Research Manuscript (Final)

Running head: A TWIST ON THE CLASSIC MOZART EFFECT 1
A Twist on the Classic Mozart Effect:
Effect on Reading Comprehension and Background Music Effects on Mathematical Accuracy
Ashley Maher
Colby-Sawyer College
Ashley Maher, Psychology Department, Colby-Sawyer College.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ashley Maher, E-mail:
ashley.maher@my.colby-sawyer.edu

A TWIST ON THE CLASSIC MOZART EFFECT 2
Abstract
This study investigated the Mozart Effect on reading comprehension and the effect of Mozart
and background music on mathematical accuracy. Undergrad students (N = 32; 22 Female, 10
Male, Mage = 19.72 years, SDage = 1.170 years, age range: 18-23 years) from a small New
England college were randomly assigned to either the Mozart or Control condition. In both
conditions, participants had three minutes to work on a multiplication worksheet (100 questions)
and had as much time as needed to complete a practice SAT reading comprehension task (8
questions). Those in the Mozart condition worked on the math portion with Mozart’s Sonata for
Two Pianos (in D Major, K. 448) playing in the background. Both conditions completed the
reading comprehension task in silence. Two independent t-tests were utilized to analyze the data.
Results showed no significant results. Implications of this study show week support for Mozart
Effect and background music as a tool for cognitive enhancement.
Keywords: Mozart effect, reading comprehension, math accuracy, background music

A Twist on the Classic Mozart Effect:
Background Music and Its Effects on Reading Comprehension
The humble beginnings of the Mozart Effect began in 1991 when it was discovered by
Alfred Tomatis, a child development expert. Tomatis suggested listening to Mozart before a
cognitive task could increase performance in spatial reasoning abilities, thus increasing mental
development in children under the age of three (Making Sense of Sound, 2009; Mozart effect,
2006). One research team, headed by Dr. Frances Rauscher, completed multiple studies on the
Mozart Effect, and found significant results. One such study performed by this team looked at
the Mozart effect over the span of five days and found that those that listened to Mozart before
completing a mental paper folding task were able to answer more questions correctly than those
in a silent condition. They also found that training three-year-olds in music showed increases in
non-verbal cognitive abilities (Rauscher, Shaw, Levine, & Ky, 1996). When this study and the
others like it were published (Mozart effect, 2006; Rauscher et al., 1996), it resulted in media
coverage that stated that listening to Mozart makes children smarter and that is why programs
such as Baby Einstein became highly marketable (Making Sense of Sound, 2009; Mozart effect,
2006). As time when on and the popularity of the Mozart Effect grew other researchers began to
test the effect only to find that their results were not significant like in the original study (Hui,
2006; Nantais, & Schellenberg, 1999). Below, the theories of the Mozart Effect will be
investigated, as well as the Irrelevant Sound Effect Paradigm (Perham & Currie, 2014), music
preference and tempo and how these variables effect cognition and cognitive abilities.
Major Theories
The original Mozart Effect study has two theories to explain its cause. In the first theory
the effect is caused by common neural pathways that are used for both listening to complex

music and performing spatial tasks. Music primes the pathway allowing for temporary
enhancement in spatial ability tasks (Hui, 2006). The second theory, referred to as Arousal-Mood
theory, is that music can raise or lower mood and arousal. Calming music can lower stress and
allow for better focus (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999). Studies have shown that music can be
both highly stimulating as well as calming and soothing (Gaston, 1968), and people can respond
differently to different kinds of music (Radocy & Boyle, 1988; Hallam, 2001).
There have been many conflicting results when studying the Mozart Effect. One study
reviewed the Mozart Effect on different animal models using rats, monkeys, birds and dogs, in
place of humans in order to avoid confound variables generally found in human research using
music, such as musical preference and ability to understand language. In their results they found
support in both human and animal trials that music can cause autonomic and neurochemical
arousal (Rickard, Toukhsati, & Field, 2005). At this time, both theories have support from
previous research.
Common Neural Pathways / Plasticity
The theory of common neural pathways being the cause of the Mozart Effect is also
supported (Hui, 2006; Rauscher et al., 1996). Evidence to support this theory is seen in the
correlation of music training enhancing the Mozart Effect (Hui, 2006; Rauscher et al., 1996).
Music and rhythm training has also been seen to help students who have difficulty reading
become better and faster readers (Long, 2014). A study by Hall (1952) found that listening to
music while preforming a reading comprehension task showed participants performance improve
significantly. As stated previously, exposure to musical stimuli could allow for synaptic
plasticity (Rickard et al., 2005). This means that listening to complex music like classical music,
as well as having some music training, such as learning to play an instrument or basic music

