1. Comparing Cognitive Abilities amongst Musicians
Abigail Legler, Philip Young, & Mariah Zerr
Eastern New Mexico University

2. Abstract
There is a stereotype among the music community that deems drummers less intelligent when
compared to other musicians (i.e. violinists and pianists). This stereotype poses the question: is
there a difference in cognitive function between drummers/percussionists and other musicians?
Several other experiments have measured musical ability in drummers in order to break the
stereotype, however, results found that drummers are just as proficient as other musicians. We
investigated the cognitive differences between the two groups by creating an exam that explored
comprehension in vocabulary, mathematics, reading, and music theory. Our results showed that
there is no cognitive difference between percussionist and other musicians.

3. Comparing Cognitive Abilities amongst Musicians
There is a stereotype among the music community that deems drummers less intelligent
when compared to other musicians (i.e. violinists and pianists). The notion that percussionists are
“less intelligent” than other musicians has followed them in all aspects of music. However, when
it comes to musical ability, a drummer or a percussionist is equipped with the same abilities as
any other musician. There are several aspects that influence a person’s musical ability, such as
pitch, melody, and rhythmic discrimination (Seashore, 1919/1960 & Ullen et al. 2014). It can be
presumed that because percussionists mainly deal with rhythm, they may demonstrate a
weakness in the other aspects of the SMDT; thus reiterating the stigma.
In a study done by Mosing et. al. (2014) there are other factors that influence a
musician’s ability to practice, hone their ability, and that talent and genetics play a role in the
ability as well. (p. 2). This study evaluated identical and fraternal twins, and assessed musical
ability using the SMDT, in which their practicing schedule was observed. The findings stated
that there was little difference in actual musical ability, but the inclination to practice was
genetic.
Since musical ability between different types of musicians tend to be relatively the same,
it doesn’t make sense that drummers are still referenced to the stereotype. In a study done by
Honing and Haas (2008), jazz drummers were assessed for control of a “swing ratio”, or rather
“a characteristic long-short subdivision of the beat that is generally considered a crucial aspect
that contributes to the quality of a jazz or pop performance” (p. 1). They found that drummers
have complete control of the swing ratio, despite the fact that a performance is never the same.
To decipher, even though rhythmic beats are pretty consistent, the tempo and placement can be

4. completely manipulated. This means that musically, even when drummers are inconsistent while
playing rhythmical patterns for long periods of time, they are very adaptable to change.
When it comes to intelligence, a study done by Ullen, Forsman, Bloom, Karabanov, and
Madison (2008) showed that those who had better rhythmic accuracy showed great correlation in
intelligence and white matter. There was also a very high level of white matter in the brains
frontal lobes in the participants (problem solving, planning and managing time).
Since musical ability between the two groups (drummer and non-drummer) have been
tested several times, it would be interesting to devise an experiment that focus less on musical
ability, and to see if there are any differences between the groups. The purpose for this
experiment is to navigate levels of intellect between musicians, specifically between drummers
or percussionists and other musicians. This is an attempt to see if drummers or percussionists
maintain the stigma that they are less intelligent than other musicians. In summary, is there a
difference in cognitive function between drummers/percussionists and other musicians?
Method
Participants
Our participants were recruited from Eastern New Mexico University’s Music
Department. The ages of our participants range from 19-23. We had a total of 8 female
participants and 11 male participants. Our study contained 9 drummers/percussions and 10 of
other musicians (19 in total). This study originally contained 20 participants, but one participant
was unable to complete the test; therefore, the test had to be omitted.
Materials
In order to give the test content validity, areas of the test were taken from previous GRE
and ACT exam preparation books. The vocabulary section of the exam was obtained from the

5. Magoosh® online vocabulary preparation for the GRE. The math and reading comprehension
sections of the test were obtained from an ACT guide. The music section was taken from the
Eastern New Mexico University’s freshmen entrance exam.
Procedure
All student were given a consent form prior to taking the exam (Appendix A). This test
was not timed, but took roughly 50-60 minutes, and was administered in the Golden Library at
Eastern New Mexico University. We devised an 81 question cognitive exam that consisted of 15
vocabulary questions, 16 math questions (one of the math questions was omitted due to a
spelling error), 15 reading comprehension questions, and 35 music theory questions.
Results
An independent group’s t-test and a compared means analysis was used to examine the
data. In the math portion of the exam, the percussionist’s mean score was a 9.33, with a standard
deviation of 3.428. While, the non-percussionist’s mean score was a 9.63, with a standard
deviation of 3.29. The results of the t-test were t(17) = .189, p>.852 (α=.05). The results of the
vocabulary section showed a percussionist mean score of 8.78, with a standard deviation of 1.56.
While the non-percussionist’s mean score was a 9.20, with a standard deviation of 1.93. The
results of the t-test were t(17) = .520, p>.610 (α=.05). The results of the reading comprehension
section showed a percussionist mean score of 9.78, with a standard deviation of 3.19. A non-
drummers mean score of 10.10, with a standard deviation of 3.21. The t-test results were t(17) =
.219, p>.829 (α=.05). The music theory section of the exam displayed a percussionist mean
score of 30.44, with a standard deviation of 5.0. While the non-percussionist’s had a mean score
of 28.34, with a standard deviation of 3.77. The results of the t-test concluded t(17) = .775,
p>.449 (α=.05). After analyzing a total score of the exam, the mean score of the percussionists

