japan, Brazil and United States are currently suffering from
canker outbreaks.
 Declared eradicated from Florida and the adjacent states in 1933 & 1980s, and
1994.
 Florida has burned 20 million citrus plants in 1990s. presently at least three
Xac genotypes

Citrus greening disease “Huanglongbing (HLB)” caused by Candidatus Liberibacter
 First described in 1929 and first reported in China in 1943, detected in Florida 2005 & in Brazil
2004,
 The heat-tolerant Asiatic form Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (found in Florida);
 The heat-sensitive the African Candidatus Liberibacter africanus (Laf); and
 The American Candidatus L iberibacter americanus (detected in Brazil) forms.
 Many Florida growers abandoned citriculture and sold their orchards to real estate developers.
Up to 75% of trees in southeast US infected.
 The impact of HLB on the citrus economy of Florida is estimated at several billion dollars.
 As of 2009, 33 countries have reported HLB infection in their citrus crop.
Diaphorina citri
Trioza erytreae

2010, Wheat Stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici)
 Most widespread occurrence in 2000,s recorded history more than 20 states throughout
the United States.
 Epidemic causing 40% losses.
 21 previously identified races and 21 new races were identified. 8 were pathotypes with
combinations of virulence’s previously known to exist in the United States
Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici urediniospores

2011, Maize lethal necrosis disease, Disease widespread across East Africa maize growing areas.
Maize crop ruined by an infection Maize Lethal
Necrosis Disease in Narok County. Farmers are
turning to cultivation of passion fruits and
vegetables to cushion them from losses caused
by repeated outbreak of the disease.
 Maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV) was first
reported in Peru in 1974 & was subsequently
found in the USA. Later reported during 1980,s
& 2010,s worldwide distribution.
 MLN is a disease caused by combined infection
caused by maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV;
genus Machlomovirus, family Tombusviridae),
with any one of several viruses from the family
Potyviridae, such as sugarcane mosaic virus
(SCMV), maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV) or
wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV).
 During 2012–2013, the estimated maize yield
losses in Kenya due to MLN were reported as
23–100% in the affected counties in the
country.
 In 2012, the estimated losses due to MLN were
up to US$ 52 million, and by 2013 it was
estimated that the aggregate national loss of
maize production due to MLN was about 0.5
million tons with a value of US$ 180 million.
 Nearly 85% of the maize produced is used as
food in sub-Saharan Africa

 First noticed in 2013 on olive trees
 Caused the estimated death of 6.5 million olive trees in southern Italy by 2017,
and could cost the EU billions of euros in production and job losses.
 It has invaded 23,000 ha olives in the southern part of Apulia region (Lecce
province, southern Italy) and is of great concern throughout Mediterranean
basin.
 Xylella fastidiosa (Xf ) is a quarantine pathogen included in EPPO A 1 list, that
causes economically important plant diseases more than 200 plant species eg;
Pierce’s Disease, Citrus Variegated Chlorosis, leaf scorch diseases in a broad
range of plants.
 So far, four subspecies of the bacterium are known: fastidiosa, multiplex,
pauca and sandyi.
severely damaged an estimated 6.5 million
olive trees in southern Italy by 2017
Olive Quick Decline Syndrome (OQDS) (bacterium Xylella fastidiosa)

2016-17, Wheat Blast (Magnaporthe oryzae Triticum (MoT) pathotype), Bangladesh
 Severe outbreak across eight districts in
Bangladesh 2016. first reported in 1985
in Brazil.
 The epidemic spread to 15,000
hectares, yield losses up to 100 %.
 It has since spread throughout many of
the important wheat-producing
countries.
 Currently, wheat blast affects as much
as 3 million hectares vast grasslands
region of South America.
 In South America, wheat blast is caused
by isolates of Magnaporthe oryzae
(syn. Pyricularia oryzae) known as
pathotype Triticum .
 The rice-infecting isolates of M. oryzae
are genetically distinct from wheat-
infecting isolates and generally do not
infect wheat.
 Typical symptoms premature bleaching
of spikelets and entire heads.
 Severely infected wheat heads can be
killed, resulting in severe yield losses.
 Spread by seeds and airborne spores,
and crop residues.
 The outbreak is threatening food
security across the South Asian
countries.

