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第33回数学カフェ予習会 #2
∼射影空間の定義から∼
Feb/27/2021
本日の内容
• 前回の復習
• 線形空間
• 射影空間
• 立体射影
• 二次形式
• 二次超曲面
• 射影代数的多様体
• 射影空間の有理関数
• 射影空間の有理写像
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 2
カメラと代数幾何学の講演の予備知識として
必要なことに絞りざっくりとお話します
※このセミナーでは体Kの標数は0で、
主にℝ, ℂを考えるとします
前回の復習(一言で言うと何?くらいのざっくりした振り返り)
• 線形空間
• 集合と代数的構造
• 体
• 線形空間
• 準同型写像
• 射影空間
• 定義
• 具体例
• (予習会後の質問より)カメラと射影空間
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 3
こちらは第1回の予習会の
資料を御覧ください
一次元実射影空間と円周(立体射影)
例2.3.2(射影空間の幾何学)
ℙ$
ℝ = ℝ ∪ {∞}※は円周と同相(円周とℙ$
ℝ の間には連続な全単射がとれ
る)
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 4
ℝ
P(固定する)
O
Pʼ
R
2𝜃
𝜃
1
-1
Pを通る直線によって円周上の全ての点の集合と
直線ℝに無限遠点を付け加えた集合上の全ての点が
1:1に対応付けられている
そして、対応を与える関数は連続
全ての点・・・全射性
1:1 ・・・・・単射性
対応を与える関数が連続・・・連続性
※実数全体の集合に、無限遠点と呼ばれる点を1つ付け加えてできる集合
𝑥
φ(𝑥)
一次元実射影空間と円周(立体射影)
例2.3.2(射影空間の幾何学)
ℙ$
ℝ = ℝ ∪ {∞}は円周と同相(円周とℙ$
ℝ の間には連続な全単射がとれる)
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 5
ℝ
P(固定する)
O
Pʼ
R
2𝜃
𝜃
1
-1
図のように点に名前をつける
このときPとR’を通る直線と単位円のPでない交点Rの座標を
𝑥 の関数で表す
∠P!
PR = θとする
∠P!
OR = 2θ(三角形ORPは二等辺三角形)
となる。また、OR’の長さ 𝑥 は tan θ (= OR′/OP)と表せる
𝑥
φ(𝑥)
Rʼ
半径1の単位円を考えているが、
半径rとしてもよい(計算が面倒くさくなる)
2𝜃
一次元実射影空間と円周(立体射影)
例2.3.2(射影空間の幾何学)続き
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 6
ℝ
P(固定する)
Pʼ
R
1
-1
Rの座標を
𝑎
𝑏
とおくと(𝑎, 𝑏 は実数)で
𝑎 =
𝑎
OR
= sin ∠P!OR = sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 2
sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃
0 cos 2𝜃
= tan 𝜃 0
1
tan 2𝜃 + 1
=
2𝑥
𝑥" + 1
𝑏 =
𝑏
OR
= − cos ∠P!OR = − cos 2𝜃 = −(2 cos 2𝜃 − 1)
= −2 0
1
tan 2𝜃 + 1
+ 1 =
𝑥" − 1
𝑥" + 1
よって𝑥 ∈ ℝに対してRの座標は
"#
#!$%
#!&%
#!$%
となり座標を表す関数は連続
また、𝑥 → ±∞とすると
0
1
となり、これは点Pである。
𝑎
𝑏
𝑎
𝑏
O
𝑏
𝑎
1
2𝜃
O
R
Pʼ
一次元実射影空間と円周(立体射影)
例2.3.2(射影空間の幾何学)
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 7
ℝ
P(固定する)
O
Pʼ
R
2𝜃
𝜃
1
-1
±∞の点を同一視して無限遠点∞とすれば
ℝ ∪ {∞}の点に対して1つの円周上の点を対応づける
連続な※写像が作れることがわかった
この写像が全単射であることを示すには次の2つを確認すれ
ばよい(今回の目的に対し脇道にそれすぎるので割愛した)
・円周上の任意の点に対し対応するℝ ∪ {∞}の点が取れること
・円周上の点を1つ取ったときに、対応するℝ ∪ {∞}の点は唯
1つに定まること
セミナーでは左図から直感的な説明を行った
𝑥
φ(𝑥)
Rʼ
二次形式
定義(二次形式)
𝑉をK上の線形空間とする
Q:VからKへの写像が
Q = $
?,@
A
𝑎?@𝑥?𝑥@,
ただし 𝑎?@ ∈ 𝐾 , 𝑣 =
𝑥B
⋮
𝑥A
∈ 𝑉
と書けるときQ を𝑉上の二次形式という
(全ての項が二次の多項式)
全ての項がm次の多項式とは
各項に含まれている変数が
重複も含めてすべてm個である式
全ての項が二次の多項式の例
𝑥C
+ 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦C
𝑥C
+ 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦C
𝑥C
+ 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦C
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 8
二次形式
𝑣D = 𝑥B, ⋯ , 𝑥A
A =
𝑎BB ⋯ 𝑎BA
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎AB ⋯ 𝑎AA
とすると(AはKを成分にもつ行列)
Q = 𝑣D
A𝑣
と書ける(右参照)
行列Aが正則、すなわち逆行列を持つと
きQは非退化という※
左のように書けることの確認
Q= 𝑥!, ⋯ , 𝑥"
𝑎!! ⋯ 𝑎!"