6. group was 58.33 with a standard deviation of 10.92 while the mean score of the non-
percussionists group was 57.23, with a standard deviation of 10.34. The independent samples t-
test showed t(17) = .227, p>.823 (α=.05). All results were deemed statistically insignificant with
low power.
To summarize, we were hopeful to find no statistical significance because that would
mean that the data does not support the stereotype. Overall, the percussionists did not do as well
as other musicians on the vocabulary, mathematics, and reading comprehension sections of the
exam, by no more than a mean of 0.42 of a point. The percussionists outperformed the non-
drummers on the music theory section by a mean of 2.10 points. The total scores show that the
percussionists scored higher overall on the exam by a mean of 1.10 points. (Actual results are
found in Appendix B).
Discussion
It is important to address the limitations that prevented us from obtaining external
validity. The number of participants in our sample affected our statistical significance and power.
Originally, this experiment was conducted at the high school in order to help boost the sample
size. After gathering data, it was noted that of the original 19 participants, only 11 had completed
the exam in the time allowed. Only one of the 11 participants was a percussionist; therefore, the
data collected was insignificant due to a poor ratio. Test sensitivity is also important to note. The
test was comprised of questions that were obtained from other credible, academic sources.
Therefore, those sections are believed to have content validity. Woodcock-Johnson® III Test of
Cognitive Abilities and the Woodcock-Johnson® III Diagnostic Supplement to Cognitive
Abilities both highlight that there are 30+ areas of cognition (Schrank & Wending, 2009). This
exam covered four main subjects and covered few of the listed areas. Another factor that may

7. have impacted the results is testing fatigue, due to the fact that the exam did take up to an hour to
complete.
Other research that would be beneficial to the understanding of cognitive difference
among musicians would be to test for differences between specified instruments (i.e. violinists,
pianists, trumpet players, etc.) Obtaining an IQ score among musicians may be helpful in
understanding cognitive differences in measurable intellect. Time and resources were not
available to us in order to conduct a proper analysis of IQ scores amongst all participants.

8. References
Honing, H., & De Haas, W. B. (2008). Swing once more: Relating timing and tempo in expert
jazz drumming. Music Perception 25(5), 471-476.
Mosing, M. A., Madison, G., Pedersen, N. L., Kuja-Halkola, R., & Ullén, F. (2014). Practice
does not make perfect: No causal effect of music practice on music ability. Psychological
Science, 25(9), 1795-1803.
Seashore, C. E. (1960) Manual of instructions and interpretations for Measures of Musical
Talent. New Yourk, NY: Psychological Corp. (Original work published 1919)
Schrank, F. A., & Wending, B.J. (2009). Educational interventions and accommodations related
to the Woodcock-Johnson® III Test of Cognitive Abilities and the Woodcock-Johnson®
III Diagnostic Supplement to the Test of Cognitive Abilities. Woodcock-Johnson® II
Assessment Service Bulletin, 10, 1-18.
Ullen, F., Forsman L., Bloom, O., Karabonov, A., Madison, G. (2008) Intelligence and
variability in a simple timing task share neural substrates in the prefrontal white matter'.
The Journal of Neuroscience 16, April 2008 4238-4243.
Ullen, F. Mosing, M. A., Holm, L., Eriksson, H., & Madison G. (2014) Psychometric properties
and heritability of a new online test for musicality, the Swedish Musical Discrimination
Test. Personality and Individual Differences, 63, 87-93.
The real ACT prep guide: The only official prep guide from the makers of the ACT ([2nd ed.,
Vol. 1, pp. 1-623). (2008). Iowa City, IA: Peterson's.
Improve your GRE Verbal Score. (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2015, from
https://gre.magoosh.com/flashcards/vocabulary

