Research Proposal.edited

Running Head: CONTEXT CUE AND LONGTERM MEMORY 1
The Effect of Context Cue Exposure on Long-term Memory and Recall Performance.
Kendrik Jones
Slippery Rock University

CONTEXT CUE AND LONGTERM MEMORY 2
Abstract
Long-term memory (LTM) is defined as a source of memory, which has the capacity of
being potentially unlimited. LTM recall increases when information is paired with a
memorable feature, as in a context. The context or context cue is used for increasing
recall performance during given tasks. In this study, LTM recall performance was
assessed through the participant’s exposure to classical music during learning and testing
phases. Sixty undergraduate students between the ages of 18 to 22 will volunteer for this
experiment. Each participant received an initial classical music cue in the learning phase
while studying a 48-word pair list. For the testing phase, participants were randomly
assigned to either the reinstatement of the context cue or the no reinstatement of the
context cue condition, prior to a recall test. Results showed that recall performance was
better for participants in the reinstatement of the classical music context cue condition.
Therefore, students enrolled in high school, and college level classrooms can utilize these
results and measures as studying techniques.
Keywords: Context cues, encoding, storage, recall, long-term memory

The Effect of Context Cue Exposure on Long-term Memory and Recall Performance
Research identifies two types of memory duration: working and long-term
memory. Working memory, or short-term memory, is the cognitive function of
temporarily storing and managing information delegated to fulfill complex tasks
(Fougnie, Zughni, Godwin, & Marois, 2015). While short-term memory is constrained to
five to nine items within a particular timeframe, long-term memory is expandable
(Rackie, Brandt, Eysenck, 2015). Bahrick, Bahrick and Wittlinger (1975) assert that
memory has the capacity of being potentially unlimited, with accessibility being the main
constraint affecting recall.
Many psychologists have assessed the three mental processes that allow the
human brain to access and obtain long-term memory, for instance, encoding. Encoding
refers to information translated into meaningful and specific forms. Once information is
encoded, it is then stored. Storage occurs when memories are held in cognition for a
certain time-frame. After information is stored, it can be retrieved. Retrieval is defined as
accessing past information and events, which have been stored and encoded in the brain.
Without effective encoding and storage, memory easily deteriorates (Baddely, Eysenck,
& Anderson, 2009).
For information to be recalled efficiently, said information must be accessible.
Information accessibility is higher when it is encoded and stored through meaningful and
visually related means, such as contextual cues (Baddely, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2009).
As the Encoding Specificity principal identified, when features are present during
encoding and retrieval, memory performance significantly improves (Tulving &
Thomson, 1973). Furthermore, the recollection of an event depends on the interaction

between the properties of the encoded event and the properties of the encoded retrieval
information. These properties are described as contextual cues.
Contextual cues are often dependent and environmental. Godden and Baddeley
(1975) demonstrated context-dependent memory as well as environmental cue aspects by
having divers learn word lists underwater and on dry land contexts. Results indicated that
lists learned underwater were recalled significantly better underwater as well as lists,
learned on dry land were recalled significantly better on dry land. In addition, Mazzoni,
Vannucci and Batool (2014) indicated that background noise as well as visual and verbal
cues, enhance recall. Participants performed better on recall assessments when instructed
in a verbal or visual cue condition, and tested under the same cue condition. These results
imply that background sound, such as music, is a beneficial source for contextual cueing.
Music has been a frequent source of context implementation across psychological
studies assessing context-dependency affects. However, numerous literary sources cite
musical context as a distraction rather than as a beneficial context. Whereas other sources
describe music as a beneficial context, noting that tone level affects recall performance
(Mead and Ball, 2007). Also, mentioning that variations in background noise contexts
have been shown to affect event memory (Mead and Ball, 2007). These differences
across research findings are attributable to the varying tasks being measured.
Cues provide the connection between encoding and recall performance. As
Dietze, Sharman, Powell & Thomson (2011) identified, context cues promote recall of
events and knowledge because they increase the number of available cues for people to
access in their memories. The purpose of the proposed study is to determine if a musical
context cue improves recall. It is predicted that accurate responses when exposed to a