theory, could allow for connections to form in the brain to other regions. Thus, it is possible that
if the right connections are made, complex music, like Mozart, could temporarily prime other
cognitive abilities.
Arousal-Mood
The arousal-mood theory has been supported to show that listening to calming and
relaxing music before or during a task can temporarily improve cognitive abilities in more than
one specific way, for example, enhancing arithmetic and memory (Hallam, Price, & Katsarou,
2002). The theory has also been supported in showing that music is not the only stimuli that can
cause this effect. In a study that looked at spatial-temporal abilities after listening to classical
music or a narrative story, their abilities enhanced based on which one they liked or preferred
more (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999). The stimulus that makes the listener happy or feel relaxed
and calmed, with show this temporary effect, but only if it does not distract the person from their
task. A preferred stimuli could lead to distraction when completing a task and cause an Irrelevant
Sound Effect Paradigm (Perham & Currie, 2014).
Other Effects
Tempo and volume play an important role in how distracting background music can be
while a person is trying to concentrate on a task. It has been supported in multiple studies that
slower and softer music is better and less distracting than fast and loud music (Oakes & North,
2006; Thompson, Schellenberg, & Letnic, 2012). Although slower and softer music the best kind
of background music to listen to while working, most of the time the best results were seen in the
silent room conditions (Oakes & North, 2006; Thompson et al., 2012).
Although some research has shown results that support the idea that preferred music
allows for better task performance (Johansson, Holmqvist, Mossberg, & Lindgren, 2012; Nantais

& Schellenberg, 1999; Perham & Currie, 2014; Perham & Vizard, 2011) while others support the
opposite (Anderson & Fuller, 2010; Perham & Sykora, 2012), each study used different
parameters to determine what was allowed in preferred music and what was determined to be
‘non-preferred music’. Confounds arose in their differing definitions of preferred and non-
preferred music. Whether or not the music was disliked or liked, if it had a slow tempo and was
soft (Thompson et al., 2012) it was likely that the person could habituate quickly and ignore it
(Perham & Sykora, 2012). Music that has a fast tempo and is loud with lyrics, even if the music
was preferred, is likely to be distracting and interfere with internal thoughts unless the person is
highly habituated to the music already (Thompson et al., 2012; Perham & Sykora, 2012).
Although it can be said that listening to something that is enjoyable, relaxing and calming could
increase cognitive abilities, when listening to music while completing a task, one must consider
if the music is more distracting than pleasurable. Teenagers and many college students have the
habit of studying while listening to music or with the television on and this habit could lead to
distraction and decreased performance (Patton, Stinard, & Routh, 1983).
This study investigated if the Mozart effect would show similar distraction results to
previous studies or if it would improve different task abilities. Music has also been seen to have
an effect on other cognitive abilities, such as math accuracy and reading comprehension. One
study by Hallam, Price, and Katsarou (2002) showed that children aged 10 to 11 year’s old
answered arithmetic problems with more accuracy when listening to music that was perceived as
calming. In another interesting study, Hall’s (1952) results showed that when background music
played, student’s reading comprehension performance improved significantly. The results of
these two studies have led to the focus of the present study.