9. We would like to give credit for the music theory portion of our exam to the ENMU Music
Department.

10. Appendix A
Human Subjects Committee Screening Form
The Human Subjects Committee has been charged with the responsibility of screening all studies which
employ human subjects conducted under the auspices of Eastern New Mexico University. The guidelines
employed for screening are those set forth by DHHS and the ethical standards of the APA.
The Human Subjects Committee will review proposals as they are submitted. Turnaround time for
decisions on proposals will vary, but every attempt will be made to render a decision within one month of
submission during the fall and spring semesters. If you wish to collect data from May through August,
proposals should be submitted by April 15.
Proposals, which include the four-page Human Subjects Committee Screening Form, Informed Consent
Forms and Surveys should be submitted as separate Word file attachments via e-mail to
Bettye.Gollehon@enmu.edu.
If you are unable to submit proposals electronically, six copies of proposals should be submitted to Bettye
Gollehon in the Graduate School, Station 24, Administration Building, Room 216. Failure to submit
proposals on the proper forms will delay a decision.
Actual title of investigation: Comparing Cognitive Aspects between Drummers and Other Musicians
If deception is involved, title of investigation provided to subjects: N/A___________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Principal Investigator: Abigail Legler, Mariah Zerr, Philip Young________________________________
Department and telephone number: Psychology (575) 562 2257__________________________________
Other persons involved in the project (identify their status: graduate, undergraduate, agency, etc.): _____
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Number of subjects required: 35___________________________________________________________
Length of participation: 2 hours___________________________________________________________
Source of subjects: College and High School musicians________________________________________
How will subjects be selected: Drummer and non-drummer musician volunteers ___________________
Description of subject population: Primarily classically trained musicians who are either specified as
drummers/percussionists, and non-drummers/percussionists
Starting date: March 2015 Completion date: May 2015
Source of project funds: N/A____________________________ Unfunded: X_____________________

11. Approvals:
If student, name and signature of faculty sponsor: Dr. Leslie Gill _____________________________
Signature of department chair:_______________________________________________________

12. 1. Description of the purpose of the study:
The purpose of our experiment is to investigate cognitive qualities between different classifications of
musicians, specifically between drummers/percussionists, and other musicians (wind players, string
players and vocalists) Drummers/percussionists are sometimes stereotyped as less intelligent than
other musicians. In this study, we are attempting to provide empirical evidence of any cognitive
qualities that distinguish drummers from other musicians. Several other experiments have measured
musical ability in drummers/percussionists in order to test the stereotype,however results have
indicated that on a basis such as musical ability drummers are just as proficient as other musicians.
Most of the time the results revealthat it's not a level of intellect, but rather an alternative way of
approaching cognitive musical function. Each musician will be given a test over mathmatics,
vocabulary, reading comprehension, and music theory in order to assess if there is truly some
difference in cognitive characteristcs between the drummers/percussionists and musicians.
2. Description of the procedures to which each subject will be exposed. (Attach a copy of the data-
gathering instrument if available. If not available, provide a detailed description below.)
We plan on creating a four subject test that measures Musical Ability (controlled variable; music
theory, rhythmic dictation), mathematical ability, vocabulary skills (15 questions taken from a GRE
practice test), and reading comprehensive ability (3-5 story problems with five questions each). This
will be achieved by presenting certain scenarios and each answer will correspond with certain ways of
thinking. All of the sections of the test will be multiple test. In order to acquire participants, volunteer
students at Eastern New Mexico University who also play percussion/drum-set in university
ensembles will be recruited. Depending on the number of percussionists recruited, an equal number of
non-percussionist/drummer volunteers (wind players, piano players, vocalists) will be recruited. The
same method will be used to recruit musicians at the high-school level at Portales High School.
Participation in a university ensemble will not be necessary for the high school students, they only
need to participate in their respected high school ensemble,
3. Experimenter’s assessment of the extent to which the subject will be exposed to stress,discomfort, or
risk (physical, psychological, social). If any risk is present, then specify: (1) Precautions to be taken;
(2) plans for dealing with emergent problems; (3) plans for surveillance of equipment and assistants;
and (4) evaluation of the extent to which benefits to be derived from the study justify the likelihood of
risk or discomfort to the subject
There is very little risk in taking the exam. If at any time a participant feels any stress,anxiety, or
discomfort, they are allowed to withdraw from the test without any adverse consequences to the
individual. Participants will be given a number so in order to ensure anonymity and protection of
identity. All participants who are under the age of 18, or attending Portales High School at the time of
the experiment will need individual consent, as well as parental consent. A separate informed consent
form will be given to these individuals. Completed tests will be kept under lock and key in a file
cabinet until the results can be coded and electronically documented. After documentation, the tests
will be terminated.
4. In your judgment, will the research require subjects to be misled, uninformed, or misinformed about
any aspect of the research? Yes ____ No _X__. If yes,please describe the nature of the specific
deception and indicate why the research question is being approached in this manner.

