2. • VISION: “Providing technical and practice oriented
pharmacy education to prepare students with attributes to
meet the need of industry and society”
• MISSION: To develop best technically competent pharmacy
professionals by inculcating desired attributes in them for
meeting industry demands. * To make best pharmacists who
can practice pharmacy to become effective team member of
healthcare system and provide optimum pharmaceutical care
solutions. * Promotion of useful and innovative research to
contribute in development of nation and global society.
•
3. Introduction
The word Pharmacognosy is derived
from the Greek "Pharmakon",
meaning a drug or poison and "gnosis"
meaning to acquire a knowledge of and
literally meaning "the entire
knowledge of drug".
4. Introduction
• It can be defined as the scientific study of the
structural, physical, chemical and sensory
characters of crude drugs of vegetable, animal
and mineral origin.
• It includes also their history, cultivation of the
medicinal plants producing them and methods
involved for their collection and other particulars
related to the treatment they received during
their passage from the producer to the
distributor or pharmacist.
5. • Pharmacognosy is the subject of crude drugs obtained
from the plants (vegetable), animal and mineral origin.
Or It can also defined as the objective study of crude
drugs of the natural sources processed scientifically.
• It includes analysis of their biological, chemical,
biochemical, and physical properties.
• Pharmacognosy is the study of medicinal use of
various naturally occurring drugs its history,
sources, distributions, method of cultivation, active
constituents, medicinal uses, identification test,
preservation methods, substituents and adulterants.
6. • This area encompasses the study of secondary
metabolites, including alkaloids, glycosides, phenolic
compounds, tannins, phytosterols, and terpenoids that
are derived from nature, and is inclusive of plants as well
as marine and terrestrial microbes and animals. These
compounds have potential medicinal applications for the
prevention and treatment of numerous conditions and
diseases, and may also serve as natural pesticides and
herbicides.
• Recently, ecological benefits and methodologies have
garnered new interest pertaining to a sustainable
approach to natural product research and drug
development, an area now termed
''ecopharmacognosy.''
7. • Pharmacognosy focuses on the study of medicinally active
ingredients (secondary metabolites, extracts, etc.) that have
their origin in nature or living systems like plants, fungi, and
bacteria. Herbal and other preparations involving minerals and
metals have been described for the medical treatment of
ailments. Folk medicines across ancient civilizations and
world cultures (Patwardhan, 2012) have provided historical
records of treatment of certain diseases used from animals,
animal parts, plants, plant-parts, bacteria, fungi, etc.
• Many anticancer drugs (cardiac glycosides), two-thirds of
antibacterial compounds, antiinflammatory compounds, etc.
are natural products.
8. Importance
• It is believed that the human body finds plant-derived
medicines easier to accept due to the fact that they exist in
nature and are not synthetic. About 25% of prescription
medicines in the USA are believed to have an active ingredient
from a natural source. In developing countries, it’s estimated
that about 80% of their populations rely on traditional
medicines made from plants and herbs.
• Plants and organisms are used in a variety of ways in the
production of conventional and alternative medicines. The
beneficial active ingredient of the plant may be found
anywhere in its physical structure, such as in the petal or stem
of a flower.
9. • Examples of plants that have an impact on humans:
• Fusarium pallidoroseum: the origin of apicidin, a fungal metabolite
presenting antiprotozoal activity in vitro that may counter malaria
factor Plasmodium berghei.
• Taxus Baccata (conifer/yew tree): can be used to extract Baccatin
III which is important in the production of taxol, an anticancer drug.
• Hericium erinaceus: A mushroom, edible fungus that is thought to
improve the immune system, mental decline, Alzheimer, dementia,
anxiety, Parkinson.
• Madagascar periwinkle: A natural source of alkaloids and the
origin of medicines for diabetes, cancer, childhood leukaemia and
Hodgkin’s disease.
• Aloe marlothii (mountain aloe): identified as a treatment for
intestinal parasites, anti-helmintic, stomache.
• Rumex acetosella (common sorrel): possesses diuretic properties
and is used as an approach for sinusitis and cancer, kidney problems,
10. Crude drug
• Drug :
• Any substance used in the treatment of disease or
diagnosis is known as drug. Diagnosis is the
determination of nature of disease.
• Crude drug:
• It is the simplest form of drug ,crude drugs are plant,
animal and their parts which after collection are
subjected only to drying or making them into transverse
or longitudinal pieces or peeling (stripping off skin or
bark).They exist in natural forms.