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎"! ⋯ 𝑎""
𝑥!
⋮
𝑥"
= 𝑥!, ⋯ , 𝑥"
𝑎!!𝑥! + ⋯ +𝑎!"#"
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎"!𝑥! + ⋯ +𝑎""𝑥"
= 𝑥! 𝑎!!𝑥! + ⋯ + 𝑎!"#"
+ 𝑥$(𝑎$!𝑥! + ⋯ + 𝑎$"#"
)
⋮
+ 𝑥"(𝑎"!𝑥! + ⋯ + 𝑎""#"
)
=∑%,'
"
𝑎%'𝑥%𝑥'
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 9
※行列の計算については口頭で簡単な説明に留めましたが、気になる方はぜひ
線形代数のテキスト・問題集等で勉強してみて下さいね。
(Twitterで検索すると沢山のおすすめ書籍情報に出会えます)
二次形式の例
2変数
𝑥= + 𝑦=
𝑥= − 𝑦=
3変数
𝑥= + 𝑦= + 𝑧=
𝑥= − 𝑦= + 𝑧=
𝑥= + 𝑦= − 𝑧=
4変数
𝑥= + 𝑦= + 𝑧= + 𝑤=など
おまけ(座標変換との関係)
適当な座標の変換によってqは
λ1X1
"
+ ⋯ + λ𝑛X𝑛
"
と書ける(λ𝑖は行列Aの固有値)
また、Kが代数閉体のときは
ある整数 r ≤ 𝑛 が存在して
X1
"
+ ⋯ + Xr
"
と書ける(非退化のときは𝑟 = 𝑛)
二次形式を考えるときは上のような標準形を
考えれば良い
具体例と計算は次回
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 10
二次超曲面
K:標数2ではない代数的閉体とする
定義(二次超曲面)
V:n+2 K-線型空間
q:V上の0ではない二次形式
とする。このとき、n+1次元の射影空間の
部分集合
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑣 𝑞 𝑣 = 0
をn次元の二次超曲面という
これは、𝑞 𝑣 = 0を満たすような𝑣と原点を
通る直線の全体になっている
具体例
n=1のとき
𝑉の元は1+2次元の線形空間の元だから
𝑞として3変数の二次形式を考える
𝑞 ∶ 𝑥" + 𝑦" − 𝑧"とすると
𝑥" + 𝑦" − 𝑧" = 0
を満たす点を𝑣とする
原点と𝑣を通る直線上の点は全て上を満たし※
この直線の全体からなる集合は1次元の二次
超曲面となる
※ (𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦, 𝜆𝑧)を(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)に代入すれば良い
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 11
二次超曲面
q:非退化二次形式とするとき
このn次元の二次超曲面は非退化
という
また、
1次元超曲面は二次曲線(円錐曲線)
2次元超曲面は二次曲面
という
前のページの具体例の続き
1次元の二次超曲面の例
3変数の二次形式 𝑥"
+ 𝑦"
− 𝑧"
を考える
𝑥"
+ 𝑦"
− 𝑧"
=0に対して、𝑧 ≠ 0のとき
式全体をzで割り、移項すると
𝑥
𝑧
"
+
𝑦
𝑧
"
= 1
となり
#
$
,
%
$
を2変数とする単位円になる
これは射影空間ℙ"
ℝ内の円を表している
また、単位円とℙ"
ℝ、すなわちℝ ∪ {∞}は同相であった(立体
射影)。このようにℙ$
ℝ(の部分集合)からℙ"
ℝの間の写像も
考えられる(次回詳しくやります)
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 12
射影代数的多様体
定義(ザリスキー閉集合)
とm次同次多項式 𝑓 に対して、
が成り立つとき ※と書き、 P は
𝑓 の零点であるという
射影空間ℙ∗(𝑉)の部分集合 X は有限個のm次同次多項式
が存在してその共通零点
を射影空間のザリスキー閉集合とする
※11ページの具体例と同様に、𝑣の元を𝜆倍して (𝜆𝑥1, … , 𝜆𝑥𝑛)を考えれば
𝑣と原点を通る直線上の点 λ𝑣 が 𝑓(λ𝑣)=0 を満たすことがわかる。これをまとめて𝑓 P = 0と書く。
ただし n は V の次元
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 13
P = 𝐾𝑣 ∈ ℙ∗(𝑉)
𝑓 𝑣 = 0 f P = 0
𝑓$ (𝑖 = 1, ⋯ , 𝑘)
𝑋 = 𝑋 𝑓%, ⋯ , 𝑓&
= {𝑃 ∈ ℙ∗ 𝑉 |𝑓% 𝑃 = ⋯ = 𝑓& 𝑃 = 0}
𝑉 𝐾
𝑓𝑖:
0
𝑓1 𝑣 = 0を満たす𝑣の集合
𝑓2 𝑣 = 0を満たす𝑣の集合
例)k=2のときXは黄緑とピンクの集合の
共通部分に含まれる点を通る直線の全体
射影代数的多様体