Peach yellows phytoplasma (formerly called mycoplasma-like object (MLO))
 Endemic to the eastern U.S
• Broke out in Philadelphia in the eighteenth century
• It left gloom and bankruptcy or near bankruptcy among the farms
and villages in its wake.
• It reached a peak about the turn of the twentieth century but by
now is hard to find in the formerly affected area.
• According to Hedrick there were subepidemics in the pandemic
1806-07, 1817-21, 1845-58, 1874-78, 1886- 88, and 1920 peach trees
were ruined..
• 6000 acres had shriveled to 503 acres in Berrien County &
Michigan in 1874.
• 6.1 million trees in 1889 in Delaware there were declined to 4
million in 1899, and to 1.5 million trees in 1909.
• Some have held that eradicating the diseased trees was
responsible.
• In Asia, epiphytotic in the Turkemenian SSR, with a yield
depression of 92%.

A=transmission electron
micrograph showing
phytoplasmas in sieve tubes.
B&C=typical foliar symptoms of
X-disease on peach: (B)
irregularly shaped & necrotic
lesions and (C) shot-hole
appearance of the leaves.
D&E=leafhopper vectors of the X-
disease phytoplasma: (D)
Colladonus montanus and (E)
Fieberiella florii.
F=healthy looking chokecherry
(Prunus virginiana), a major
pathogen reservoir of the X-
disease agent.
G&H=peach rosette symptoms:
leaves of affected trees are
appressed into distinct dense
rosettes. (H)Right, healthy tree.
I=a disorder of peach resembling
peach rosette, observed in
southern Italy J=peach fruit with
swollen and reddened suture,
typical symptom of peach red
suture.
K&L=(K) narrow and chlorotic
leaves and (L) willowy growth,
characteristic symptoms
associated with peach yellows,
called also little peach.

Phony peach (Xylella fastidiosa)
• First noted in Georgia in 1900 and by 1933.
• Within 30 years thousands of peach trees were affected.
• More than one million trees have been ruined by this disease in Georgia.
• 2.6 million trees have been destroyed, a value of 75 million dollars.
• The bacterium Xylella fastidiosa has quarantine status within the EU (EPPO A2 list) & is
common in Texas with neumreous strains.

Sugarcane Mosaic Virus (SCMV) caused by Potyvirus, family Potyviridae.
 First described in 1892 and recognized as a virus disease in 1920.
 Distribution all the countries were Sugarcane is cultivated.
 21 strains of it have been found in the United States.
 Mid-1920s sugarcane industry collapsed in Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, and southern
United States.
 In Australia, losses 50% and in Louisiana the production of cane sugar decreased from
400,000 to 50,000 tons.
 Destroyed the old established varieties all over the world.
 SCMV, most damaging diseases affecting maize production in China

Pear decline (Candidatus Phytoplasma pyri)
Vector: Pear psylla Cacopsylla pyricola
and grafting of infected .
Economic impact: In USA certain regions
reduced by half. In Italy, during 1945-47,
over 50 000 trees were destroyed. In 1959
California estimated 100,000 dead trees
number increased tenfold following year.
1964 North America about one million trees
had been destroyed. A recent severe
outbreak of pear decline is reported
Northern Italy upto to 80%.
HOSTS: Pears (Pyrus spp.) and quinces
and herbaceous host Catharanthus roseus.
Symptoms: quick decline and slow decline
or leaf curl. Fruits, are small & few

 Transmitted by several species of mealybugs and infected budwood.
 First noted in Ghana 1936, Production decreased 50% in 1945.
 By June 1955 more than 40 million trees had been cut out in Ghana.
 14 strains are reported yet from Ghana.
Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV) family Caulimoviridae
Red vein banding Chlorotic vein banding Tip swellingMealybug infested cocoa pods

Plum pox (Potyvirus) PPV
 Plum pox virus disease of stonefruit, its being transmitted by aphids.
 First observed in Macedonia 1915-16.
 In Britain and Central Europe, causes serious economic losses.
 In Yugoslavia 16 million & Bulgaria 1963 100,000 plum trees had become infected;
 Many regions plum growing is totally ruined.
 Bulgaria, Yugoslavia & Germany extensive actions of eliminate the susceptible
varieties & infected trees.
 Symptoms: Chlorotic rings on the fruit and leaves. Fruit of infected plants are
poorer quality and distorted.

Sugar beet yellows virus or Beet yellows virus (BYV) (Closterovirus)
 Transmitted by aphids
 causing yield losses of 50 %
 More common in UK & Europe.
 Outbreaks 1970`s in UK caused severe yield losses and forced many growers
to stop growing beet.