11. Crude Drug
• It means the harvested and usually dried plant
or animal sources of pharmaceutically or
medicinally useful products before they have
undergone extensive processing or modification.
• Crude drugs are derived from the mineral,
vegetable and animal kingdoms.
• Crude drugs of vegetable, animal and mineral
origin form the subject matter with which
pharmacognosy is concerned.
12. Examples of Crude Drugs
• Entire plants or animals: Mentha,
Cantharidis, Cochineal.
Entire organs of plants or animals:
Senna, Clove, Fennel, Linseed,
Quassia, Cinchona, Liquorice, Thyroid
gland.
• Minerals: Chalk, kaolin, talc.
• Substances derived from plants or
animals (unorganized): Opium, aloes,
tragacanth, resins, musk, beeswax,
gelatin.
13. For detailed description of each
individual drug the following points are
to be considered
1- Origin: Including biological and
geographical sources, a knowledge of the
history and name of the drug.
2- Cultivation and preparation: Including
details of cultivation of the medicinal
plants, methods of collection, drying,
packing and other treatment of the drug
during its preparation for the market.
14. 3- Characters: Including the physical
characters such as dimensions, surface
characters, fracture and the sensory
characters such as colour, odour and
taste. The histological characters which
help in the identification of the drug in
powdered form, are of fundamental
importance.
15. 4- Constituents and tests: Constituents include both
the reputed active constituents and also other
constituents and reserve food materials. Chemical
identity tests are based on the nature of
constituents.
5- Adulterants: Including materials added
fraudulently and matter which has become
associated with the drug owing to carelessness in
handling during collection, preparation, packing and
transport.
6- Evaluation of the physical and chemical
characters of the drug.
7- Uses and application of the drug in medicine.
16. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY
• Humans have produced medicine from plants and other organisms for
centuries, hence pharmacognosy being commonly considered the oldest
brand of pharmacy. There is 5000-year-old evidence of medicine
production on Sumerian clay from Nagpur, and around 12 ancient
medicinal recipes have been found with plant ingredients such as poppy
and mandrake.
• The production of drugs from plants is also referenced in many ancient
texts. Through the ages, information has been discovered which refers to
humans making medicines from garlic, mustard, cabbage, parsley, and
mint.
• No one country or nation dominated medicine production using plants and
organisms; the practice was carried out globally. Ingredients would vary
based on what was readily available to people in their location.
• The extraction of alkaloids from poppy and other plants contributed to the
beginnings of modern medicine in the 19th century.
17. Historical development of Pharmacognosy
• History of pharmacognosy represents the history of pharmacy
& medicine. Pharmacognosy had its origin in the health-related
activities of the most primitive human race of the remote past.
• They acquired knowledge of medicinal properties of plants in
the following way
• a) By guesswork or trial & error
• b) While searching for food
• c) By superficial resemblance between the plant parts & the
affected organs, that is, by examining the “Signature of Nature”
• d) By observing other animals instinctive (natural)
discrimination(taste) between toxic & palatable(edible) plants.
• e) By accidental discovery
18. Historical development of Pharmacognosy
• Papyrys Ebers- written in 1550 B.C. (16th century) &
discovered in a tomb of a mummy, much has been said about
the- skill and knowledge of those people in this field.
• It contain more than 800 formula & 700 different drug.
• In India, the study of the drugs was started about 5000 years
ago at the time of the Vedas. Ayrurvedic system (1200 B.C.
Ago consists of a list with 127 plants.)
• Charaka, described various herbs for illness.(Charak
Samhita)
• Sushruta, descibed 760 herbs based on properties of plants.
(Sushruta Samhita)
19. Historical development of Pharmacognosy
• Hippocrates (460 - 370 B.C.) deals with anatomy and physiology in many
of his treatises.“Father of Medicine”.
• Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.), the great philosopher wrote much about the
animal kingdom and his writings were explained in scientific terms.
• Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.) wrote about plants and described
medicinal uses of plants.
• Dioscorides a Greek physician of the1st Century A.D. was the writer of
the first Materia Medica (40-80 A.D.) Here he described 600 medicinal
plants, including Belladona, Colchicum, Opium, Hyoscyamus, etc.
• C.A. Seydler, German scientist, a medical student at Halle, Germany in
1815; wrote his doctoral thesis titled Analectica Pharmacognostica
• Swede Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) The great systematise classified the plant
& introduced system of naming the plant known as binomial system.