13. 5. Enclose a copy of your informed consent form, including the following basic elements of
informed consent:
A. A fair explanation of the procedures to be followed, including an identification of those which
are experimental.
B. A description of the attendant discomforts and/or risks.
C. A description of the benefits to be expected.
D. A disclosure of appropriate alternative procedures that would be advantageous for the subjects.
E. An offer to answer any inquiries concerning the procedures.
F. An instruction that the subject is free to withdraw consent and to discontinue participation in the
project or activity at any time without prejudice to the subject.
G. A description of plans for protecting the confidentiality of information obtained from the
subject.
6. Summarize the information to be given the subject at debriefing following participation in the project
or activity.
When the test is complete, contact information will be offered in case the participants want to
know the results and outcome of the experiment upon its completion. Participants will not be able
to see individual test scores. Any other debriefing will not be necessary.

14. INFORMED CONSENT FORM
Project Title: Comparing Cognitive Abilities between Drummers and Other Musicians.
Purpose: The purpose of our experiment is to investigate levels of intellect between musicians.
Several other experiments have measured musical ability in musicians; results have indicated
that on a basis such as musical ability all musicians are equally proficient in cognitive skills.
Most of the time the results reveal that it's not a level of intellect, but rather an alternative way of
approaching cognitive musical function.
Procedures: Participants will be given a series of multiple choice questions to complete. The
test will measure cognitive abilities in mathematics, vocabulary, reading comprehension, creative
thinking, and music theory (as a controlled variable). This should take approximately 60 minutes
less. The test will not be timed.
Confidentiality: I understand that all information that will be collected in this study will be
anonymous and confidential. I also understand that the information I provide will be grouped
with the information from others for reporting and presentation. My name will not be identified
with my answers now or at any time in the future. The only place my name will appear is on the
consent form. This form, and all other forms that I fill out, will be locked in a secure area.
Risks and Benefits: I understand that I will be asked to fill out a cognitive test that was created
in order to conduct psychological research and that will ask me to complete the test to the best of
my ability. Answering these questions would ordinarily not involve a risk to me. In fact,
reflecting on these things may benefit the community’s outlook on social stigmas regarding
musicians. However, I understand that if I do feel uncomfortable answering any questions, I am
free to skip that question or to withdraw from the study entirely if I wish. There will be no
penalty of any kind if I do so. The choice to participate or not, or to stop participating, will not
affect my grades or standing at ENMU or PHS.
Statement of Age of Participant: I state that I am 18 years of age or older, and that I wish to
participate in a research study being conducted by students, Abby Legler, Philip Young, and
Mariah Zerr, in the Department of Psychology and Political Science at Eastern New Mexico
University.
For further Information: If I want further information, or if any of the questions bring up
issues that trouble me, I am invited to contact Abby Legler, Philip Young, Mariah Zerr, or Leslie
GIll at Abigail.legler@enmu.edu, Philip.young@enmu.edu, Mariah.zerr@enmu.edu, or
Leslie.gill@enmu.edu (respectively).
If you wish to participate, please add your printed name, signature and date below:
Student Name (printed): __________________________________________________________
Student Signature: ________________________________________ Date: _____________

15. Pick the definition that properly represents the word listed above.
1. Derogatory
a. A stream or river that results in a lake.
b. Expressing a low opinion of something.
c. A period of time in which something continues.
d. To ridicule or mock something or someone.
2. Articulate
a. The ability to effectively relay ideas in speech or writing.
b. A fake representation of something or someone.
c. A collectable item that holds immeasurable value.
d. The spreading of a viral bacteria from one person to the next.
3. Coherent
a. The manner of which one carries themselves; a self-established standard.
b. A relationship between two people that is mutually beneficial.
c. Logical and well-organized; easily understood.
d. A rage of anger that become contagious around others of a similar party.
4. Punctual
a. The marks that aid in clarifying writing.
b. Being on time; prompt.
c. The act of making a hole in something.
d. Being truthful; honesty.
5. Apathy
a. The lack of emotion or interest.
b. The feeling of understanding and relating to others
c. Creating a new route.
d. To desire approval from peers.
6. Façade
a. A false accusation.
b. An overflow of people in a small area.
c. A distant memory in which only few details are accurately achievable.
d. An appearance that gives others a false idea of your true feelings or situation.
7. Devious
a. To argue at any given opportunity.
b. A defense mechanism used to avoid unwanted situations.
c. The formation of a plan and the completion of each step.
d. A willingness to deceive people in order to gain what is desired.
8. Dubious
a. Unsure of or uncertain; doubtful.
b. The act of seeing double-vision due to a drug.
c. To claim with absolute certainty; factual.
d. Acting out in a non-typical manner; unexpected behavior.