Pests and Diseases which have been introduced world wise

Pests and Diseases introduced in India from other countries
Phool Chand et al, 2017

Exotic pests can cause huge losses to our crop wealth

The Holy Messenger Hazrati Muhammad (Peace be upon him & his Progeny) recognized and
preached the importance of travel bans and quarantine in places contaminated with
disease in order to mitigate the spread of illness. “Being clean and pure is half of faith.”[a]
He said, “If you hear of an outbreak of plague in a land, do not enter it; and if the plague
breaks out in a place while you are in it, do not leave that place[b].” Do not quarantine
the healthy with the infected[c] and “Servants of Allāh! Make use of medical treatment,
for Allāh has not made any disease without creating a cure for it.”[d]. Anas b. Mālik
narrated that the Prophet ( ‫ﷺ‬) used to say: O Allāh, I seek refuge in You from leprosy,
madness, communicable disease, and evil diseases.”[i]
In conclusion, the Holy Messenger Hazrati Muhammad’s(Peace be upon him & his Progeny)
teachings around pandemics propose an infection control mechanism that calls for both
faith and practical measures to be taken in order to effectively contain infectious diseases.
and pay Charity which wipes away sins[e], Every act of goodness is considered an act of
charity.”[f]. The best person is the one most useful to others[g]. “The merciful are shown
mercy by al-Rahmān, Be merciful to all inhabitants of the earth, and you will be shown
mercy from the One above the heavens[h].
Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim: 223[a], 2221[b]; Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Hibbān: 6061[d]; Ṣaḥīḥ. Jāmi’ al-Tirmidhī:
2616[e] 1924[h]; Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī: 5771[c], 5728[b], 6021[f]; Sunan Abī Dawūd: 1554[i],
4941[t], Hasan. al-Ṭabarānī, al-Mu’jam al-Awsaṭ: 5787[g]
Origin of Quarantine
by Holy Messenger Hazrati Muhammad (Peace be upon him & his Progeny)

Abu Ali Husayn Ibn Sina 980-1037
o A Persian polymath father of
early modern medicine, With
expertise in many fields, from
medicine and astronomy to
mathematics and theology, also
known as Avicenna in Latin and
in the West.
o Played a groundbreaking role in
curbing the most-feared
contagions a thousand years ago.
o In his five-volume medical
encyclopedia, ‘The Canon of
Medicine’, published in 1025.
o Ibn Sina argued that disease can
spread through very small
particles that cannot be seen
with the naked eye, a discovery
that was proven centuries later,
that a 40-day period of
quarantine is essential to control
the spread of contagious
infectious diseases.

 Mid-1600s: a group of French farmers noted that wheat rust was always
more severe on wheat near barberry bushes than away from them.
 1660: a law was enacted in Rouen, France, ordering the eradication of
barberry plants from the vicinity of grain fields.
 French Govt. promulgated the first PQ law in 1860 to suppress and
prevent the spread of common barberry, the alternate host for wheat rust.
 The first British legislation against a disease in animals or plants was an
Act of 1866 granting emergency powers for the destruction of all cattle
affected by rinderpest which had been introduced into Britain by imported
Russian cattle the previous year.
 An embargo was passed in Germany to prevent importation of plant and
plant products from the US to prevent the introduction of the Colorado
potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) in 1873.

 1877: the United Kingdom Destructive Insects Act was passed to prevent the importation
of the Colorado beetle.
 1891: the first plant quarantine measure was initiated in US by setting up a seaport
inspection station at San Padro, California.
 1912: the US Congress enacted the Federal Plant Quarantine Act, which among other
things, prohibits the entry of plants into the United States.
 It was phylloxera gall louse (Phylloxera vastatrix) that provided the initial stimulus for the
establishment of effective international cooperation on plant disease legistation. The aphid
was introduced into Europe from America about 1865 and caused major losses in the
vineyards of France.
 The first international plant protection convention, the Phylloxera convention was signed
at Berne on 3 November 1881.
 1878: First conference of meeting at Berne, Switzerland attended by France, Austria, France, Germany,
Italy, Portugal, Spain and the outcome “International Convention on Measures to be taken against
Phylloxera vastatrix”
 The awareness to quarantine measures in India started in early 20th century when the
Indian Government in 1906 ordered compulsory fumigation of imported cotton bales to
prevent introduction of Mexican cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis).
 French Government in 1913 passed regulation to ban the import of planting materials from
America

Plant Quarantine Agreements
• 1914 : First effort towards international
agreement of plant protection in 1914
• 1919 : 50 countries participated & finalized –
issuance and acceptance of ‘Phytosanitary
Certificate’
• 1951: FAO sponsored IPPC India became a
member in 1952 As of now 182 countries are
members

What is Plant Quarantine?
A legal restriction on movement of agricultural
commodities for the purpose of exclusion,
prevention or delay in the establishment of plants,
pests and diseases in the area where they are not
present.
Plant quarantine is thus designed as a safeguard
against harmful pests/pathogens exotic to a
country or a region.