20. Historical development of Pharmacognosy
• Galen (131 -200 A.D.) the first Pharmacist, who described the
method of preparing drugs of vegetable and animal origin and
laid down many formulas contained in a treatise(thesis) of 20
volumes.
• Plant Classification was developed by Benthan & Hooker
(1862 – 1863), A.W. Eichler (1883), Engler & Prandtl (1887 –
1898).
• • In 1865, G. Mendel’s important observation on plant hybrids
was described.
• Letter, Voehl, Tschirch & others, reported anatomical
characters of several powdered drug.
• “An Anatomical Atlas of Powdered & Vegetable Drugs” was
complied by Greenish & Colin”.
21. Historical development of Pharmacognosy
• Pen Ts’ao Kang Moa 1000 B.C. (published only at 1597)
contained an incredible number of medicinal plants and drugs
of animal origin. The Chinese thought that for every disease,
there must be a drug provided by the nature.
• In China, medicinal plants uses since 5000 B.C as evident in
the oldest document “Pentaso” written by Shen nung.
22. History of pharmacognosy
1- Ancient Egyptian period
• The ancient Egyptians 3000 B.C. were experts in using drugs
for curing diseases.
• Ancient Egyptians possessed a sound knowledge of human
anatomy as well as a knowledge of the medicinal uses of
many plants and animals.
• The healing of the sick was undertaken by priest doctor and
pharmacist "Son" who prescribed and prepared medicines.
• Crude drugs of vegetable origin used included Aloes, Gum,
Myrrh, Poppy, Pomegranate, Colocynth herb, Linseed, Squill,
Coriander, Onion, Anise, Melon, Castor, etc...
23. The first recorded prescriptions were found in
Egyptian tombs. These were the Hieratic
papyri, Ebers papyrus, the Gynecologic
papyrus.
24. 2- The Babylonians
• The Babylonian medicine was known as Laws of Hamorabi
in 772 B.C..
• The Babylonians were aware of the Medicinal effects of a
number of plants.
• The drugs used were mainly of vegetable origin.
• The drugs used include 250 materials of plant, and 180
materials of animal source. Many of these drugs were known
to the ancient Egyptians.
25. 3- Old Indian medicine
• The "Riveda" and Ayurveda (Acoko 2000 B.C.),
contained the sacred medicinal plants.
• The collection of plant materials was done only by an
innocent, pure, religious person.
• The fresh plants were considered to be the most
effective.
• The most celebrated Indian drugs were; Sandal wood,
Clove, Pepper, Cardamom, Caraway, Ginger, Benzoin,
Cannabis, Castor oil, Sesame oil, Aloes, etc...
26. 4- The old Chinese medicine
• Beside the famous acupuncture, the Chinese medicine
is very acknowledged for the herbal medicine.
• The Pen Ts'ao Kang Moa 1000 B.C. contained an
incredible number of medicinal plants and drugs of
animal origin.
• Their book includes many recipes for every disease.
Among the plants and minerals highly esteemed for its
magic health including power were; Ginseng, Rhubarb,
Ephedra, Star Anise, Pomegranate, Aconite.... Opium is
a very old Chinese drug for diarrhea and dysentery.
27. 5- The Greek and Romans
• Pythagoras (560 B.C.) used drugs as Mustard and
Squill, etc....
• Hippocrates (466 B.C.) was familiar with numerous
drugs, and wrote "Corpus Hipocraticum 460 B.C.".
• The Greek Empire was followed by that of the Romans
Dioscorides who was a Greek by birth he was the first
to describe drugs and his work "Greek Herbal of
Dioscorides" included 5000 medicinal plants in addition
to animal and mineral drugs.
28. • Pliny who lived about the same time as
Dioscorides, was also an eminent author
of natural history.
• Galen (134- 200 A.C.) was a physician
and he described the use of "Galenical
preparations".
29. 6- Islamic Contribution
• In Islamic writings were found the first beginnings of
chemistry, the name of which is derived from an Arabic
word "Kemia"; as were also such familiar words alcohol
and alkali.
• The Arabs added numerous new plants and medicaments
to those already known to the Greeks and Romans.
• In their days, pharmacy attained its highest reputation
and became an independent branch of medicine.
• It is interesting to note that the first dispensary was
opened in Baghdad, the center of trade in those days.
30. • The dispensary was made of Sandal wood and named
"Sandalia".