16. 9. Oscillate
a. The eye’s ability to see objects not directly in front of it.
b. A style of poetry.
c. To move in one direction and then back again multiple times.
d. The act of completing two tasks simultaneously
10. Importune
a. A moment that occurs at a favorable time.
b. The correct musical pitch.
c. A fair and just ruling of an argument.
d. Persistently asking to do or for something.
11. Indubitable
a. The ability to take care of one’s own self.
b. Impossible to doubt; unquestionable.
c. To work diligently.
d. A duplicate of something.
12. Pompous
a. A citrus fruit.
b. A lively personality or vibe.
c. An attitude that one thinks and acts as if they are better than others.
d. An individual’s educational background.
13. Plethora
a. Composed of many interconnected parts; complicated.
b. The avoidance of danger.
c. A very large amount that is much greater than what is necessary.
d. Doing what is considered to be morally correct.
14. Invidious
a. Completing a task in a timely manner.
b. The act of discussing personal issues in extensive amounts.
c. The slight causation of harm that gradually makes an impact.
d. Unpleasant and likely to cause bad feelings in other people.
15. Pugnacious
a. Showing a readiness or desire to fight or argue.
b. The representation of abstract ideas or principles.
c. To divide into two parts or branches.
d. The chain of succession.
Choose the answer that best solves the problem.
16. What is 4% or 1,100?
a. 4
b. 4.4
c. 40
d. 44
e. 440

17. 143
°
17. For all 𝑋, (𝑋 + 4)(𝑋 − 5) =?
a. 𝑋2
− 20
b. 𝑋2
− 𝑋 − 20
c. 2𝑋 − 1
d. 2𝑋2
− 1
e. 2𝑋2
− 𝑋 + 20
18. If 𝑋 + 𝑌 = 1, and 𝑋 − 𝑌 = 1, then 𝑌 =?
a. −1
b. 0
c. 1
2⁄
d. 1
e. 2
19. What is the slope of the line containing the points (-2, 7) and (3,-3)
a. 4
b. 1
4⁄
c. 0
d. – 1
2⁄
e. −2
20. If the measure of an angle is 143°, what is the measure of its supplement, shown in the
figure below?
a. 67°
b. 17°
c. 37°
d. 217°
e. Cannot be determined from the information given.
21. The relationship between temperature expressed in degrees Fahrenheit (𝐹) and degrees
Celsius (𝐶) is given by the formula:
𝐹 =
9
5
𝐶 + 32
If the temperature is 14 degrees Fahrenheit, what is it in degrees Celsius?
a. −10°
b. −12°
c. −14°
d. −16°
e. −18°

18. 22. Amy drove the 200 miles to New Orleans at an average speed 10 miles per hour faster
than her usual average speed. If she completed the trip in 1 hour faster less than usual,
what is her usual driving speed, in miles per hour?
a. 20
b. 30
c. 40
d. 50
e. 60
23. The hiking path to the top of a mountain makes, at the steepest place, an angle of 20°
with the horizontal, and it maintains this constant slope for 500 meters, as illustrated
below. Which of the following is the closest approximation to the change in elevation, in
meters, over this 500-meter section?
(Note: you may use the following values, which are correct to 2 decimal places:
cos20°≈.94; sin20°≈.34; tan20°≈.36)
a. 20
b. 170
c. 180
d. 250
e. 470
24. There are n students in a class. If, among those students, p% play at least one musical
instrument, which of the following general expressions represents the number of students
who play NO musical instrument?
a. 𝑛𝑝
b. . 01𝑛𝑝
c.
(100−𝑝) 𝑛
100
d.
(1−𝑝) 𝑛
.01
e. 100(1 − 𝑝) 𝑛
25. Simplify.
(𝑥2
+ 𝑥 − 6)
𝑥 − 2
a.
(𝑥+3)(𝑥−2)
𝑥−2
b. ( 𝑥 − 2)
c.
(𝑥+6)(𝑥−1)
𝑥−2
d. ( 𝑥 + 3)
e. (𝑥 − 3)
20
°