India
• 1914 – Destructive Insects and Pests (DIP) Act
• 1946 – Plant Quarantine processing of exotic germplasm initiated at the then Imperial
Agricultural Research Institute (now Indian Agricultural Research Institute) for Plant
Introduction Scheme.
• 1956 – Plant Quarantine Units in the Division of Entomology and Plant Pathology established
at IARI, New Delhi.
• 1961 – Plant Introduction Division established in IARI; germplasm exchange and plant
quarantine activities increased manifold.
• 1967 – Division of Nematology established at IARI, which housed Nematology unit of plant
quarantine.
• 1976 – NBPGR established.
• 1981 – Post-entry quarantine of imported (chemically treated) wheat, barley and triticale
started in isolation nursery.
• 1983 – Post-entry quarantine for detection of seed transmitted viruses in exotic legumes
started.
• 1984 – Plants, Fruits and Seeds (PFS) (Regulation of Import into India) Order issued under DIP
Act.
• 1988 – New Policy on Seed Development (NPSD) announced, resulting in increased import of
seed material.
• 1989 – PFS Order (1984) revised to meet the requirements of NPSD and increasing imports.
• 2003 - Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order.

New Plant Quarantine Order, 2003
 To prevent the introduction and spread of exotic
pests that are destructive to the country by
regulating the import of plants and plant products
through adequate policy and statutory measures
 To support India's agricultural exports through
credible export certification
 To facilitate safe global trade in agriculture by
assisting producers, exporters and importers and
by providing technically comprehensive and
credible phytosanitary certification.

Agencies involved in Plant Quarantine In India
 Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage,
Faridabad
 National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi
 Institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
 Heads of Plant Pathology Divisions of State Agricultural
Universities (SAU,s)
 State Agricultural and Horticultural Departments

Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage
Established (1946) as an attached office under Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India
Headquarters: Faridabad - 121 001 (Haryana)
Head: Plant Protection Adviser
Website: www.ppqs.gov.in
The organization handles bulk import and export of seed and planting
material for Commercial purposes.
PQ mandates
 Legal prevention of pests of quarantine significance.
 Eradication, suppression and containment of exotic pests.
 Fulfilling obligations of importing countries by certification of
exportable plants / plant products

Organization Chart- Plant Quarantine

The plant quarantine system
http://www.pps.go.jp/english/jobs/contents.html

Plant Quarantine Stations
National Plant Quarantine Station (NPQS), Rangapuri, New Delhi
Regional Plant Quarantine Stations:
Amritsar, Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai
75 Notified entry points
Seaports (42)
Airports (19)
Land frontiers (14)
65 Inland Container Depots
11 Foreign Post Offices

National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR)
Establishment: January 1976
Headquarters: New Delhi
Web: www.nbpgr.ernet.in
 The national nodal agency for exchange of germless,
material of agri-horticultural and Agri- silvicultural crops for
research purposes in the country.
 It has also been entrusted with the quarantine
responsibilities in respect to germplams of their crops.
 The Director of NBPGR has been empowered to issue
“Permits” for imports of seeds /planting materials for
Research purpose.

Quarantine station Inspection Procedures
 Visual inspection: To detect sclerotia, nematode galls, bunt galls, smuts, insect
………………………infestations, weed seeds, insect eggs, inert mater etc.
 X-ray test: Insect infestation (hidden)
 Washing test: Spores of fungus eggs of insect adhering to seeds, nematode galls
 Sedimentation test: Stem eelwarm (Ditylenchus dipsaci) (Baerman Funnel Test)
 Incubation test: Seed borne fungi/ bacteria (Blotter/agar test)
 Grow out test: Seed borne bacteria/viruses/downy mildews
 Electron microscopy: Potentially used for identification and characterization of all
………………………….plant viruses.
 Serological methods: ELISA, DIBA, ISEM, Agglutination test.
 Nucleic acid hybridization
 Polymarised Chain Reaction (PCR)
 Fumigation: Fumigants like methyl bromide, HCN, phosphine and EDCT (ethylene
dichloride + carbon tetrachloride mixture) are commonly used.
 Heat & Hot water treatment:
• Against nematodes: Flower bulbs, 44° C for 240 min; chrysanthemum, 48° C for 25 min; potato
………..tubers, 45° C for 5 min
• Against insects and mites: strawberry runners, 46° C for 10 min
• Against viruses: Grape vine, 45° C for 120-180 min; sugarcane setts, 50° C for 120 min.; potato
………..tubers, 50° C for 17 min
• Against fungi: Celery seed, 50° C for 25 min; wheat seed, 52-54° C for 10 min

http://www.pps.go.jp/english/jobs/import.html

Guidelines for Import of Germplasm
 Import from a country where the pathogen(s) is absent.
 Import from a country with an efficient plant quarantine service, so that
inspection and treatment is done.
 Obtain Planting material from the safest known source within the selected
country.
 Obtain non-treated seeds so that detection of seed borne pathogens is
facilitated.
 Obtain clean, healthy-looking seeds of type of impurities.
 Obtain an official certificate of freedom from pests and diseases from the
exporting country.
 Import the smallest possible amount of planting material; the smaller the
amount, the less the chance of its carrying infection. It will also simplify post
entry inspection.
 Inspect material carefully on arrival and treat.
 If other precautions are not adequate, subject the material to intermediate
or post entry quarantine.
 Salvage infected seeds.