In the present study, I hypothesized that listening Mozart in the background while
completing a math worksheet will increase accuracy in solving mathematical problems (Hallam
et al., 2002; Thompson et al., 2012). I also hypothesized that listening Mozart before completing
a reading comprehension task will increase reading comprehension scores (Nantais &
Schellenberg, 1999; Thompson et al., 2012). The experiment will be set up with two conditions:
Music and Silence. In both conditions, participants will be asked to work on a mathematical
exercise sheet for three minutes and then be allotted as much time as needed to complete a three
short reading comprehension tasks. Participants in the silent condition will complete both tasks
with no background music, while those in the music task will complete the math sheet with
Mozart playing in the background and then completing the reading comprehension task in
silence.
Method
Participants
Students from a small liberal arts college in New England (N = 32; 22 Female, 10 Male,
Mage = 19.72 years, SDage = 1.170 years, age range: 18-23 years) were recruited by going to
psychology, English, science, and religion classes and asking for volunteers.
Materials
The materials used in this study consist of a mathematical worksheet (Common Core
Sheets) containing 100 multiplication questions, a reading comprehension test (Major Tests)
consisting of three excerpts and a total of eight questions, and the first three minutes of Mozart’s
Sonata for Two Pianos (in D Major, K. 448). The reason for choosing this specific piece is
because it was used to test the Mozart effect in previous studies (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999;
Rauscher et al., 1996).

Procedures
Participants were randomly assigned into the Mozart or Control condition. They were
first given a multiplication worksheet face down and told that they would have three minutes to
work on the math problems. Those in the music condition were told to start once the background
music (The first three minutes of Mozart’s Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major, K. 448) started.
Those in the control group were given a verbal signal on when to start. After the three minutes
the worksheets were collected and the participants were then given a reading comprehension
task. Participants were instructed that they have as much time as needed to compete the reading
comprehension test. Both conditions completed the reading comprehension task in silence. Once
the task was completed, they filled out a survey, filling in their age and gender and rating on a 7
point Likert scale how stressed they felt during the math portion of the experiment where 1
represented feeling no stress, and 7 represented feeling highly stressed.
Design
This study analyzed the data using two independent t-tests. The first t-test analyzed
mathematical accuracy and background noise: Mozart vs. Silence/control. The second t-test
analyzed reading comprehension scores and background noise: Mozart vs. Silence/control. A
third t-test was also conducted to analyze Background noise condition and Stress during the math
portion of the experiment.
Results
An independent t-test was used to analyze the effect of background noise on
mathematical accuracy and found that there was not a significant difference in the scores for
Mozart (M = 0.981, SD = 0.021) and Silence (M = 0.974, SD = 0.029) conditions; t(30) = 0.779,
p = 0.442 (see Figure 1).

An independent t-test was used to analyze the effect of background noise on reading
comprehension scores and found that there was not a significant difference in the scores for
Mozart (M = 0.355, SD = 0.201) and Silence (M = 0.450, SD = 0.205) conditions; t(30) = -1.325,
p = 0.195 (see Figure 2).
An independent t-test was used to analyze the effect of background noise on reported
stress during the math portion of the experiment and found that there was no significant
difference in the scores for Mozart (M = 4.35, SD = 1.579) and Silence (M = 4.00, SD = 1.069)
conditions; t(30) = 0.730, p = 0.471 (see Figure 3).
Discussion
I hypothesized that listening Mozart in the background while completing a math
worksheet will increase accuracy in solving math problems as well as listening Mozart before
completing a reading comprehension task will increase reading comprehension scores.
Based on the data I have collected, listening to Mozart in the background does not increase
mathematical accuracy in problem solving and listening to Mozart before a reading
comprehension task does not increase reading comprehension scores. These results fail to
support both of my hypotheses.
Although my results were not significant, my results were similar to that of other who
have tried to replicate and do similar studies with the Mozart Effect (Hui, 2006; Nantais &
Schellenberg, 1999). A study by Nantais and Schellenberg (1999) showed that there had been
reports of other ‘effects’ like the Steven King effect. The results of the study showed that the
results of the effect were mostly due to what the participants enjoyed. Therefore, it is possible
that some or most of the participants didn’t enjoy Mozart and that is why no significant results
were achieved. It is also likely that some participants may have been distracted by the music