19. 26. Solve using the Pythagorean Theorem.
a. 3
b. 12
c. 14
d. 4
e. 11
27. Solve for x.
(√3𝑥 + 1)2
= 42
a. 3
4⁄
b. 3
c. 5
3⁄
d. 5
e. 4
5⁄
28. Solve for b.
1
3
𝑏 + 3 =
1
2
𝑏
a. 18
b. 3
2⁄
c. 9
d. 1
2⁄
e. 3
29. If this net was in 3D, what shape would it be?
a. Prism
b. Cylinder
c. Cube
d. Triangular Prism
e. Square Prism
9

20. 30. Graph the following points: (-3, 5); (-4, -2); (2, -3); and (5, 0).
31. What is the slope of the line?
a. 2
3⁄
b. − 1
3⁄
c. 1
2⁄
d. − 1
2⁄
e. − 2
3⁄

21. A passage will be presented, followed by a group of questions pertaining to the passage above.
Mother, who wanted to keep her,
always thought of her as some wild little
bird, but I knew she was a homing pigeon. I
knew that at some point in her flight path,
sooner or later, she would make a U-turn. A
sort of human boomerang. So even though I
had long since stopped expecting it, I was
not surprised when I walked down the
gravel drive to the mailbox, which I’d
painted papaya yellow to attract good news,
and found the flimsy envelope with the
Dallas postmark. I didn’t know a soul in
Dallas, or Texas for that matter, but the
handwriting reminded me of someone’s. My
own.
I walked back inside the home.
“Still raining?” Mother asked. She
was sitting in her new electric wheelchair in
front of the TV, painting her fingernails a
neon violet.
“Just let up,” I said. “Sun’s poling
through. You know anyone in Dallas,
Mother?”
“Not so as I recall.” She dabbed at
her pinky with a cottonball. Mother was vain
about her hands. I was used to how she
looked now, but I noticed people staring in
the doctor’s waiting room. She had lost
some weight and most of her hair to
chemotherapy, and I guess people were
startled to see these dragon-lady nails on a
woman who looked as if she should be lying
in satin with some flowers on her chest.
“Why do you ask?” she said.
I opened the envelope and a picture
fluttered into my lap. It was a Polaroid of a
sweet-faced blond holding a newborn baby
in a blue blanket. Before I even read the
letter I knew. I knew how those Nazis feel
when suddenly, after twenty or thirty
uneventful years, they are arrested walking
down some sunny street in Buenos Aires.
It’s the shock of being found after waiting so
long.
“What’s that?” Mother said.
I wheeled her around to face me and
handed her the Polaroid. She studied it for a
minute and then looked up, speechless for
once, waiting for me to set the tone.
“That’s her,” I said. “Her name’s
Linda Rose Caswell.”
We looked at the picture again. The
blond woman was seated on a flowered
couch, her wavy hair just grazing the edge
of a dime-a-dozen seascape in a cheap gilt
frame.
Mother pointed to the envelope.
“What’s she say?”
I unfolded the letter, a single page
neatly written.
“She says she’s had my name and
address for some time but wanted to wait to
contact me until after the birth. The baby’s
name is Blake and he weighs eight pounds,
eight ounces, and was born by cesarean. She
says they are waiting and hoping to hear
back from me soon.”
“That’s it?”
I nodded and handed her the letter. It
was short and businesslike, but I could see
the ghosts of all the long letters she must
have written and crumpled into the
wastebasket.
“I guess that makes you a great-
grandmother,” I said.
“What about you?” she snorted,
pointing a Jungle Orchid fingernail at me.
“You’re a grandmother.”
We shook our heads in disbelief. I
sat silently listening to my brain catch up
with my history. Forty years old and I felt as
if I had just shaken hands with Death. I
suppose it’s difficult for any woman to
accep that she’s a grandmother, but in the
normal order of things, you have ample time
to adjust to the idea. You don’t get a
snapshot in the mail one day from a baby
girl you gave up twenty-four years ago
saying, “Congratulations, you’re a
grandma!”