non-lyrical context cue during study and test phases, will be higher than those who
received exposure to a non-lyrical cue during the study phase but not in the test phase.
Method
Participants
Sixty undergraduate students enrolled in the Introduction to Psychology course at
Slippery Rock University participated in this study. Participants will be distributed evenly
and randomly with 30 participants for each condition (exposure to the classical music
context cue and no exposure to the classical music context cue). These participants will
be collected through convenient means (i.e. students in attendance at Slippery Rock
University). No exclusion criterion will be used.
Apparatus and Materials
This experiment will use a 48-word pair list from Fenn and Hambrick (2011). A
computer installed with Microsoft PowerPoint was used for distribution of the 48-word
pair list. In addition, a paper copy response sheet will be used for recording word pair
responses. Responses derived from these sources will then be transferred into the SPSS
version 18.0 program for statistical analysis.
Procedures
Participants, prior to entering the lab, choose a number out of a bag. This decided
whether they were randomly assigned to either the group with the musical cue (number 1)
or to the one without the musical cue during the test phase (number 2). Afterward, they
were given an instruction list prior to starting the experiment, giving them an overview of
the experiment. The experimental session consisted of three stages: a learning phase, an
intervening task, and a testing phase. Students initiated the 8-minute learning phase by

pressing “view presentation” on Microsoft PowerPoint open on the computer. Microsoft
PowerPoint then began to filter through the 48-word pair list. While Prelude Op. 28, No.
4 in E-Minor by Chopin (1935) played in the background for the full 8 minutes. The first
and last four-word pairs were not tested and served as buffers for primacy and recency
effects (Fenn & Hambrick, 2011). Pairs were presented for 10 seconds with a 5-second
blank screen between word pair presentations. Each participant was instructed to try to
relate or associate the words of each pair.
Between the learning and testing phases, a 5-minute intervening task was
implemented. Participants were given another 30-word pair to learn. Each word-pair
presentation will last 10 seconds. This list was not used during the testing phase. This
task was specifically designed to act as a distractor task as well as to help further assess
the effectiveness of the musical context cue.
The intervening task was followed by a signal shown for 10 seconds, indicating
the start of the test phase. Participants then were given a paper response sheet to record
their responses to word pairs. The test list consisted of 30 randomly selected single words
from the list, either being the first or second word in the pair. Participants responded with
the first or second word in the pair. For example, the initial pair presentation “old-young”
either showed in the test phase as “____ - young” or “old - ____”. Each word pair were
last 10-seconds. During these 10 seconds, the participant made a response before the
presentation of the next word pair. The number of correct responses was used to assess
the effectiveness of the classical music context cue.
Results

A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the effectiveness of
a musical context cue. The mean for exposure to the non-lyrical music cue during the test
phase was higher as compared to no exposure to the non-lyrical music cue during the test
phase. Participants (SHOULD I MENTION EACH GENDER?) who were in the non-
lyrical context testing phase had more incorrect answers (M = , SD = ) (BLANK) than
participants in the lyrical context testing phase (M = , SD = ) (BLANK). As expected,
recall performance was significantly higher for those who were re-exposed to the context
in the testing and learning phases (F(1, 39)=.002, p<.05) (SHOULD I INCLUDE
EFFECT SIZES?).
Discussion
The purpose of this study will be to determine how context cues affect long-term
memory in a recall test. It was predicted that long-term memory recollection, when
exposed to the matched classical music cue in learning and test phases, will be better than
those who had no context reinstatement in the test phase.
The current experiment will be consistent with previous research. Past research
finds that long-term memory performance fluctuates, dependent upon efficient encoding
and storage (Baddely, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2009). In that, if the information was paired
with meaningful or memorable cues, it is more likely to be recalled efficiently (Dieze,
Sharman, Powell & Thomson, 2011; Tulving & Thomson, 1973). Additionally, the type
of cues present at learning and testing phases can affect recall. Recall is stronger for those
who have a matched context cue reinstatement during learning and testing tasks (Tulving
and Thomson, 1973; Godden and Baddely, 1975). However, the current analysis is

