This project was completed as part of Miami University's CHM491Q Chemistry in Societal Issues capstone course toward partial completion of my Bachelor of Science degree in Biochemistry (Oxford, OH, May 2020). Title: Synthetic Food Additives: Chemistry, Health Effects, and the Societal Dilemma Authors: Kayleigh Antonelli, Michael DeBrota, Tony Durgham, Nicholas Kress, Bryce Miller, Qingxin Zhang Advisor: Dr. Michael A. Kennedy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University Abstract: Have you ever been puzzled by complex-sounding ingredients on your food label, wondering why they are used and what they do? Synthetic additives are ubiquitous in today's commercial food products, and their definitions, uses, and regulations are surprisingly complex. Today, many categories of synthetic additives exist, designed to improve food's characteristics or manufacturing processes. Various principles of chemistry underlie the functioning of these additives, and each possesses a unique and specific function. Certain additives have been subject to public scrutiny due to suspected negative health effects arising from their consumption. Moreover, the use of additives presents an additional challenge in that the accessibility to healthy alternatives, especially for individuals with low socioeconomic status, is hindered by the widespread availability of cheap, highly processed foods. Here, we present a summary of information gathered from recent studies, journal publications, and reference sources, with the intent of providing a general overview on synthetic food additives. To this end, we examine their history and definitions, the chemical basis of their function with special focus on three commonly used additives, concerns and benefits surrounding their use, and potential strategies for mitigating these concerns.

1. Synthetic Food Additives: Chemistry, Health Effects, and the Societal Dilemma
Kayleigh Antonelli, Michael DeBrota, Tony Durgham, Nicholas Kress, Bryce Miller, Qingxin Zhang
CHM 491 Chemistry in Societal Issues Capstone | Spring 2020 | Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 45056
ABSTRACT
Advances in food chemistry and manufacturing over time have yielded many partly or
wholly synthetic food additives, created with the aims of enhancing food production or
properties. Here, we present an examination of synthetic food additives, including their
history, underlying chemical principles, and information regarding selected commonly
used additives. We also present potential benefits and concerns regarding their use, and
address these concerns with potential solutions and future directions for the food industry.
BACKGROUND
What is a Food Additive?
● Any substance added to food to affect its
characteristics, improve its sensory qualities or
composition, and/or aid in the production or
manufacturing process (21 C.F.R. § 170.3e (1))
● Defined & regulated (in US) by the Code of
Federal Regulations, Title 21 (Food and Drugs)
● Various categories serving different purposes
(see table below)
● Can be natural or partially/wholly synthetic
● Certain synthetic additives speculated to have
harmful health effects
CONCERNS OF ADDITIVES
● Adults consumed an additional 500 kcal a
day eating a processed diet.3
● Prevalence of heart disease & diabetes have
increased with more processed food.3
● Artificial sweeteners incompletely activate
reward pathways in the brain and can
encourage craving for sweet food.4
● Research suggests there is a connection to
artificial sweeteners and weight gain.4
● Aspartame, a common sweetener, causes
glucose intolerance and obesity in mice.5
● Disturbances in gut microbiome have been
linked to Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease,
Huntington’s disease, and MS.6
● Processed food consumption decreases
with higher income, age, and education
level.7
● Affordability of calorie dense processed
foods vs. non-processed foods
COMMONLY USED ADDITIVES
Aspartame (1981-present)9
● Commonly used a substitute for sugar (sucrose)
● Not converted into energy within the body (can be
consumed without fear of gaining weight)
● Broken down into products that are easily expelled
from the body (amino acids and formic acid)
High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)9
(1970-present)
● Provides no health benefits over table sugar
(sucrose) but far cheaper to produce
● Regarded as safe by the FDA (GRAS)
● Food w/ HFCS is generally less costly, increasing its
ease of access to the general population
● Seen as major contributor to the US Diabetes
problem
BENEFITS OF ADDITIVES
Additive Type Functions & Purposes
Chemical Principle(s) of
Function Example(s)
Emulsifiers
● Prevent oil/fat separation
● Thicken foods
Amphipathic molecules
(promoting miscibility)
Acetylated
monoglycerides
(various)
Stabilizers
● Prevent breakdown
● Help hold food shape
● Thickening and gelling agents
Polymeric compounds (form
stable structures/lattices) Xanthan gum
Colors
● Enhance food
color/appearance
● 9 FD&C Approved Colors
Conjugated resonant
molecules (reflect specific
colored light wavelengths)
FD&C Blue No. 1
Flavors
● Improve/enhance food flavor
● Often based on natural flavor
compounds
Volatile compounds (emit
aroma) and/or stimulate
tongue receptors
Vanillin acetate,
MSG
Preservatives &
Decontaminants
● Improve shelf-life of food
● Prevent microbial
contamination
Antioxidant compounds or
antagonists to specific
microorganisms; function
varies
Sodium benzoate
Nutrient
Substitutes
● Replacement for original food
ingredients with different
characteristics
● Satisfy needs of those with
intolerances or specific diets
Synthetic molecules with
similar properties to natural
ingredients but different
mechanisms of action
Splenda
(sucralose)
CATEGORIES OF ADDITIVES
Mitigation & Natural Alternatives
● Despite potential health concerns, additives remain useful and needed
● Long-term goal to mitigate, not eliminate, preservative use
● Goal of transitioning to natural alternatives
○ Natural alternatives are often equivalent in mechanism & function to
synthetic counterparts and serve to aid customer perception.10
Genetic Recombination
● Aim of slowing natural decay, lessening need for food preservatives.11
● Lactic acid-producing microbes are utilized for their natural antimicrobial
properties.11
Smart Packaging
● Potential to lessen food additive requirements in new and inventive ways
● Nanotech packaging releases food preservatives only upon signs of decay.12
● Simple, antimicrobial, biodegradable polysaccharide matrices as preservative
alternatives are also being tested.13
Legislation & Rule Changes
● Updated regulations and legislation could mitigate much of the hesitation and
apprehension surrounding food additives
● National regulatory agencies react to newly discovered substitutes and global
regulatory standardization
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)9
(1908-present)
● “Umami” flavor enhancer, particularly in Eastern and Asian
cuisine
● Salt form of amino acid glutamate
● Studies have supported its safety in reasonable quantities
● Not recommended for infants
1.Nummer, B. A. Historical Origins of Food Preservation. National
Center for Home Food Preservation | NCHFP Publications (2002).