Examples of Different Categories of Pests Intercepted in Quarantine

Viral pathogens intercepted in germplasm importing

Schedules attached to PQ Order, 2003
1. Schedule-I [See Clauses 2(xxii), 3(13) and 3(14)] ]: Points of Entry for Import of plants/ plant
materials and other articles
2. Schedule-II [See Clauses 2(xxii), 3(13) and 3(14)]: Inland Container Depots and Container
Freight Stations for import of plants/ plant materials
3. Schedule-III [See Clauses 2(xxii), 3(13) and 3(14)]: Foreign Post Offices for import of plants/
plant materials
4. Schedule-IV [See clause 3 (2), 10(2) and 11(1)]: Plants/planting materials and countries from
where import is prohibited
5. Schedule-V See clause 3 (3)(6)(7) and 10 and 11 (3)]: List of plants and plant materials
restricted import permissible only with the recommendation of authorized institutions with
additional declarations and special conditions
6. (Schedule-VI): Plants/plant materials permitted to be imported with additional declarations
and special conditions; Import Permits are required.
7. (Schedule- VII): Plants/Planting Materials where Imports are permissible on the basis of
phytosanitary certificate issued by the exporting country; No Import Permit is required to
be taken
8. Schedule-VIII [See Clause 3 (12)]: List of Quarantine Weed Species
9. Schedule-IX : • Import Inspection Fees
1. Fumigation/Disinfection/Disinfestation
2. Supervision charges
10. Schedule-X [See Clause 2(xii) and Clause 3(3)]: Permit Issuing Authorities for Import of
Seeds, Plants and Plant Products and other articles
11. Schedule-XI [See clause 2 (xi)]
1. PART-I: Inspection Authorities for Certification of Post entry quarantine facilities and
inspection of growing plants
2. Part-II: Inspection authority for certain specified purposes
12. SCHEDULE-XII [See clause 3 (4)]: Quantities of seeds permitted for trial purpose/accession to gene bank
of National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources.

Schedule-I
[See Clauses 2(xxii), 3(13) and 3(14)]
Points of Entry for Import of plants/ plant materials and other articles

Schedule-II
Inland Container Depots and Container Freight Stations for import of plants/ plant materials

Schedule-III
Foreign Post Offices for import of plants/ plant materials

Schedule-IV
[See clause 3 (2), 10(2) and 11(1)]
Plants/planting materials and countries from where import is prohibited

1. Prohibited for general public: Coconut plants and seeds, coffee plants and seeds, cotton seeds and unginned
cotton, forest tree seed (Castanea, Pinus, Ulmus), groundnut seeds and cuttings, potato, sugarcane, tobacco seeds
and wheat seeds. 2. Plants/seeds which require post entry quarantine: Cocoa, citrus, coconut, groundnut, potato,
sugarcane, sunflower, tobacco and wheat

Schedule-V
See clause 3 (3)(6)(7) and 10 and 11 (3)]
List of plants and plant materials restricted import permissible only with the recommendation of
authorized institutions with additional declarations and special conditions
3. Additional declarations required for notified plants
• Plants/plant materials permitted to be imported with additional declarations and special conditions; Import Permits
are required. (Schedule-VI)
• Plants/Planting Materials where Imports are permissible on the basis of phytosanitary certificate issued by the
exporting country; No Import Permit is required to be taken (Schedule- VII)

SCHEDULE-VIII
[See Clause 3 (12)]
List of Quarantine Weed Species
SOURCE:http://plantquarantineindia.nic.in/PQISPub/pdffiles/Schedule-VIII-ason-4th-Oct2007.pdf
 Schedule-IX
• Import Inspection Fees • Fumigation/Disinfection/Disinfestation • Supervision charges

Schedule-X
[See Clause 2(xii) and Clause 3(3)]
Permit Issuing Authorities for Import of Seeds, Plants and Plant Products and other articles

Schedule-XI
[See clause 2 (xi)] PART - I
Inspection Authorities for Certification of Post entry quarantine facilities and
inspection of growing plants
PART – II
LIST OF INSPECTION AUTHORITY FOR CERTAIN SPECIFIED PURPOSES