22. “It’s not fair,” I said “I don’t even
feel like a mother.”
“Well, here’s the living proof.”
Mother tapped her nail against the flossy
picture. “She looks just like you. Only her
nose is more aristocratic.”
“I’m going to work.” My knees
cracked when I stood up. “You be all right
here?”
Mother nodded, scrutinizing the
picture in her lap. “You going to write to
her?”
“Of course I am,” I bristled. “I may
be some things, but I am not rude.”
“You going to invite them here? Her
and the baby?” She swiveled her eyes
sideways at me.
“I haven’t thought that far,” I said.
“Well, don’t put it off.” She slid her
eyes back to the television. “She’s been
waiting twenty-five years. You worried
she’s going to be trouble or ask for money?
For all we know, she’s married to a brain
surgeon with his and her Cadillacs.”
“She didn’t mention any husband at
all.” I said, getting drawn into it despite
myself.
“Maybe you’re worried she’ll be
disappointed in you,” she sid. “You know,
that she’s had this big fantasy for all these
years that maybe you were Grace Kelly or
Margaret Mead and who could live up to
that? No one. But you don’t have to, Fran,
that’s the thing. You’re her flesh-and-blood
mother and that’s enough. That’s all it’ll
take.”
32. Fran would most likely agree with which of the following statements about her
relationship with Linda Rose?
a. Their lives are still connected despite long separations of time and distance.
b. They have built up too much resentment toward each other to have a good
relationship now.
c. Fran’s dreams of a perfect daughter will interfere with any real relationship she
might have with Linda Rose.
d. The two of them have enough in common that it won’t be difficult for them to get
close.
33. Fran’s mother can most accurately be characterized as:
a. Arrogant and cruel.
b. Strong-willed and caring.
c. Friendly but withdrawn.
d. Loving but embittered.
34. Which of the following statements does NOT describe one of Fran’s reactions to the
news that she is a grandmother?
a. She wishes she had had time to prepare for the news.
b. She looks forward to inviting Linda Rose and her son, Blake, over for a visit.
c. She feels suddenly older now that the label of grandmother applies to her.
d. She protests that this change in her life is unfair.
35. The main point of the first paragraph is that:
a. Fran believed Linda Rose would someday try to contact her.
b. Linda Rose acted like a wild bird when she was young.
c. Fran finds the arrival of a letter from Linda Rose surprising.
d. Linda Rose’s handwriting reminds Fran of her own handwriting.

23. 36. The main point of the last paragraph is that Fran’s mother believes:
a. Linda Rose has few illusions about Fran.
b. Linda Rose might cause trouble or ask for money.
c. Fran shouldn’t worry about disappointing Linda Rose.
d. Fran shouldn’t write to Linda Rose until Fran is emotionally prepared.
37. According to the passage, when Fran looks at her mother, Fran feels:
a. Surprised by how weak and old her mother looks.
b. Embarrassed by the gaudy colors of nail polish her mother uses.
c. Pity that so many people stare at her mother in public.
d. Accustomed to her mother’s frailness and unusual fingernails.
38. It can logically be inferred from the passage that the reason it has been a long time since
Fran and Linda Rose have seen each other is because:
a. Linda Rose left home to get married.
b. Arguments between Fran and Linda Rose drove Linda Rose away.
c. Linda Rose chose to live with her father.
d. As a child Linda Rose was adopted by another family.
39. According to the passage, the reason why Fran’s mother warns Fran not to put off
contacting Linda Rose is that Fran’s mother:
a. Wants before she dies to see her new great-grandson.
b. Knows Fran tends to delay making hard decisions.
c. Knows how long Linda Rose has been waiting to see Fran.
d. Suspects Linda Rose is in some sort of trouble.
The discovery of dinosaurs in the
nineteenth century provided, or so it
appeared, a quintessential case for the
negative correlation of size and smart. With
their pea brains and giant bodies, dinosaurs
became a symbol of lumbering stupidity.
Their extinction seemed only to confirm
their flawed design.
Dinosaurs were not even granted the
usual solace of a giant—great physical
prowess…. Dinosaurs…have usually been
reconstructed as slow and clumsy. In the
standard illustration, Brontosaurus wades in
a murky pond because he cannot hold up his
own weight on land….
Dinosaurs have been making a
strong comeback of late, in this age of “I’m
OK, You’re OK.” Most paleontologists are
now willing to view them as energetic,
active, and capable animals. The
Brontosaurus that wallowed in its pond a
generation ago is now running on land,
while pairs of males have been seen twining
for access to females (much like the neck
wrestling of giraffes). Modern anatomical
reconstructions indicate strength and agility,
and many paleontologists now believe that
dinosaurs were warmblooded….
The idea of warmblooded dinosaurs
has captured the public imagination and
received a torrent of press coverage. Yet
another vindication of dinosaurian capability
has received a very little attention, although
I regard it as equally significant. I refer to
the issue of interpretation, which I support,
…does not enshrine dinosaurs as paragons
of intellect, but it does maintain that they
were not small brained after all. They had
the “right-sized” brains for reptiles of their
body size.
I don’t wish to deny that the
flattened, minuscule head of large-bodied
Stegosaurus houses little brain from our
subjective, top-heavy perspective, but I do