• Rhazey (850-932 A.C.) who was born at Rai in Persia
was the director of Baghdad hospital in the days of El-
Mansour.
• He published a famous book "Alhawi Kabeer".
31. • Abu Al Hosayn Ibn-Sina (980-1037 A.C.) whose name
was latinised to Avicenna. He was one of the most
eminent and gifted Arabian physicians.
• His "Canoon Fi Elteb" has been described as the most
famous medical text ever written and as having
dominated the medical schools of Europe and Asia and
served as the chief source of medical knowledge for 5
centuries, till the 15th century.
32. • Ibn Al-Baitar (1197-1248 A.C.) was the best Arabian
pharmacognosist and botanist and ranked with
Dioscorides in that respect. His book "Jame-ul-
Muffradat" contains description of 2000 drugs.
• Sheikh Dawood El-Antaki wrote a book named
"Tazkaret Uli Al-Albab", now known as "Tazkaret
Dawood Alantaki" which describes several hundred
herbs besides drugs of animal and mineral origin.
33. Classification of drugs for study
Vegetable drugs are usually arranged for study in one or other
of the following ways:
1- Alphabetical: using either Latin or English names; the
drugs are arranged in an alphabetical order.
2- Taxonomic: using one of the accepted systems of botanical
classification; the drugs are according to the plants from
which they are obtained in phyla, orders, families. Genera
and species.
3- Morphological: dividing the drugs into groups e.g. leaves,
flowers, fruits, seeds,..... which are referred to as "organized
drugs", and groups as dried lattices, extracts, gums, resins,
oils, fats and waxes which are known as "unorganized
drugs".
34. 4- Chemical: the drugs are divided into groups according to
their most important constituents e.g. drugs containing
volatile oils, glycosides, alkaloids, bitter principles, tannins,
saponins,......
5- Pharmacological and therapeutic effects: grouping of
drugs according to the pharmacological action of their
most important constituents or their therapeutic use. e.g.
astringent, irritant, drugs affecting the gastrointestinal tract,
drugs promoting systemic effects on the muscle and
nervous system, drugs affecting the circulatory system,
drugs used chemotherapeutically for the treatment of
infectious diseases, etc....
35. Official and unofficial drugs
Drugs are either official or unofficial. An
official drug is one which is listed and
described in a book recognized by the
government as the legal authority for
standards "Pharmacopoeia"
36. Origin of drugs
• There are two origins for each drug; the
natural or biological, as well as, the
geographical origin.
• The commercial origin is also of interest in
case of certain drugs.
37. The natural or biological origin
(source(
The natural origin of a drug is the plant or
animal yielding it, if a plant, botanical origin
or botanical source and if an animal,
zoological origin or source.
38. The binomial system
Is due to Swedish biologist Linnaus, in this system
the first name, which is always spelt with Capital
letter, denotes the genus.
Whilst the second name denotes the species. It is
however, still equally correct to use capital
where the species is named after a person.
Thus the species of Cinchona named after
Charles Ledger, who brought its seed from
Brazil 1865, is known as Cinchona Ledgeriana.
39. • The specific name is usually chosen to indicate:
1- Some striking characteristics of the plant:
a- Conium maculatum (maculate = spotted) (stem with
reddish, spotted patches).
b- Glycyrrhiza glabra (glabrous = smooth).
Refers to the fruit of this species which is a smooth pod.
c- Hyoscyamus muticus (muticus = short).
The plant being short.
d- Atropa belladonna (bella = beautiful, donna = lady)
the juice of the berry placed in the eyes causes dilatation of
the pupils, thus giving a striking appearance).
40. 2- A characteristic colour:
a- Piper nigrum (= black)
b- Citrus aurantium (= golden yellow)
c- Digitalis purpurea (= purple)
d- Digitalis lutea (= yellow)
3- An aromatic plant or certain aroma:
a- Myritaceae fragrans (having a fragrant, nice
aroma)
b- Caryophyllus aromaticus (refers to the aroma)
41. 4- A geographical source or history of a drug:
a- Cannabis indica (growing in India)
b- Tamarinds indica (India)
5- A Pharmaceutical activity or an active
constituents:
a- Papaver somniferum (sleep inducing)
b- Strychnos nux vomica (from two latin words, nut
causing vomiting)
c- Ipomoea purga (laxative).