SCHEDULE-XII
[See clause 3 (4)]
Quantities of seeds
permitted for trial
purpose/accession to
gene bank of National
Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources.
SOURCE:http://plantquarantineindia.nic.in/PQIS
Pub/html/consumeProhibited.htm#

Notified Points of Entry
 The consignments of plants/plant material for consumption shall be permitted import
through the entry points notified vide Schedule-I, Schedule-II and ScheduleIII of Plant
Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003.
 The import of seeds, plants, cuttings, bulbs and other planting materials for propagation
purpose are permitted to import only through Regional Plant Quarantine Stations of
Amritsar, Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai and National Plant Quarantine Station, New Delhi.
 All the regulated articles such as live insects, microbial cultures, bio-control agents and
soil, earth, clay and similar material for microbiological, soil mechanics or mineralogical
investigations and peat for horticultural purposes shall only be imported into India through
Regional Plant Quarantine Stations at Amritsar, Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai and New Delhi
as per the provisions under Clause 3(14) of PQ Order, 2003.
 The port of entry through Alleppey (Kerala), Cuddalore (Tamil Nadu), Goa (Goa), Gopalpur
(Orissa), Jamnagar (Gujarat), Beypore (Kerala), Karwar (Karnataka), Krishnapatnam
(Andhra Pradesh), Machlipatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Nagapatnam (Tamil Nadu), Navlakhi
(Gujarat), Okha (Gujarat), Porbander (Gujarat), Veraval (Gujarat) is permitted only for
import of consignments of food grains by Food Corporation of India.
 Import of Transgenic/ Germplasm/ Genetically Modified Organisms shall be permitted only
through New Delhi Airport as per the provisions under Clause 3(14) of PQ Order, 2003.

Procedures of Plants and Plant Products Quarantine
Source:https://ww
w.baphiq.gov.tw/o
ffice/khbaphiq/en/
ws.php?id=729

 Rules and regulations issued prohibiting the
movement of insects and disease their host from
one state to another in India.
 Domestic quarantine is as important as the
international quarantine, therefore, planting
material should be moved from one state to
another or from one place within a state to another
under strict phytosanitary conditions.
 Regulations:
 Destructive Insects and Pests (DIP)Act, 1914
 Under section 4A of the DIP Act, there is a
provision of Domestic Quarantine to restrict the
inter-state movement of nine invasive pests
Domestic Quarantine Regulations

Pests covered under Domestic Quarantine Regulations

 Domestic Quarantine may be defined as the restriction
imposed by Plant Quarantine authorities in association with
State machinery on the production, movement and existence of
plants and planting material and is brought under regulation in
order to prevent the introduction or spread of a pest.
 In the wake of WTO-SPS Agreement, it is of more paramount
importance to maintain “Pest free Area” to gain export market
access in different countries without the need for application of
additional phytosanitary measures. The PFA established and
maintained as per International Standards forms an element of
justification of phytosanitary measures.
 Under the DIP Act, 1914 there have been different notifications
from time to time restricting the movement of plant and
planting material due to the introduction & partial
establishment of invasive pests in certain areas of the state.

Quarantine Processing of Exotic PGR

International Quarantine
 International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures
are prepared by the Secretariat of the International
Plant Protection Convention as part of the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s global
programme of policy and technical assistance in
plant quarantine.
 This programme makes available to FAO Members
and other interested parties these standards,
guidelines and recommendations to achieve
international harmonization of phytosanitary
measures, with the aim to facilitate trade and avoid
the use of unjustifiable measures as barriers to
trade.

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)
 IPPC is a multilateral treaty for international cooperation
in plant protection.
 Establishment: 1952
 Headquarters: Rome, Italy
 Members: 182
 IPPC work: standards on pest risk analysis,
requirements for the establishment of pest-free areas,
and others which give specific guidance on topics
related to the SPS Agreement.

Regional Plant Protection Organization (RPPO)
S.
No
Organization Headquarters Establishment No. of
Members
1 Asia and Pacific Plant Protection
Commission (APPPC)
Bangkok, Thailand 1956 25
Membership: Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Fiji, France, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New
Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Samoa (Western), Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Viet Nam
2 Caribbean Agricultural Health and
Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA)
Paramaribo,
Suriname
2010 17
3 Comunidad Andina (CAN) Lima, Peru 1969 12
4 Comite de Sanidad Vegetal del Cono
Sur (COSAVE)
Montevideo,
Uruguay
1989 7
5 European and Mediterranean Plant
Protection Organization (EPPO)
Paris, France 1951 51
6 Inter-African Phytosanitary Council
(IAPSC)
Yaounde, cameron 1954 52
7 Near East Plant Protection
Organization (NEPPO)
Morocco 2009 12
8 North American Plant Protection
Organization (NAPPO)
Washington, D.C. 1976 3
9 Organismo Internacional Regional
de Sanidad Agropecuaria (OIRSA)
San Salvador, El
Salvador
1953 9
10 Pacific Plant Protection
Organization (PPPO)
Suva, Fiji 1994 27
Source: https://www.ippc.int/en/external-cooperation/regional-plant-protection-organizations/

