21st Century Skills

1. 21ST CENTURY SKILLS
Skills necessary for students to master in order for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly
digital and connected age; includes digital literacy, traditional literacy, content knowledge, media literacy, and
learning/innovation skills.
Keywords: collaboration, digital literacy, innovation, technology, work-life skills, readiness, interdisciplinary
learning, problem-solving, ICT (information and communication technologies)
21st Century Skills (Partnership for 21st
Century Skills and other groups and individuals)
• Life/career skills: adaptability & flexibility, initiative & self-direction, leadership & responsibility, productivity &
accountability, social & cross-cultural skills
• Core subjects: English/language arts, mathematics, arts, science, history, geography and others
• 21st
century themes: civic literacy, environmental literacy, financial literacy (including economic, business, and
entrepreneurial skills), global awareness, health literacy
• Information/media/technology skills: media literacy, information literacy
• Learning/innovation skills: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, problem solving
Students are expected to master these skills and understand these themes while learning core subject content in
meaningful, interdisciplinary way. Teachers, administrators, schools, and districts are expected to use these
guidelines, known as the P21 Framework, as a foundation for developing curriculum, assessments, and standards
that they deem appropriate for their students.
Some organizations, like the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, provide tools and resources for educators to use in
supporting their students’ acquisition of these skills. In addition, there are also model classrooms, schools, and
districts that can serve to guide others as they develop their alignment with these standards. Teachers are
encouraged to create their own curriculum following the P21 Framework that would work best for their students.
• John B. Watson
• Ivan Pavlov
• B.F. Skinner
• E. L. Thorndike
• Albert Bandura
Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The
learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or
negative reinforcement. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the
antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the
likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus;
Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the
learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with animals (e.g. Pavlov’s dogs) and generalized to humans.
Behaviorism precedes the cognitivist worldview. It rejects structuralism and is an extension of Logical Positivism.
RADICAL BEHAVIORISM
Developed by BF Skinner, Radical Behaviorism describes a particular school that emerged during the reign of
behaviorism. It is distinct from other schools of behaviorism, with major differences in the acceptance of mediating
structures, the role of emotions, etc.

2. • Marriner David Merill (1937 – )
• Charles Reigeluth (1946 – )
• Robert Mills Gagné (1916 – 2002)
• Jerome Bruner (1915-2016)
• Roger Schank (1946 – )
The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses on the
inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding
how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored.
Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s
schemata[1][2]
.
A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli;
people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence
of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head.
Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to
certain outcomes.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV)
Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke
a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
• Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)
• John B. Watson (1878 – 1958)
Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between
events in the environment[1]
. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by
Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning.
PAVLOV’S DOGS
In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion[2]
. While
studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic
reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained
in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically
implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat
powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced
by the device that distributed the meat powder.
Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After
the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone.
Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a
neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the
stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation
response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic
building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.
In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the
unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food.
Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation
after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

3. JOHN B. WATSON: EARLY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WITH HUMANS
John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an
11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing
the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented
with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It
could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested
that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.
DESIGN-BASED RESEARCH METHODS (DBR)
Summary: Design-Based Research is a lens or set of analytical techniques that balances the positivist and
interpretivist paradigms and attempts to bridge theory and practice in education. A blend of empirical educational
research with the theory-driven design of learning environments, DBR is an important methodology for
understanding how, when, and why educational innovations work in practice; DBR methods aim to uncover the
relationships between educational theory, designed artefact, and practice.
Keywords: design experiments, iterative, interventionist, theory-building, theory-driven
Design-Based Research Methods (DBR)
In recent years, educators have been trying to narrow the chasm between research and practice. Part of the
challenge is that research that is detached from practice “may not account for the influence of contexts, the
emergent and complex nature of outcomes, and the incompleteness of knowledge about which factors are
relevant for prediction”.
According to Collins et al., Design-based Research (also known as design experiments) intends to address several
needs and issues central to the study of learning. These include the following:
• The need to address theoretical questions about the nature of learning in context
• The need for approaches to the study of learning phenomena in the real world situations rather than the
laboratory
• The need to go beyond narrow measures of learning.
• The need to derive research findings from formative evaluation.
Characteristics of design-based research experiments include:
• addressing complex problems in real, authentic contexts in collaboration with practitioners
• applying integrating known and hypothetical design principles to render plausible solutions
• conducting rigorous and reflective inquiry to test and refine innovative learning environments
• intertwined goals of (1) designing learning environments and (2) developing theories of learning
• research and development through continuous cycles of design, enactment, analysis, and redesign
• research on designs that must lead to sharable theories that help communicate relevant implications to
practitioners and other educational designers
• research must account for how designs function in authentic settings
• development of such accounts relies on methods that can document and connect processes of enactment to
outcomes of interest[3]
.
Design-based research vs. traditional evaluation