6- A general meaning or a special indication
a- Allium sativum (= cultivated)
b- Triticum vulgaire (= wild)
42. The generic name may also allude to
certain characters of the plant:
• Atropa, from Atrops, meaning flexile, the
name of the Greek fate who cuts the
thread of life, alluding to the poisonous
characters of the drugs.
• Glycyrrhiza is from glucose= sweet, riza =
root.
43. Geographical sources of drugs
The geographical source or Habitat is the region in
which the plant or animal yielding the drug grows.
• Plants growing in their native countries are said to
be indigenous to these regions, e.g. Aconitum
napellus of the mountainous regions of Europe,
Hyoscyamus muticus of Egypt, Cannabis sativa of
India.
• Plants are said to be naturalized when they grow
in a foreign land or in locality other than their
native home.
45. SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY
• Pharmacognosy has broad scope in the field of
pharmacy such as :
• 1. ISOLATION OR ANALYSIS OF PHYTOCHEMICAL :
Eg ; Strong acting substances such as glycosides from
digitalis leaves,
• Alkaloids from the plants of Belladonna, Hyocyamus,
Rauwlofia
• Morphine and other alkaloids from the plant opium were
isolated and clinical uses studied.
46. • 2. STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIP :
• Eg : Tubocurarine and Toxiferine from curare plant
have muscle relaxant properties because of
quaternary ammonium groups.
The hypotensive and tranquillizing actions of
reserpine are due to the trimethoxy benzoic acid.
47. • 3. DRUGS OBTAINED BY PARTIAL SYNTHESIS OF
NATURAL PRODUCTS:
• Eg : Preparation of Steroid hormones from diosgenin by
acetolysis and oxidation and further preparation of
cortisone by microbial reactions.
• 4. NATURAL PRODUCTS AS MODELS FOR SYNTHESIS
OF NEW DRUGS :
• Eg: Morphine is the model of a large group of potent
drugs .
• Cocaine for local anaesthetics
• Atropine for certain spasmolytics
48. • 5. DRUGS OF DIRECT THERAPEUTIC USES :
• Among the natural constituents which even now cannot
be replaced are important group of antibiotics, steroids,
ergot alkaloids, vincristine etc
• 6. BIOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS INVESTIGATION :
• Biosynthetic pathways are of primary and secondary
metabolites.
• Some of the important pathways are Clavin ‘s cycle of
• photosynthesis,
• Shikimic acid pathway of aromatic compounds.
49. • Acetate hypothesis for antharacene glycosides
• Isoprenoid hypothesis for terpens
• 7.CULTIVATION AND COLLECTION OF MEDICINAL
PLANTS :
• Clove, cinchona , cinnamon, senna, opium, etc
• 8. PREPARATION OF HERBAL FORMULATIONS :
• Churnas, asvas, aristas, leha, etc
• 9. DEVELOPMENT OF TISSUE CULTURED PLANTS
• 10. Indigunious system of Medicine:
• WHO utilize system of medicine based on the locally
available raw material, like medicinal plant
• 11. NOVEL MEDICINE:
• It is infrastructure of novel medicine which depends on
evaluation.
50. Development of Pharmacognosy
• Modern Pharmacognosy occurred during 1934 -
1960.
• This development was mainly due to some events
like:
• Discovery of Penicillin in 1928
• Isolation of Resperine 1952
• Anticancer properties of Vinca rosea
• Discovery of Dioscorea was utilized to prepare
semisynthetic steroidal hormones.
51. Development of Pharmacognosy
• Pharmacognosy as an applied science.
• It played a crucial role in the development of different
disciplines of science.
• Pharmacognosy is an imp link between Pharmacology
and Medicinal Chemistry.
52. Development of Pharmacognosy
• Natural products got more and more therapeutic
importance with developments like:
• Isolation of therapeutically active constituents.
• Their identification and structure elucidation.
• There is close link between structure and
Pharmacological action.
53. Development of Pharmacognosy
• Natural products served the purpose of precursor for
synthesis of several medicinally important compounds.
• Some isolated components from plants were made into
different formulations and used as drugs.
54. Development of Pharmacognosy
• Step by step processes in biosynthesis of Primary &
Secondary metabolites were presented before the
world.
• Invention of microscopy and different chemical test
reagents.
55. Development of Pharmacognosy
• Knowledge of
• Plant taxonomy
• Plant breeding (propogation
• Plant pathology
• Plant genetics
• Is helpful in the development of cultivation technology for
medicinal and aromatic plants.