playing (Perham & Currie, 2014). My results also support other previous research stating that
when studying background noise, silent/control conditions preform the best, with some
background noises showing worse or same performance (Oakes & North, 2006; Thompson et al.,
2012). Results of the stress t-test show participants in the Mozart condition did not have reduced
stress, showing lack of support for the arousal-mood theory.
Some of the limitations of the study consisted of having a homogeneous and convenient
sample. Participants were collected at a small New England college, with a large percentage of
white, middle class females ages 18 to 23. They were recruited by going to psychology, English,
science and religion classes, so the collected sample was highly convenience based. The SAT
questions used for the reading comprehension task may have been too hard as most people no
matter what condition they were in rarely scored anything over a 50%. On the other end of the
spectrum, a ceiling effect was seen on the math problems, as most people not only scored perfect
accuracy, but many did so while also completing the whole sheet. Lastly, for the participants that
were in the Mozart condition, three minutes might have not been enough time for effects to take
place. In the original study, music was listening to for a longer period of time over the span of
five days (Rauscher et al., 1996).
Some of the strengths of my study consisted of looking to see if the Mozart effect could
also be seen with reading comprehension instead of spatial reasoning tasks and having results
that supported some previous research on the topic, even though my results were not significant.
The implications of this study show support against the existence of a Mozart effect in
reading comprehension and support against arousal-mood theory. The results of the study do
support research that says in most cases, silent conditions preform the best when studying the
effects of background noise. Because of this, listening to music while doing homework or

studying may be distracting and cause one to preform worse than in a silent room. In the future a
replicated study should have a more representative sample with an even amount of females to
males. This way, studies can see if gender plays a role in the Mozart Effect. It would also be
interesting to look at the Mozart effect on people of different ages. Many studies focus on
college students and children, therefore a study on the elderly would be interesting. Lastly, using
fMRI’s to watch the brain while testing the Mozart effect would be a very interesting study and
could also look and see which of the two major theories of the cause of the Mozart effect have
support based on the results.

References
Anderson, S. A., & Fuller, G. B. (2010). Effect of music on reading comprehension of junior
high school students. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(3), 178-187.
Commoncoresheets: Multiplication [mathematical worksheets for different grade and skill
levels]. (n.d). Retrieved from
http://www.commoncoresheets.com/Math/Multiplication/Multiplication%20Drills/Englis
h/1.pdf
Gaston, E.T. (Ed.) (1968) Music in Therapy (New York, Macmillan).
Hall, J. (1952) The effect of background music on the reading comprehension of 278 eighth and
ninth grade students, Journal of Educational Research, 45, 451– 458.
Hallam, S. (2001) The Power of Music (London, Performing Rights Society;
www.thepowerofmusic.co)
Hallam, S., Price, J., & Katsarou, G. (2002). The effects of background music on primary school
pupils' task performance. Educational Studies, 28(2), 111-122.
Hui, K. (2006). Mozart effect in preschool children? Early Child Development and Care, 176(3-
4), 411-419.
Johansson, R., Holmqvist, K., Mossberg, F., & Lindgren, M. (2012). Eye movements and
reading comprehension while listening to preferred and non-preferred study music.
Psychology of Music, 40(3), 339-356.
Long, M. (2014). ‘I can read further and there’s more meaning while I read’: An exploratory
study investigating the impact of a rhythm-based music intervention on children’s
reading. Research Studies in Music Education, 36(1), 107-124.