4. The following excerpt highlights the difference between the goals and contributions of design-based research
methods can offer and traditional evaluation:
“In traditional evaluation, an intervention (e.g. a textbook, an instructional program, a policy) is measured against
a set of standards. During formative evaluation, iterative cycles of development, implementation, and study allow
the designer to gather information about how an intervention is or is not succeeding in ways that might lead to
better design. Then the intervention is ‘frozen’, and the rigorous summative evaluation begins….Like formative
evaluation, design-based research uses mixed methods to analyze an intervention’s outcomes and refine the
intervention. Unlike evaluation research, design-based research views a successful innovation as a joint product of
the designed intervention and the context. Hence, design-based research goes beyond perfecting a particular
product. The intention of design-based research…is to inquire more broadly into the nature of learning in a
complex system and to refine generative or predictive theories of learning. Models of successful innovation can be
generated through such work — models, rather than particular artifacts or programs, are the goal”.
COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING (SWELLER)
Summary: A theory that focuses the load on working memory during instruction.
Keywords: cognitive load theory, working memory, multimedia learning
Cognitive Load Theory of Multimedia Learning (Sweller)
John Sweller describes the human cognitive architecture, and the need to apply sound instructional design
principles based on our knowledge of the brain and memory. Sweller first describes the different types of memory,
and how both are interrelated, because schemas held in long-term memory, acting as a “central executive”,
directly affect the manner in which information is synthesized in working memory. Sweller then explains that in
the absence of schemas, instructional guidance must provide a substitute for learners to develop either own
schemas.
Sweller discusses, in his view, three types of cognitive load:
• extraneous cognitive load
• intrinsic cognitive load
• germane cognitive load
Intrinsic cognitive load
First described by Chandler and Sweller, intrinsic cognitive load is the idea that all instruction has an inherent
difficulty associated with it (for instance, calculating 5+5). This inherent difficulty may not be altered by an
instructor. However many schemas may be broken into individual “subschemas” and taught in isolation, to be later
brought back together and described as a combined whole.
Extraneous cognitive load
Extraneous cognitive load, by contrast, is under the control of instructional designers. This form of cognitive load
is generated by the manner in which information is presented to learners (i.e., the design). To illustrate an
example of extraneous cognitive load, assume there are at least two possible ways to describe a geometric shape
like a triangle. An instructor could describe a triangle in a verbally, but to show a diagram of a triangle is much
better because the learner does not have to deal with extraneous, unnecessary information.

5. Germane cognitive load
Germane load is a third kind of cognitive load which is encouraged to be promoted. Germane load is the load
dedicated to the processing, construction and automation of schemas. While intrinsic load is generally thought to
be immutable, instructional designers can manipulate extraneous and germane load. It is suggested that they limit
extraneous load and promote germane load.
Extraneous cognitive load and intrinsic cognitive load are not ideal; they result from inappropriate instructional
designs and complexity of information. Germane cognitive load is coined as “effective’ cognitive load, caused by
successful schema construction. Each of the cognitive loads are additive, and instructional design’s goal should be
to reduce extraneous cognitive load to free up working memory[3]
. Reviews in the mid-2000’s provide recent
developments and future directions in cognitive load theory research
Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to
fulfill one’s potential.
Abraham Maslow
• Carl Rogers
• Malcolm Knowles
Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s, focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. A
central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt (2001), is that people act with intentionality and values. This is
in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result of the
application of consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or constructing
meaning is central to learning. Humanists also believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially
as an individual grows and develops over the lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals
are areas of particular interest.
Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. A primary purpose of humanism could be
described as the development of self-actualized, autonomous people[2]. In humanism, learning is student
centered and personalized, and the educator’s role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key,
and the goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment.
Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an
information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective
reality. New information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.
• Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896 – 1943)
• Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)]
• John Dewey (1859 – 1952)
• Jerome Seymour Bruner (1915 – 2016)
KEY CONCEPTS
A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that
learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is
constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these
hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge
process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation.