射影空間のザリスキー閉集合Xは2
つのザリスキー閉集合Y, Zが存在し
て かつ となると
き可約という
可約ではないとき既約であるという
射影空間の既約なザリスキー閉集合
を射影的代数多様体という
(今後代数多様体という)
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 14
𝑋 ≠ 𝑌, 𝑍 𝑋 = 𝑌 ∪ 𝑍
可約の例)
𝑞 = (𝑥"
+ 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦"
) 𝑥"
+ 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦"
として
Xは𝑞 𝑣 = 0を通る直線の全体とする
q1 = 𝑥" + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦"
q2 = 𝑥"
+ 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦"
として
Yを𝑞1 𝑣 = 0を通る直線の全体
Zを𝑞1 𝑣 = 0を通る直線の全体
とすれば、𝑋 ≠ 𝑌, 𝑍かつ𝑋 = 𝑌 ∪ 𝑍
既約の例)
𝑞が更に次数の低い同次多項式の積に
分解できない
同じ同次多項式𝑞でも、係数の体Kを
ℝとするかℂとするかで
因数分解の可否や零点を持つかが変わる
(次回具体例を扱います)
射影空間の有理関数
射影空間X=ℙ∗(𝑉)において、同じ次数k次の同次式𝑓1, 𝑓2の比
𝑓 = 𝑓1/𝑓2 をX上の有理関数と呼ぶ
ここで𝑓1, 𝑓2は共通する既約因子(係数をKとする多項式の積に分解したとき
の因子)を含まないと仮定したとき、超曲面 をそれぞれ
𝑓の零点集合、極集合という
また、 上では𝑓は の形になるので、
これを𝑓の不確定特異点集合と呼ぶ
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 15
𝑋 𝑓? , 𝑋(𝑓2)
𝑋 𝑓%, 𝑓" 0 ÷ 0
𝑦': ⋯ : 𝑦(
= 𝑓'(𝑥0, ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛): ⋯ : 𝑓)(𝑥0, ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛)
射影空間の有理写像
同次座標系 を持つ
射影空間X= ℙ*から
同次座標系 を持つ
射影空間Y= ℙ(への有理写像𝑓とは
同じk次のm+1個の同次式 によって
という形に表される写像。ここで は
共通する既約因子を持たないとする
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 16
𝑥', … , 𝑥*
𝑓', ⋯ , 𝑓𝑚
𝑓: 𝑥': … : 𝑥* ↦ 𝑦': ⋯ : 𝑦(
= 𝑓'(𝑥0, ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛): ⋯ : 𝑓)(𝑥0, ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛)
𝑦*, … , 𝑦+
𝑓', ⋯ , 𝑓𝑚
𝑥*, … , 𝑥,
𝑥': … : 𝑥* ↦
𝑦*, … , 𝑦+
ℙ,
𝑓1
𝑓2
⋮
𝑓𝑚
ℙ+
ℙ,
の点が入る
射影空間の有理関数・有理写像の例
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 17
ℙ-
ℝ
x
1
y
x1
x2
x3
x4
𝑓1: 𝑥" + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦"
𝑓2: 𝑥" − 𝑦"
𝑓3: 𝑥" + 𝑦"
[𝑥"
+ 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦"
: 𝑥"
− 𝑦"
] ∈ ℙ-
ℝ
[𝑥" + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦": 𝑥" − 𝑦": 𝑥" − 𝑦"] ∈ ℙ"
ℝ
次回は3月6日17時から19時
具体例の計算を通じて、これまでに取り上げた概念に親しみ
射影空間を考えるモチベーションを考えます
お申し込みページ
https://33-prep-3.peatix.com/
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 18
参考文献
• 射影空間の幾何学(川又)
• 線型代数学(佐武)
• 複素幾何(小林)
• 微分形式の幾何学(森田)
• 多様体の基礎(松本)
• 詳解演習線形代数(水田)
2021/3/2 数学カフェ 19

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