Majortests: Reading comprehension [Online practice tests for SAT]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.majortests.com/sat/reading-comprehension-test14
Making sense of sound. (2009). In The brain book: An illustrated guide to its structure, function
and disorders. Retrieved from
http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/dkbrain/making_sense_of_sound/0
Mozart effect. (2006). In Elsevier's dictionary of psychological theories. Retrieved from
http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/estpsyctheory/mozart_effect/0
Nantais, K. M., & Schellenberg, E. G. (1999). The Mozart effect: An artifact of preference.
Psychological Science, 10(4), 370-373.
Oakes, S., & North, A. C. (2006). The impact of background musical tempo and timbre
congruity upon ad content recall and affective response. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 20(4), 505-520.
Patton, J.E., Stinard, T.A. & Routh, D.K. (1983). Where do children study? Journal of
Educational Research, 76(5), 280 – 286.
Perham, N., & Currie, H. (2014). Does listening to preferred music improve reading
comprehension performance? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28(2), 279-284.
Perham, N., & Sykora, M. (2012). Disliked music can be better for performance than liked
music. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(4), 550-555.
Perham, N., & Vizard, J. (2011). Can preference for background music mediate the irrelevant
sound effect? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(4), 625-631.
Radocy, R.E. & Boyle, J.D. (1988) Psychological Foundations of Musical Behaviour
(Springfield, IL, Charles Thomas).

Rauscher, H. F., Shaw, L. G., Levine, J. L., & Ky, N. K. (1996) Music and spatial task
performance: A causal relationship [PDF document]. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED390733.pdf. 1-25.
Rickard, N. S., Toukhsati, S. R., & Field, S. E. (2005). The effect of music on cognitive
performance: Insight from neurobiological and animal studies. Behavioral and Cognitive
Neuroscience Reviews, 4(4), 235-261.
Thompson, W. F., Schellenberg, E. G., & Letnic, A. K. (2012). Fast and loud background music
disrupts reading comprehension. Psychology of Music, 40(6), 700-708.

Figure 1. Mean difference of mathematical accuracy between participants listening to Mozart for
and those in the Silent/Control condition while working on the multiplication worksheet. No
significant differences were found between conditions.

Figure 2. Mean differences of reading comprehension scores between participants who listened
to Mozart before the task, and those that were in the silent/control condition before the task. No
significant difference were found between conditions.

Figure 3. Mean differences of reported stress scores of participants who listened to Mozart
during the math portion and those that were in the silent/control condition during the math
portion. No significant difference were found between conditions.

Appendix A

Reading Comprehension
Read the short excerpts and answer the questions that follow. Mark your answer by circling the
letter of response that best answers the question. You will have as much time as needed to
complete the questions.
Much of what goes by the name of pleasure is simply an effort to destroy consciousness.
If one started by asking, what is man? What are his needs? How can he best express himself?
One would discover that merely having the power to avoid work and live one’s life from birth to
death in electric light and to the tune of tinned music is not a reason for doing so. Man needs
warmth, society, leisure, comfort and security: he also needs solitude, creative work and the
sense of wonder. If he recognized this he could use the products of science and industrialism
eclectically, applying always the same test: does this make me more human or less human? He
would then learn that the highest happiness does not lie in relaxing, resting, playing poker,
drinking and making love simultaneously.
Adapted from an essay by George Orwell
1. The author implies that the answers to the
questions in sentence two would reveal that
human beings
A. are less human when they seek pleasure
B. need to evaluate their purpose in life
C. are being alienated from their true nature
by technology
D. have needs beyond physical comforts
E. are always seeking the meaning of life
2. The author would apparently agree that
playing poker is
A. often an effort to avoid thinking
B. something that gives true pleasure
C. an example of man’s need for society
D. something that man must learn to avoid
E. inhuman