6. NOTE: A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell students
anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually
confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is
constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught. Thus, even listening to a
lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge.
Vygotsky’s social development theory is one of the foundations for constructivism.
• Albert Bandura (1925 – Present)
People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. “Most human
behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura).
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental influences.
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE MODELING
Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective
valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level,
perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive
organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism),
promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
Bandura believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is, the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while
behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior[2]
, Bandura, who was studying
adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment
as well[3]
. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the
environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and
language).
Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories
because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky’s Social
Development Theory and Lave’s Situated Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social learning.
Transformative learning is a theory of adult learning that utilizes disorienting dilemmas to challenge students’
thinking. Students are then encouraged to use critical thinking and questioning to consider if their underlying
assumptions and beliefs about the world are accurate.
Keywords: adult education, higher education, academic development, disorienting dilemmas, assumptions,
beliefs, worldview, change, transformation, critical reflection
Transformative learning theory was developed by Jack Mezirow in the late 1900s. He used this theory to describe
how people develop and use critical self-reflecting to consider their beliefs and experiences, and over time, change
dysfunctional means of seeing the world. Mezirow was interested in peoples’ worldviews and what leads people
to change their particular view of the world.[i]

7. Mezirow describes transformative learning as “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference to make
them more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change.”
So, what must happen for a person to change their view of the world? Mezirow believed that this occurs when
people face a “disorienting dilemma.” Disorienting dilemmas are experiences that don’t fit into a person’s current
beliefs about the world. When faced with a disorienting dilemma, people are forced to reconsider their beliefs in a
way that will fit this new experience into the rest of their worldview. This often happens through “critical
reflection” in the context of dialogue with other people.
A Case Study
Researcher Michael Christie presents the following case study as a real life example of transformative learning
theory in action. Christie describes his experience teaching adult woman in a Graduate Diploma course for Adult
and Vocational Educators. Throughout the course, he asked his students to “keep a critical incident file of their
experiences.”
The content of the course provided many new ideas that functioned as disorienting dilemmas for these woman.
The woman were forced to think through their assumptions in a number of areas, including beliefs about gender
roles. Christie states, “For example, the belief that ‘a woman’s place is in the home’ was undermined, the
assumptions underpinning it challenged, and a new perspective enacted.”
Applications of Transformative Learning Theory
Disorienting dilemmas often occur in the context of academic learning environments, as teachers provide space to
critically engage with new ideas. Teachers who want to utilize transformative learning in their classrooms can
consider implementing the following opportunities for students.
• Providing opportunities for critical thinking – Teachers can create opportunities for critical thinking through
providing content that introduces new ideas. Students then need the opportunity to engage with new content
through journaling, dialoguing with other students, and critically questioning their own assumptions and beliefs.
• Providing opportunities to relate to others going through the same transformative process – Transformation often
happens in community as students bounce ideas off one another and are inspired by the changes friends and
acquaintances make.
• Providing opportunities to act on new perspectives – Finally, research indicates that it is critical for teachers to
provide the opportunity for students to act on their new found beliefs. There is some indication that true
transformation cannot take place until students are able to actively take steps that acknowledge their new belief.
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY (TAJFEL, TURNER)
Summary: Social identity theory proposes that a person’s sense of who they are depends on the groups to which
they belong.
Originators and Key Contributors: Social identity theory originated from British social psychologists Henri Tajfel
and John Turner in 1979.
Keywords: identity, ingroup, outgroup, social comparison, categorization, intergroup
Social Identity Theory

8. Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory explains that part of a person’s concept of self comes from the groups to
which that person belongs. An individual does not just have a personal selfhood, but multiple selves and identities
associated with their affiliated groups. A person might act differently in varying social contexts according to the
groups they belong to, which might include a sports team they follow, their family, their country of nationality, and
the neighborhood they live in, among many other possibilities[1]
.
When a person perceives themselves as part of a group, that is an ingroup for them. Other comparable groups that
person does not identify with are called outgroups. We have an “us” vs. “them” mentality when it comes to our
ingroups and their respective outgroups.
There are three processes that create this ingroup/outgroup mentality:
• Social Categorization. First, we categorize people in order to understand and identify them. Some examples of
social categories include black, white, professor, student, Republican, and Democrat. By knowing what categories
we belong to, we can understand things about ourselves, and we can define appropriate behavior according to the
groups that we and others belong to. An individual can belong to several groups at the same time.
• Social Identification. We adopt the identity of the group that we belong to, and we act in ways that we perceive
members of that group act. For example, if you identify as a Democrat, you will most likely behave within the
norms of that group. As a consequence of your identification with that group, you will develop emotional
significance to that identification, and your self-esteem will be dependent on it.
• Social Comparison. After we categorize ourselves within a group and identify ourselves as being members of that
group, we tend to compare our group (the ingroup) against another group (an outgroup). To maintain your self-
esteem, you and your group members will compare your group favorably against other ones. This helps explain
prejudice and discrimination, since a group will tend to view members of competing groups negatively to increase
self-esteem.
Intergroup Comparisons
There are a couple things that tend to happen in the process of comparing an ingroup to an outgroup, as
mentioned above. Members of an ingroup will tend to:
1. favor the ingroup over the outgroup
2. maximize the differences between the ingroup and the outgroup (it is necessary to maintain that the groups are
distinct if a person is favoring their group over the other)
3. minimize the perception of differences between ingroup members (this increases ingroup cohesion)
4. remember more positive information about the ingroup and more negative information about the outgroup
The Interpersonal-Intergroup Continuum
Another main aspect of social identity theory is its explanation that social behavior falls on a continuum that
ranges from interpersonal behavior to intergroup behavior. Most social situations will call for a compromise
between these two ends of the spectrum. As an example, Henri Tajfel suggests that soldiers fighting an opposing
army represent behavior at the extreme intergroup end of the interpersonal-intergroup spectrum.
INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATING INSTRUCTION (MALONE)
Summary: Intrinsically motivating instruction takes place in computer gaming software when it provides players
with choice around three key categories: challenge, curiosity, and fantasy.