General conditions
 Import permits are essential for: 1. Seeds and fruits for consumption. 2.Seeds and
plants for sowing or planting 3.Soil, earth clay for microbiological, mineralogical
investigations 4. Peat for horticultural purposes. 5. Live insects and Living fungi in
pure culture, including Rhizobium cultures.
 All plants should be accompanied by Phytosanitary certificate from the country of
origin.
 All plants on arrival at port, shall be inspected and if necessary fumigated, disinfested
or disinfected.
 Plants and seeds which require post-entry quarantine inspection shall be grown in
post-entry quarantine facilities.
 Import of hay or straw or any material of plant origin used for packing is prohibited.
 Import of soil, earth, compost, sand, plant debris along with plants, fruits and seeds
is prohibited.
 Note: Cut flowers, garlands, bouquets, fruits and vegetables weighing less than 2 kg
for personal use may be imported without a permit or phytosanitary certificate, but
are subject to inspection.

Special Conditions
 Prohibited Plant Species: The list of prohibited plant species from
specified countries covered under Plant Quarantine (Regulation of
Import into India) Order, 2003 (PQ Order) giving justification for
prohibitions is reproduced in Schedule-IV.
 Restricted Plant Species: List of plants/ plant materials import of which
are restricted and permissible only by authorized institutions specifying
various additional declarations is reproduced in Schedule-V.
 Plants Permitted Import With Specific Additional Declarations: A list of
plant species, for which the PPA prescribes additional declarations and
special conditions, are reproduced in Schedule-VI. Besides, this a list of
plant species for consumption purpose is reproduced in Schedule-VII.
Continue

Time line for Plant Quarantine activities for import of plants/plant materials
* for these commodities provisional release order is issued in 12-24 hrs but final release is given after completion of post entry quarantine protocol.
**for seeds “Grow-Out Tests” & Lab tests are done to check the expression of pathogenic symptoms (fungus, bacteria & virus).

Time line for Plant Quarantine activities for export of plants/plant materials
* Nursery Plants subjected to specific Phytosanitary requirement of importing countries

Pest Risk Analysis
 Pest risk analysis (PRA) is a process which helps to
assess the risks of entry, establishment and spread
potential of exotic pests.
 PRA helps to identify the options to prevent the entry
and management options in the event of pest
establishment.
 The international standards brought out by IPPC serve
as guidance for carrying out PRA
 Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis (ISPM 2)
 Pest Risk Analysis for Quarantine Pests (ISPM 11)

Import control
Regulations of importing country
 Embargoes
1. Complete embargoes It involves absolute prohibition or exclusion of specified
plants and plant products from a country infected or infested with highly
destructive pests or diseases that could be transmitted by the plant or plant
products under consideration and against which no effective plant quarantine
treatment can be applied or is not available for application.
2. Partial embargoes applying when a pest or disease of quarantine importance
to an importing country is known to occur only in well defined area of the
exporting country and an effectively operating internal plant quarantine
service exists that is able to contain the pest or disease within this area.
 Inspection of seed lots
 Post Entry Quarantine (PEQ): To facilitate adoption of standard operating
procedures by all the inspection authorities notified by the Ministry of
Agriculture
 To prevent the introduction and spread of destructive pests that affects
plants and other plant material
 Examine the container and the seeds for pesticide residue

Export control
Regulations of the exporting country
 Field inspection of field crops
 Inspection of seed lots
 Seed treatment
 Phytosanitary certificate

Pest surveillance in Plant Quarantine
Pest surveillance should be an integral component of plant quarantine
services to make them useful and effective.
Pest surveillance is essential to detect occurrence of exotic pest/disease in
the early stages of their introduction so as to adopted and enforce
domestic quarantine regulation to ward off their further spread or to check
the movement of seed and seed material to other areas.
Lack of organized services of PQ at state level
Lack of inert state border PQ check posts at railway and road links
Lack of concerned and coercive action at the state Govt. level
Lack of rigorous seed/stack certificates or nursery inspection.
Need for all countries to reach an equal level in PQ, in terms of technology
and equipment.
An international network on quarantine pest monitoring is also needed, to
meet the growing danger of exotic pest invasion as a result of growing
international tourism and trade, and the long-distance migration of insect
pests.