Examine the recently laid egg of some common animal, such as a salamander or newt. It
is a minute spheroid – an apparently structure-less sac, enclosing a fluid, holding granules in
suspension. But let a moderate supply of warmth reach its watery cradle, and the plastic matter
undergoes changes so rapid, yet so steady and purposeful in their succession, that one can only
compare them to those operated by a skilled modeler upon a formless lump of clay. As with an
invisible trowel, the mass is divided and subdivided into smaller and smaller portions. And, then,
it is as if a delicate finger traced out the line to be occupied by the spinal column, and molded the
contour of the body; pinching up the head at one end, the tail at the other, and fashioning flank
and limb into due proportions, in so artistic a way, that, after watching the process hour by hour,
one is almost involuntarily possessed by the notion, that some more subtle aid to vision than a
microscope, would show the hidden artist, with his plan before him, striving with skillful
manipulation to perfect his work.
Adapted from an essay by T H Huxley
3. The author makes his main point with the
aid of
A. logical paradox
B. complex rationalization
C. observations on the connection between
art and science
D. scientific deductions
E. extended simile
4. In the context of the final sentence the
word “subtle” most nearly means
A. not obvious
B. indirect
C. discriminating
D. surreptitious
E. scientific

Passage 1:
There are not many places that I find it
more agreeable to revisit when in an idle
mood, than some places to which I have
never been. For, my acquaintance with those
spots is of such long standing, and has
ripened into an intimacy of so affectionate a
nature, that I take a particular interest in
assuring myself that they are unchanged. I
never was in Robinson Crusoe’s Island, yet I
frequently return there. I was never in the
robbers’ cave, where Gil Blas lived, but I
often go back there and find the trap-door
just as heavy to raise as it used to be. I was
never in Don Quixote’s study, where he read
his books of chivalry until he rose and
hacked at imaginary giants, yet you couldn’t
move a book in it without my knowledge.
So with Damascus, and Lilliput, and the
Nile, and Abyssinia, and the North Pole, and
many hundreds of places — I was never at
them, yet it is an affair of my life to keep
them intact, and I am always going back to
them.
Passage 2:
The books one reads in childhood create in
one’s mind a sort of false map of the world,
a series of fabulous countries into which one
can retreat at odd moment throughout the
rest of life, and which in some cases can
even survive a visit to the real countries
which they are supposed to represent. The
pampas, the Amazon, the coral islands of the
Pacific, Russia, land of birch-tree and
samovar, Transylvania with its boyars and
vampires, the China of Guy Boothby, the
Paris of du Maurier—one could continue the
list for a long time. But one other imaginary
country that I acquired early in life was
called America. If I pause on the word
“America”, and deliberately put aside the
existing reality, I can call up my childhood
vision of it.
Adapted from: The Uncommercial Traveller, C Dickens (1860)

5. The first sentence of passage one contains
an element of
A. paradox
B. legend
C. melancholy
D. humor
E. self-deprecation
6. By calling America an “imaginary
country” the author of passage two implies
that
A. America has been the subject of
numerous works for children
B. he has never seen America
C. his current vision of that country is not
related to reality
D. America has stimulated his imagination
E. his childhood vision of that country owed
nothing to actual conditions
7. Both passages make the point that
A. imaginary travel is better than real
journeys
B. children’s books are largely fiction
C. the effects of childhood impressions are
inescapable
D. books read early in life can be revisited in
the imagination many years later
E. the sight of imaginary places evokes
memories
8. Both passages list a series of places, but
differ in that the author of passage one
A. has been more influenced by his list of
locations
B. never expects to visit any of them in real
life, whereas the writer of passage two
thinks it at least possible that he might
C. is less specific in compiling his list
D. wishes to preserve his locations in his
mind forever, whereas the author of passage
two wishes to modify all his visions in the
light of reality.
E. revisits them more often.

Running head: A TWIST ON THE CLASSIC MOZART EFFECT 1
Appendix B

Appendix C

Research Manuscript (Final)

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