9. Originators and Key Contributors: Thomas W. Malone
Keywords: challenge, choice, computer games, curiosity, fantasy, intrinsic motivation
Intrinsically Motivating Instruction
In trying to understand what made computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) fun and engaging, Dr. Thomas
W. Malone studied computer games[1]
. In doing so, Malone developed a theory of intrinsically motivating
instruction. The three categories which comprise his theory are challenge, fantasy, and curiosity[2]
.
Challenge: Each challenge must have a series of goals, which can be personally meaningful to the player and/or
may be generated by the game to keep the player engaged. The game provides the player feedback on progress
toward the goal throughout the game play. Because the computer game’s outcome is uncertain, this keeps the
player engaged and motivated. When a player is challenged and succeeds through the struggle, a player’s self-
esteem can increase, as long as the computer game’s feedback is constructive and supports learning. An optimal
challenge should be neither too difficult nor too easy.
Fantasy: Malone defines fantasy as the “mental images” the players create based on interacting with the
environment. The most effective fantasies in computer games are those which are more fully integrated with the
content to be learned (intrinsic). Incorporating intrinsic fantasies creates more engagement, which increases
memory of the material, because they may satisfy players’ emotional needs and help them learn skills within a
meaningful context. (An example that Malone describes is an Adventure game where players practice reading
maps, writing instructions, and feeling excited, puzzled, and triumphant as they proceed through it.)
Curiosity: Two types of curiosity are important to successful computer game creation—sensory and cognitive.
Sensory curiosity is activated by the aesthetics of the game (its look, sounds, feedback, authentic creation of a
world or event). Cognitive curiosity is activated by presenting opportunities for the player to better their
knowledge.[/sociallocker]
When a computer game is designed based on this framework, players are more motivated to play and learn[3]
.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (GOLEMAN)
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is defined as the ability to identify, assess, and control one’s own emotions, the
emotions of others, and that of groups.
• Daniel Goleman (1995)
• Howard Gardner (1983)
In the 1900s, even though traditional definitions of intelligence emphasized cognitive aspects such as memory and
problem-solving, several influential researchers in the intelligence field of study had begun to recognize the
importance of going beyond traditional types of intelligence (IQ). As early as 1920, for instance, E.L. Thorndike
described “social intelligence” as the skill of understanding and managing others. Howard Gardner in 1983
described the idea of multiple intelligences, in which interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the
intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand
oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations) helped explain performance outcomes.
The first use of the term “emotional intelligence” is often attributed to A Study of Emotion: Developing Emotional
Intelligence from 1985, by Wayne Payne. However, prior to this, the term “emotional intelligence” had appeared in
Leuner (1966). Stanley Greenspan (1989) also put forward an EI model, followed by Salovey and Mayer (1990), and

10. Daniel Goleman (1995). A distinction between emotional intelligence as a trait and emotional intelligence as an
ability was introduced in 2000.
Daniel Goleman’s model (1998) focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership
performance, and consists of five areas:
SELF-AWARENESS
Know one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals and recognize their impact on others while
using gut feelings to guide decisions.
SELF-REGULATION
Manage or redirect one’s disruptive emotions and impulses and adapt to changing circumstances.
SOCIAL SKILL
Manage other’s emotions to move people in the desired direction.
EMPATHY
Recognize, understand, and consider other people’s feelings especially when making decisions
MOTIVATION
Motivate oneself to achieve for the sake of achievement.
To Golman, emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on
and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman believes that individuals are born with a
general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies[3].
Emotional Intelligence is not always widely accepted in the research community. Goleman’s model of EI, for
instance, has been criticized in the research literature as being merely “pop psychology.” However, EI is still
considered by many to be a useful framework especially for businesses.
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING (KOLB)
A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic perspective that combines
experience, perception, cognition, and behavior.
• David A. Kolb (1939-)
KEY CONCEPTS
Building upon earlier work by John Dewey and Kurt Levin, American educational theorist David A. Kolb believes
“learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (1984, p. 38)[1].
The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages shown below.

