1. 1
Jeremy Morris
Advisor: Brian H. Jackson, Ph.D.

2.  With more interest placed on sport and exercise, athletes are
searching for anything that will give them a competitive
advantage. (Schie, Stewart, Becker & Rogers, 2008)
 Items that offer advantages:
 Type of shoes
 Pre-workout supplements
 Music
2

3.  Four factors contributing to motivational qualities
of music (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012)
 Rhythm response
 Musicality
 Cultural Impact
 Association
 The study of music has resulted in three main
hypotheses (Karageorghis & Terry, 2014)
 Narrowing person’s attention
 Can alter psychomotor arousal
 Person has predisposition to respond to musical rhythm
3

4.  Using a cycle ergometer, distance, pedal
cadence, and HR depended more on the tempo
(Waterhouse, Hudson & Edwards, 2009)
 HR was significantly higher with soft/slow
music
(Karageorhis & Terry, 2014)
 No significant difference in HR
(Schie, Stewart, Becker & Rogers, 2008)
4

5.  At low intensity exercise with music, RPE was
significantly lower (on cycle ergometer)
(Yamashita et al., 2006)
 Soft/slow music causes RPE to be significantly
lower (Karageorghis & Terry, 2014)
 It’s suggested that music is more
effective in lowering RPE during
submaximal exercise than anaerobic
threshold. (Karageorhis & Terry, 2014)
5

6.  Cognitive-time model theory
(Mailov, 2011)
 Explains how music tempo can
affect time estimation and memory
6

7.  Time estimation is experimentally studied
using prospective and retrospective paradigms
 Prospective Paradigm
 Informed they will be asked to make judgements
regarding time after task (Ziv & Elad, 2010)
 Retrospective Paradigm
 Not informed they will be making
judgements (Ziv & Elad, 2010)
7

8.  The purpose of this study is to further
examine the effect of music tempo on
performance and perception.
 Specifically, to examine the effect of
music tempo and/or experimental
paradigm (prospective or retrospective)
has on HR, perception of exertion, and
perception of time (time estimation)
 No article has combined music tempo
and experimental paradigm conditions
8

9.  HR and RPE will increase at high music tempo
and time estimation will decrease
 Prospective paradigm (as opposed to a
retrospective paradigm) will cause longer time
estimations because participant will be
focusing on the time of the task
9

10.  24 participants
 12 F, 12 M: 18-51 years old
 Task
 Pedal on recumbent bike for three 15 min. trials
 Listen to slow tempo (110 bpm), fast tempo (150 bpm),
or no music during the trials
10

11.  Music Conditions
 Each condition (slow tempo, fast tempo, no music) applied to one of three
trials
 Music conditions fully counterbalanced
 Experimental Paradigms
 Group A: Prospective, Retrospective, Prospective
 Group B: Retrospective, Prospective, Retrospective
 Each group had tempo conditions applied to the paradigms.
 Paradigm order was consistent, tempo order changed
 3 songs that were non-vocal and obscure (Songs looped throughout the
trials)
 Borg RPE Scale
11

12. 12

13. 13

14. 1. Resting Heart Rate
2. Paradigm Consequences:
 Prospective
 Participants were told they would be asked
to estimate how long the trial lasted
 Retrospective
 1st trial – Participants given no prior
information
 2nd or 3rd trial– Participants told they
would be asked about their motivation
level
14

15. 3. Headphones given, trial begins
4. Recorded Distance person pedaled, RPM & HR
at specific time, and RPE (every 3 minutes)
5. Follow-up questions
6. Breaks to return to Resting/Baseline HR
15

16.  3 x 2 x 5 Repeated Measures ANOVAs
 Distance
 RPM
 HR
 RPE
 Univariate Analysis of variance
 Time Estimation
16

17.  No significant differences in:
 HR
 Distance
 RPE
 Time Estimation
 Significant interaction of music condition (fast,
slow, no music) and time for RPM (F=6.302,
p=.003)
17

18. 18
 RPM was significantly different, but distance was not. How
could this be?

19. 19

20.  Possible Reasons:
 RPM was measured at specific times
 Distance accumulates over each 3 min. span
 Attention to music and task when present
 Condition effects of RPM
 Fast tempo: pedal faster
 Slow tempo: pedal slower
 No music: pedal faster to relieve boredom
20

21.  Results did not support the hypotheses:
 HR and RPE would increase during high tempo music
 Time estimation would decrease at a high tempo
 Prospective paradigm (as opposed to a retrospective paradigm)
will cause longer time estimations
 Our research has found that fast music tempo, while
engaged, influences RPM while pedaling on a recumbent
bike.
 Future research suggestions?
 Apply to real world setting
 Lengthen trial times
 Give more music
 Have more variety of music (e.g. different genres)
 Possibly assessing genre
21

22. Karageorghis, C.I. & Priest, D. (2012). Music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis (Part 1).
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(1), 44-66.
Karageorhis, C.I. & Terry, P.C. (2014). The psychophysical effects of music in sport and exercise: a
review. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20(1), 54-68.
Mailov, L. (2011). The effects of musical tempo on time perception and memory. The University of
Buckingham, 1-19.
Schie, N. A., Stewart A., Becker, P. & Rogers, G.G (2008). Effect of music on submaximal cycling. South
African Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(1), 28-31.
Waterhouse, J., Hudson, P. & Edwards, B. (2009). Effects of music tempo upon submaximal cycling
performance. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20, 662-669.
Yamashita, S., Iwai, K., Akimoto, T., Sugawara, J. & Kono, I. (2006). Effects of music during exercise on
RPE, heart rate and the autonomic nervous system. The Journal of Sports Medicine and
Physical Fitness, 46(3), 425-430.
Zakay, D. & Block, R.A. (2004). Prospective and retrospective duration judgements: an executive-control
perspective. Acta Neurobiol Exp, 64, 319-328.
Ziv, N. & Elad O. (2010). Music and time: the effect of experimental paradigm, musical structure and
subjective evaluations on time estimation. Psychology of Music, 39(2), 182-195.
QUESTIONS? 22