unique in that the manipulated context cue, study design and focus on long-term memory
performance, expands upon prior research.
Several strengths are identifiable in this study. First, each participant was
randomly assigned to each research condition, limiting biases. In addition, the
participants experienced the three experimental sessions (i.e. learning phase, intervening
task, and testing phase) individually in a controlled environment to limit distractions as
well as other potential contexts (i.e. smells and/or other background noises) to influence
responses. Another strength included the consistent use of measures across participants.
Each participant received the same instruction list, response sheet, and Microsoft
PowerPoint program to fulfill experimental requirements. Furthermore, discrediting the
potential effects of alternative explanations will strengthen this study. Mead and Ball
(2007) illustrated that musical tempo, tone, and volume are influential factors in
efficiently encoding information. The higher tempo, tone and volume are, recall
performance decreases. However these factors were taken into account through the use of
classical music (i.e. non-lyrical musical content) with less upbeat musical
accompaniments at a lower fortissimo (E minor). Lastly, these findings were enhanced
through the intervening task implemented between the learning and testing phases. With
the use of the 30-word pair distractor, it discredits a mere effect of the context and
contributes to the effectiveness of the musical context.
Sampling is the main limitation. Participants were obtained through convenience
and will be limited to Slippery Rock University Undergraduate students, thus limiting
generalizability. Additionally, studying habits could potentially limit adequate analysis
and lead to distraction rather than be attributed to a context cue for memory retrieval.

Moreover, results could be attributed to familiarity with the context. Rather than explicit
associations between word lists and their study context. Furthermore, social facilitation
may have been a factor on results. The presence of the researcher could have enhanced or
diminished task performance.
In future research, a wider range of participants such as ones pooled from other
universities, as well as further ethnic and gender diversity should be taken into account.
Also, implementation of exclusion criteria for participants, such as excluding those who
study with lyrical or non-lyrical music, could enhance research findings.
For the purpose of this study, the effect of reinstating a classical music context
cue was examined. The advantages of the study were environmental control as well as
accessibility to participants/students. An implication of the study is that context cues
influence memory performance. Context cues are important factors to consider when
individuals are learning and studying information as well as being tested on said
information. As, contexts have been shown to enhance memory performance on
testing/recall tasks.
References
Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M., & Anderson, M. (2009). Memory. Hove England:

Psychology Press.
Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, P. O., & Wittlinger, R. P. (1975). Fifty years of memory for
names and faces: A cross-sectional approach. Journal Of Experimental
Psychology: General, 104(1), 54-75. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.104.1.54
Dietze, P. M., Sharman, S. J., Powell, M. B., & Thomson, D. M. (2011). Context
reinstatement effects in children’s cued recall of strongly and weakly associated
word pairs. The Australian Educational And Developmental Psychologist, 28(2),
91-100. doi:10.1375/aedp.28.2.91
Fenn, K. M., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2011). Individual differences in working memory
capacity predict sleep-dependent memory consolidation. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0025268
Fougnie, D., Zughni, S., Godwin, D., & Marois, R. (2015). Working memory storage is
intrinsically domain specific. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: General,
144(1), 30-47. doi:10.1037/a0038211
Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural
environments: On land and underwater. British Journal Of Psychology, 66(3),
325-331. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x
Mazzoni, G., Vannucci, M., & Batool, I. (2014). Manipulating cues in involuntary
autobiographical memory: Verbal cues are more effective than pictorial cues.
Memory & Cognition, 42(7), 1076-1085. doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0420-3
Mead, K. M. & Ball, L. J. (2007). Music tonality and context-dependent recall: The
influence of key change and mood mediation. European Journal of Cognitive
Psychology, 19(1), 59-79. doi:10.1080/09541440600591999

Rackie, J. M., Brandt, K. R., & Eysenck, M. W. (2015). Interaction between mode of
learning and subjective experience: Translation effects in long-term memory.
Memory, 23(3), 318-328. doi:10.1080/09658211.2014.886701
Tulving, E. & Thomson, D. M. (1973) Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in
episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80(5), 352-373.

Figure 1. The effect of reinstating or not reinstating a context cue on the number of word
pairs recalled on a 48-word pair recall test.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Not reinstated Reinstated
Numberofwordpairsrecalled
Presence of context cue during test phase

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