11. One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence:
CONCRETE EXPERIENCE (OR “DO”)
The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a lab session
or field work.
REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION (OR “OBSERVE”)
The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously reflects back on that experience.
ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION (OR “THINK”)
The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory or model
of what is observed.
ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION (OR “PLAN”)
The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model or theory
or plan for a forthcoming experience.
Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The styles highlight conditions under which
learners learn better[3]. These styles are:
• assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to consider
• convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories
• accommodators, who learn better when provided with “hands-on” experiences
• divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information

12. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a motivational theory in
psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in
the form of a pyramid.
Abraham H. Maslow felt as though conditioning theories did not adequately capture the complexity of human
behavior. In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow presented the idea that human actions
are directed toward goal attainment[1]
. Any given behavior could satisfy several functions at the same time; for
instance, going to a bar could satisfy one’s needs for self-esteem and for social interaction.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchical pyramid with five levels. The four levels
(lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level of the pyramid is considered growth
needs. The lower level needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior. The levels are as
follows (see pyramid in Figure 1 below).
• Self-actualization – includes morality, creativity, problem solving, etc.
• Esteem – includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc.
• Belongingness – includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc.
• Safety – includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc.
• Physiological – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc.
Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid.

13. DEPRIVATION NEEDS
The first four levels are considered deficiency or deprivation needs (“D-needs”) in that their lack of satisfaction
causes a deficiency that motivates people to meet these needs. Physiological needs, the lowest level on the
hierarchy, include necessities such as air, food, and water. These tend to be satisfied for most people, but they
become predominant when unmet. During emergencies, safety needs such as health and security rise to the
forefront. Once these two levels are met, belongingness needs, such as obtaining love and intimate relationships
or close friendships, become important. The next level, esteem needs, include the need for recognition from
others, confidence, achievement, and self-esteem.
GROWTH NEEDS
The highest level is self-actualization, or the self-fulfillment. Behavior in this case is not driven or motivated by
deficiencies but rather one’s desire for personal growth and the need to become all the things that a person is
capable of becoming[2][3]
.
CRITICISMS
While a useful guide for generally understanding why students behave the way that they do and in determining
how learning may be affected by physiological or safety deficiencies, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has its share of
criticisms. Some critics have noted vagueness in what is considered a “deficiency”; what is a deficiency for one is
not necessarily a deficiency for another. Secondly, there seem to be various exceptions that frequently occur. For
example, some people often risk their own safety to rescue others from danger.
Classroom management
refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers use to keep students organized, orderly, focused,
attentive, on task, and academically productive during a class. When classroom-management strategies are
executed effectively, teachers minimize the behaviors that impede learning for both individual students and
groups of students, while maximizing the behaviors that facilitate or enhance learning. Generally speaking,
effective teachers tend to display strong classroom-management skills, while the hallmark of the inexperienced or
less effective teacher is a disorderly classroom filled with students who are not working or paying attention.
ANNOYING CLASSROOM DISTRACTIONS
How can a teacher prevent irritating classroom behaviors?
1. The students and teacher should first discuss and then write a "group" contract adopting acceptable classroom
rules and procedures by the end of the first week of school.
2. Periodically review the rules and procedures of the classroom until the students can successfully adhere to
them.
3. Use simple verbal reprimands when the misbehavior occurs. Make sure that they are to the point, moderate in
tone, and private (e.g., "Stop talking and work on your math problems, please").
4. Give praise to the entire class as frequently as possible (e.g., "Thank you for working so quietly, “or "I'm
delighted to see you all working so well today").
5. A student who continually exhibits an unacceptable behavior (e.g., out of his/her seat) might profit from an
"individualized" contract pinpointing the "desired" behavior (e.g., remaining in his/her seat) and delineating the
consequences (e.g., if goal is reached, then student will receive designated reward or recognition).