Available at:
https://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.ht
ml. (Accessed: 18th April 2020).
2.Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Overview of Food
Ingredients, Additives & Colors. U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(2010). Available at: https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-
packaging/overview-food-ingredients-additives-colors. (Accessed: 18th
April 2020).
3.Hall, K. D. et al. Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake
and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad
Libitum Food Intake. Cell Metab. 30, (2019).
4.Yang, Q. Gain weight by "going diet?" Artificial sweeteners and the
neurobiology of sugar cravings: Neuroscience 2010. Yale J Biol Med 2,
101-8 (2010).
5.Gul, S. S. et al. Inhibition of the gut enzyme intestinal alkaline
phosphatase may explain how aspartame promotes glucose
intolerance and obesity in mice. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 42, 77–83
(2017).
REFERENCES
Additive History
● Use originated from need to prevent food
spoilage and store food during times of
scarcity1
● Some historic food preservation methods
included drying, salting, curing, pickling,
fermenting, and smoking1
● Salt, sugar, and honey were some of the first
food additives used
● Herbs & spices were used to improve flavor
● Enhance food storage and preservation
○ Oils as antioxidants
○ Salts as anti-caking agents
○ Soy sauce as a preservative
● Enhance food production process
○ When used in appropriate amounts and within
regulations, approved food additives make
manufacturing easier and increase shelf life,
thereby lowering costs for producer and
consumer
● Smaller amounts of synthetic additives are needed
compared to their natural counterparts
○ 1000 kg of spicy gluten snack requires less
than 1 g of meat flavoring additive
○ Potent additives can be diluted many times
and retain useful qualities
● Fortify foods and provide essential nutrients
○ Magnesium, an essential trace element in the
body, is added to infant formula powder as
magnesium chloride to promote healthy
growth
● Enhance flavor and other gustatory qualities of
food
○ Make food more appealing to consumers
6. Tremlett, H., Bauer, K.C., Appel‐Cresswell, S., Finlay, B.B. and Waubant, E. The gut microbiome in human neurological
disease: A review. Ann Neurol. 81, 369-382 (2017).
7. Baraldi, L. G., Steele, E. M., Canella, D. S. & Monteiro, C. A. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and associated
sociodemographic factors in the USA between 2007 and 2012: evidence from a nationally representative cross-sectional study.
BMJ Open 8, (2018).
8. Sun.B. Kaijiangla. (2016). CCTV.tv.cntv.cn/video/1224.
9. Shukla, P. Food Additives from an Organic Chemistry Perspective. MOJ Bioorganic & Organic Chemistry 1, (2017).
10.Carocho, M., Barreiro, M.F., Morales, P. and Ferreira, I.C. Adding Molecules to Food, Pros and Cons: A Review on Synthetic
and Natural Food Additives. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 13, 377-399 (2014).
11.Calo-Mata, P., Arlindo, S., Boehme, K., de Miguel, T., Pascoal, A., & Barros-Velazquez, J. Current applications and future
trends of lactic acid bacteria and their bacteriocins for the biopreservation of aquatic food products. Food and Bioprocess
Technology 1, 43-63 (2008).
12.Smolander, M., & Chaudhry, Q. Nanotechnologies in food packaging. Nanotechnologies in food 14, 86-101 (2010).
13.De Jong, A. R., Boumans, H., Slaghek, T., Van Veen, J., Rijk, R., & Van Zandvoort, M. Active and intelligent packaging for
food: Is it the future? Food additives and contaminants 22, 975-979 (2005).