24. wish to assert that we should not expect
more of the beast. First of all, large animals
have relatively smaller brains than related,
small animals. The correlation of brain size
with body size among kindred animals (all
reptiles, all mammals for example) is
remarkably regular. As we move from small
to large animals, from mice to elephants or
small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size
increases but not so fast as body size. In
other words, bodies grow faster than brains,
and large animals have low ratios of brain
weight to body weight. In fact, brains grow
only about two-thirds as fast as bodies.
Since we have no reason to believe that
large animals are consistently stupider than
their smaller relatives, we must conclude
that large animals require relatively less
brain to do as well as smaller animals. If we
do not recognize this relationship. We are
likely to underestimate the mental power of
very large animals, dinosaurs in
particular….
If behavioral complexity is one
consequence of mental power, then we
might expect to uncover among dinosaurs
some signs of social behavior that demand
coordination, cohesiveness and recognition.
Indeed we do and it cannot be accidental
that these signs were overlooked when
dinosaurs labored under the burden of a
falsely imposed obtuseness. Multiple
trackways have been uncovered, with
evidence for more than twenty animals
traveling together in parallel movement. Did
some dinosaurs live in herds? At the
Davenport Ranch sauropod trackway, small
footprints lie in the center and larger ones at
the periphery. Could it be that some
dinosaurs traveled much as some advanced
herbivorous mammals do today, with large
adults at the borders sheltering juveniles in
the center?...
But the best illustration of
dinosaurian capability may well be the fact
most often cited against them—their
demise….
The remarkable thing about
dinosaurs is not that they became extinct.
But that they dominated the earth for so
long. Dinosaurs held sway for 100 million
years while mammals, all the while, lived as
small animals in the interstices of their
world. After 70 million years on top, we
mammals have an excellent track record and
good prospects for the future, but we have
yet to display the staying power of
dinosaurs.
People, on this criterion, are scarcely
worth mentioning—5 million years perhaps
since Australopithecus, a mere 50,000 for
our own species, Homo sapiens. Try the
ultimate test within our system of values: Do
you know anyone who would wager a
substantial sum even at favorable odds on
the proposition that Homo sapiens will last
longer than Brontosaurus?

25. Running head: COMPARING COGNITIVE ABILITIES AMONGST MUSICIANS 25
40. The passage suggests that some fossil evidence about dinosaur behavior has been
overlooked in the past because scientists:
a. Had preconceived ideas about the intelligence of dinosaurs.
b. Believed that mammals were not capable of social formations.
c. Did not have the current data about dinosaur brain size.
d. Did not have the necessary equipment to discover the social patterns of dinosaurs.
41. What does the passage offer as evidence that dinosaurs may have exhibited complex
behaviors?
a. Modern anatomical reconstructions indicating strength and agility
b. Fossils revealing that dinosaurs labored under severe burdens
c. Footprints of varying sizes indicating that dinosaurs traveled with advanced
herbivorous mammals
d. Multiple trackways in which footprint size and location indicate social order
42. According to the passage, what is the revisionist interpretation concerning the
relationship between intelligence and physical size?
a. Dinosaurs actually had relatively large brains.
b. Dinosaurs were paragons of intellect.
c. Dinosaurs were relatively small brained.
d. Dinosaurs’ brains were appropriately sized.
43. The passage states that the ratio of brain weight to body weight in larger animals, as
compared to smaller animals, is:
a. Higher.
b. Lower.
c. The same.
d. Overestimated.
44. According to the passage, which of the following correctly states the relationship of brain
size to body size?
a. The brain grows at two-thirds the rate of body growth.
b. At maturity, that brain weighs an average of one-third of body weight.
c. Large animals are not consistently less intelligent than smaller animals.
d. Brain size is independent of body size.
45. The author states that the best illustration of dinosaurs’ capability is their dominance of
the earth for:
a. 100,000 years.
b. 5 million years.
c. 70 million years.
d. 100 million years.
46. As it is used in the last paragraph, the term Australopithecus most nearly means:
a. The last of the dinosaurs, which became extinct 5 million years ago.
b. The first Homo sapiens, who appeared on earth 50,000 years ago.
c. An early version of humankind, but a different species.
d. A physically larger species of human with a much smaller brain.

26. COMPARING COGNITIVE ABILITIES AMONGST MUSICIANS 26
Answer the questions to the best of your ability.

27. COMPARING COGNITIVE ABILITIES AMONGST MUSICIANS 27
Appendix B
See attached file.

28. COMPARING COGNITIVE ABILITIES AMONGST MUSICIANS 28
Appendix C