14. 6. Intervene as soon as possible in order to prevent the misbehavior from occurring (e.g., say "Harry, may I help
you with your assignment?" when the student begins to show signs of frustration).
7. Use facial expressions to convey to the student that the misbehavior was not totally overlooked. Circulate
around the room frequently, to avert potential behavior problems.
ANTAGONISM WITH AUTHORITY
What can be done to help students improve their interaction with authority figures?
1. Provide opportunities for students to change their hostile and aggressive energy into socially acceptable
channels such as sports, clubs, crafts, hobbies, etc.
2. Give students reading and/or writing assignments that deal with antagonistic behaviors, and ask them to
comment on different socially acceptable ways of handling conflict situations.
3. Praise the students whenever they are cooperating with other adults (e.g., "That was very kind of you to help
her find her keys").
4. Talk to the student in private to ascertain the reason for his/her misbehavior.
5. Provide the students with models of appropriate communicative behavior through role-playing activities.
6. Encourage students to strive for greater self-control in as many situations as possible.
7. Emphasize to students the difference that exists between acceptable communication in school and that which is
used at home and/or in the community.
8. Contact parents and/or administrators when there is no other way of resolving the conflict situation.
9. Refer the student to appropriate staff members (e.g., the Child Study Team, if the student frequently displays
uncontrollable verbal hostility). Keep anecdotal records to support your concerns.
ARGUMENTATIVE STUDENT
How can the teacher deal with a child who becomes argumentative upon confrontation?
1. Do not confront the student in a group situation.
2. Do not use an accusatory tone upon approaching the student.
3. Evaluate the situation that led to the confrontation.
4. Do not back the student into a corner. Leave room for options.

15. 5. Do not make threats that cannot be carried out.
6. Allow your emotions to cool before approaching the student.
7. Maintain the appearance of control at all times. Use a clear, firm voice.
8. Give the child an opportunity to speak his/her piece.
9. Allow for role-playing, doing role reversal.
10. Try to explore and discover what led to the confrontation. Avoid repeating these circumstances.
11. If you made an error, admit it!
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
What steps can be followed to resolve a child's constant mis behavior?
1. If possible, meet with the child and describe in exact terms the behavior you find unacceptable in the classroom.
2. During the discussion, explain the reason(s) why you find the behavior unacceptable.
3. Be sure the child understands that it is not he/she who is unacceptable, but rather the behavior.
4. Let the student know exactly what will happen if the problem continues.
5. If the misbehavior occurs again, follow through with the previously planned disciplinary action.
6. Throughout the process, keep the parents and the principal informed of the progress or lack of progress.
7. If the child continues to misbehave and you feel that you have utilized all of your options and resources, send
the child to the principal's office. Explain to the child that he/she is welcome to return when he/she is ready to
follow the classroom rules.
BOASTFUL, ATTENTION-SEEKING STUDENT
What can be done for a student who is constantly disrupting the class in order to gain the teacher's attention?
1. Give the student a position of responsibility in the classroom and encourage him/her to set a good example for
others (e.g., passing out papers).
2. Post a chart in the front of the room delineating the rules to be followed when responding. For example:
1.Raiseyour hand if you wish to talk.
2.Wait to be called on.
3.Listen while others talk.
3. Assign the student a special project of interest and let him/her present the report to the class.
4. Ignore the student's annoying comments, but give praise when the student describes his/her real achievements.
5. Assign the student to a small group in which he/she must participate primarily as a follower.
6. Provide recognition and positive attention whenever possible.
7. Model appropriate behavior every day for the student, so that he/she can see what is expected of him/her (e.g.,
role-playing by teacher and/or peers).

16. 8. Arrange parent conferences to discuss any factors that may be contributing to the student's problem in school
(e.g., sibling rivalry).
CALLING OUT IN CLASS - RESPONSE #l
What do you do with a student who calls out answers or comments during class?
1. Discuss your expectations with the class. Make up rules and consequences at the very beginning of the school
year.
2. Keep a frequency record in your grade book of the calling out, and increase the severity of the consequence in
direct proportion to the frequency of the "calling out."
3. With children in the middle grades and older, divide the class into two groups and make a game out of questions
and answers. Each team scores a point for each correct answer. If a team member calls out an answer out of turn,
that team loses a set amount of points.
4. Praise the student who does not call out, but waits to be called on.
5. Ignore the calling out. Do not acknowledge having heard it.
6. Use a strict behavior-modification program to lessen and ultimately extinguish this behavior.
7. Examine the reason for the calling out. Is it for attention? Do you tend to overlook calling on this student? Is the
calling out a result of an inability to sit still? Does this child have a learning disability? React to these symptoms
appropriately.
8. Contact the parents. Try an at-home reward system for good days (days in which calling outdid not occur). This
will involve sending a note home daily.
CALLING OUT IN CLASS - RESPONSE # 2
What can you do about children constantly calling out in class, even when they are supposed to be working quietly
at their seats?
1. Be sure that the students know what you expect of them concerning this problem. Describe what procedure you
want them to use to get your attention, and explain why they should not callout in class.
2. If students' calling out is a major problem, hold a class meeting and ask the children to make recommendations
for solving this problem. This would include the type of discipline to be used for the children who continue to
disturb the class by calling out.
3. Be consistent and persistent in disciplining the children who call out.
4. If a child communicates with you by calling out, make your only reaction one of displeasure and do not answer
the question or fulfill the request.
5. Tell the class that if calling out in class only occurs a certain number of times during the week, you will do
something special with them on Friday afternoon. Peer pressure is then utilized to solve the problem. In the weeks
that follow, calling out will lessen, as students anticipate the special Friday activity.