SOURCES
• Disease and History by Frederick C. Cartwright, published by Sutton Publishing, 2014.
• Disease: The Story of Disease and Mankind's Continuing Struggle Against It by Mary Dobson, published by Quercus, 2007.
• Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues by Ed, Joseph P. Byrne, published by Greenwood Press, 2008.
• Influenza, The American Experience.
• Source Book of Medical History, Logan Clendening, published by Dover Publications, 1960.
• Campbell, C. Lee, and David L. Long. “The Campaign to Eradicate the Common Barberry in the United States The Campaign to Eradicate the Common Barberry in the
United States.” In Stem Rust of Wheat: From Ancient Enemy to Modern Foe, Paul D. Peterson, ed., 16–50. St. Paul: APS Press, 2001.
• Ploetz, R. C. (2015). "Fusarium Wilt of Banana." Phytopathology 105(12): 1512-1521
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_disease#cite_note-:2-1
• "Imperial Illusions". The New Republic. 31 December 2007.
• Sanjay Subrahmanyam (1998). Money and the Market in India, 1100–1700. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780521257589.
• Perlin, Frank (1983). "Proto-industrialization and Pre-colonial South Asia". Past & Present. 98 (1): 30–95. doi:10.1093/past/98.1.30. JSTOR 650688.
• John L. Esposito, ed. (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Pre
• Amartya Sen (1981). Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-828463-5.
• Fredrik Albritton Jonsson (18 June 2013). Enlightenment's Frontier: The Scottish Highlands and the Origins of Environmentalism. Yale University Press. pp. 167–
170. ISBN 978-0-300-16374-2.
• Mew, 1987, 1989; Mew et al., 1993; Sere et al., 2005).; Srinivasan et al. (1959); Srivastava and Rao, 1966; Bradbury (1984) Ghosh et al., 1987 Bradbury, 1984; Tikoo et al.,
1987; Mondal and Latif 1996; Jabeen et al., 2012; Tagami and Mizukami, 1962
• International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Maize Doctor, Maydis leaf blight (extended information). Web. 6 November 2012.
• Garraway et al., "Role of Light and Malate in the Decreased Sensitivity of cms-T Cytoplasm Maize Leaves to Bipolaris maydis Race T Toxin", Phytopathology 88.6 (1998) :
556-652. Web. 6 November 2012.
• Agrios, George Nicholas. "Plant Diseases Caused by Fungi." Plant Pathology. 5th ed. Amsterdam etc.: Elsevier Academic, 2005. 137, 268, 467-68.
• Achieving sustainable cultivation of cocoa: Cocoa diseases: witches’ broom
• Plant health Management:Transgenic Virus Resistant Papaya: New Hope for Controlling Papaya Ringspot Virus in Hawaii
• Florida Still Struggles Over the Citrus Canker By Sara Kennedy, Special To the New York Times July 2, 1989
• Gottwald, T.R. 2000. Citrus canker. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2000-1002-01
• Zeki Berk, in Citrus Fruit Processing, 2016
• Richard F. Lee, in Advances in Virus Research, 2015
• Xianming Chen et al Wheat Stripe Rust Epidemics and Races of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici in the United States in 2000.
• PrasannaBoddupalli et al 2020, Maize lethal necrosis (MLN): Efforts toward containing the spread and impact of a devastating transboundary disease in sub-Saharan
Africa
• Ananth Karthikeyan The Pandemic that India Forgot
• Steven M. Whit 2017 Modelling the spread and control of Xylella fastidiosa in the early stages of invasion in Apulia, Italy
• M. Tofazzal Islam et al 2017 Emergence of wheat blast in Bangladesh was caused by a South American lineage of Magnaporthe oryzae
• Marcone et al 2014 PHYTOPLASMAL DISEASES OF PEACH AND ASSOCIATED PHYTOPLASMA TAXA C.
• Satta Eleonora 2020 A severe case of pear decline disease
• Pear decline phytoplasma by CABI and EPPO
• George A. Ameya 2019. Management of the Cacao Swollen Shoot Virus (CSSV) Menace in Ghana: The Past, Present and the Future
• Plant Quarantine in India And Abroad by Anand Daunde, Asstt. Professor (Plant Pathology), VNMKV, Parbhani (Maharashtra) 2017

Acknowledgements
I also acknowledge the scientists who
spent valuable time in generating
information on various aspects and
displayed the same on internet for use
by students, teachers and researchers
Lecture dedicated to my
respected teacher
“Dr. Sobita Simon”
Professor & Head
Department of Plant Pathology & Nematology
Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture,

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