17. 6. Calling out may be motivated by the student's enthusiasm, or by the fear that he/she will forget what he/she
wanted to say. Have students keep a pad and pencil on their desk to write down a thought they might forget. That
way they can refer to it when they finally get called upon. Be sure to give everyone a chance to answer something -
- even the slower thinking students!
CLASS CLOWN
How can you deal effectively with a "class clown"?
1. Let the student know in private how you feel about his/her unacceptable behavior, and explain what is expected
of him/her. Try to form a trusting relationship with this student. Listen to his/her feelings and expectations. Try to
channel his/her talent for humor into something more productive, such as creating a class play or dramatic skit.
2. If you think it would be beneficial, try role-playing with this student. Give him/her the role of the teacher who is
trying to teach a lesson. You take on the role of the class clown and exhibit the same behaviors that he/she does in
class. This may be a learning experience for the entire class!
3. Explain to the student that the solution to his/her problem is his/her responsibility as well as yours. However, if
the "class clown" behavior continues and it affects the level of learning for the rest of the class, then the
responsibility for the solution will lie with him/her and the administration.
4. Try to find the curriculum areas in which the student is interested. Give him/her some independent work in
these areas and observe any change in behavior.
5. Let the child gain the attention of the class in such a way that it has a positive effect on the class. The student
could conduct mini-lessons, lead study groups, assist students, or make other contributions that will benefit the
entire class.
6. Ask for the assistance of a counselor to investigate various possible reasons for the child's need to be the "class
clown."
DEMANDING STUDENTS
How do you cope with a child who demands your constant attention?
1. Give this child a special job to show that you care about and have confidence in him/her.
2. Make this child the captain or leader whenever possible.
3. Play games that nourish self-confidence. For example, try the Circle Game: Have children sit in a circle and take
turns naming someone in the circle who has done something to help or to make him/her feel good.
4. Use personal evaluation sheets. These can be as simple or as complex as you desire. In this way, you can help
children express feelings and recognize their own strengths/weaknesses in a non-threatening atmosphere.
5. Provide a wide variety of classroom experiences. Familiarity breeds self-confidence!
6. Implement a buddy system for this child.
7. Check into the home environment. See what is motivating this dependency.
8. Frequently assign this child simple, easy tasks that allow for success.
9. Provide self-correcting tasks so that the child may see his/her own errors first hand.
10. Videotape your class in action and let the student (as well as the other students) actually see how he/she
interacts in class.
FAILURE TO ASK FOR HELP
What can you do about a student who fails to ask for help with matters he/she does not fully understand in the
curriculum or in the classroom in general?

18. 1. For various reasons, the student may not feel comfortable or confident about asking questions in certain
classroom settings. Have an individual conference with the student to discuss the problem. Work together to
develop possible solutions.
2. If the student does not feel comfortable asking questions in the classroom setting, have him/her write the
questions on a piece of paper or a 3x5 card. Then, when time permits, meet with the child individually to review
the questions, or provide general answers to the class if you think others may have the same questions.
3. Designate other students in the classroom as resource persons, who can meet with the student and offer
assistance. The student may be more apt to ask for help from a peer than from the teacher.
4. Consider having the child evaluated by the Child Study Team for a possible learning disability or a health
problem (poor hearing, poor vision, etc.).
5. Check to see whether the student exhibits this behavior in other classrooms. If he/she does not, you may want
to focus on the way you relate to this student.
6. If available and practical, utilize the services of a counselor to assist the child in overcoming his/her reluctance to
express him/herself in class.
7. Create a chart listing all students, and give recognition to those who ask questions in class. Emphasize that
asking a question indicates intelligence, not stupidity.
HYPERACTIVITY - SHIFT IN ATTENTION
What can be done for students who frequently shift their attention and/or interests in class?
1. Assign the student some type of classroom responsibility that he/she looks forward to doing(e.g., collecting
completed work, delivering messages, etc.).
2. Carefully arrange the student's work area to minimize classroom distractions (e.g., study carrels, room
partitions, etc.).
3. Plan individual and/or group lessons that foster the development of analytical abilities in your students (e.g., a
step-by-step approach to solving everyday problems).
4. Refer the student to a specialist and/or school nurse to check on visual and auditory deficits.
5. Provide your students with firm but fair classroom rules. Make sure you consistently adhere to the
consequences of breaking rules.
6. Use social reinforcers frequently and as soon as possible (e.g., physical nearness or contact, a smile or frown,
etc.).
7. Prepare a variety of short lessons to maximize student attention and participation (e.g., manipulation exercises
of 15 to 20 minutes in duration).
8. Make suggestions to parents about the possible use of various nutritional diets (e.g., the Feingold diet).
9. Regularly incorporate "relaxation" techniques into the daily classroom routine. Use them whenever the student
is in need of them.
HYPERACTIVITY AND DISTRACTABILITY
How do you manage the "hyper" student and the student whose ability to screen out irrelevant stimuli is limited?
1. Employ hands-on activities.
2. Eliminate as many environmental distractions as possible.
3. Establish a well-defined work area for the child. This will help to limit outside activities that would detract from
his/her concentration.

19. 4. Use classroom aids such as headphones, tachistoscope, videos, etc. Provide for controlled exposures.
5.Pace activities realistically.
6. Incorporate gross motor skills into activities whenever possible.
7. Use bilateral activities, using hands and eyes in the lesson.
8. Make an obstacle course and have the students move through it at varying paces.
9. Use a timer. When the timer stops, students may have a short break. Never use a timer to speed up work, for it
will cause tension and frustration rather than increase skill.
10. Use a "time-out" period to reward a hyperactive child who has spent time doing correct activities.
LACK OF MOTIVATION - RESPONSE 1
What do you do with students who lack motivation, have a very negative attitude toward school, and come to class
unprepared?
1. Do everything possible to make sure the physical needs of the student have been met. Has he/she eaten
breakfast? Had enough rest? Can he/she see the board clearly, hear clearly, etc.?
2. Make your classroom interesting and stimulating to the students. Make your lessons inviting and challenging, so
students are interested in finding out what comes next!
3. Show your students that you take an interest in them. Show that you like them and that they belong in your
classroom.
4. Make your lesson an experience that will allow the student to gain self-esteem because he/she is successful.
5. Make goals that are challenging, but attainable.
6. Take advantage of the student's interests and formulate some lessons around them.
7. When developing practice worksheets, use the students' names and some things you know about them to teach
a concept (e.g., "Susan expressed her enjoyment regarding her trip to Disney World “when identifying parts of
speech).
8. Send home weekly reports to parents. Encourage parents to reward their children for high motivation.
9. Use the concept of students' working together to encourage one another (e.g., cooperative learning groups).
10. Have students chart their own behavior for a week.
LACK OF MOTIVATION - RESPONSE 2
What methods can be used to motivate students and increase their interest in learning?
1. Use incentives in the classroom to reinforce motivation toward accomplishment (e.g., prizes, stars, or other
rewards for completing assignments on time).
2. Get to know each child as an individual, to gain insight into his/her strengths and interests.
3. Hold monthly conferences with students to discuss their work habits, motivation, behavior, etc.
4. Have a real purpose in the school work you assign to your students. Make sure that it relates to their needs.
5. Assist the student in setting realistic goals.
6. Don't always point out errors in a student's work, but show how the finished product can be improved.
7. Provide editing time when you work one-on-one with students to perfect their creative work.
8. Show enthusiasm when you teach. The teacher is the key to motivation in the classroom.

20. 9. Develop special projects for the child whose interests have not yet been tapped by the school routine.
10. Give special recognition through "Student of the Month" or "Star for the Day" designations.
LACK OF RESPECT
What do you do with students who show a lack of respect for adults, peers, their belongings, and the property of
others?
1. The teacher should practice the 3 R's: Respect, Responsibility, and Reciprocity.
2. Role-play situations where there is lack of respect. For example: Someone fails a test and others make fun of
that person. Follow with group analysis and discussion of the situation and alternative actions.
3. Clearly state the reasons for respecting other people’s property. Publicly acknowledge those who demonstrate
respect for others' property, so their peers can model their behavior.
4. Show videos dealing with respect and then discuss them. See Guidance Associates materials. Obtain materials
from your county audio library.
5. Don't make unrealistic requests, dictate rules without explanations, or give an ultimatum that presents students
with a boundary they might be tempted to cross because they feel it is unreasonable.
6. Listen to each student. Never assume that you know what the student is going to say to explain his/her actions.
7. Show that even though, as the teacher, you are in charge of the class, you respect the student and expect
respect in return.
8. Never make idle, sarcastic threats (e.g., "How many times have I told you to sit down? I am going to have to take
away your recess time for the semester unless you behave.")
NEGATIVE RESPONSE TO REQUESTS AN DRULES
What can you do when you are confronted with students who are negative about rational requests and/or rules?
1. Try to use these guidelines when establishing classroom rules:
a) Involve your class in making up the rules.
b) State the rules positively.
c) Keep rules brief and to the point.
d) Review rules periodically with the class.
2. Arrange private conferences with students to discuss the problem in depth.
3. Ask the student(s) to write down the disturbing behavior in a class logbook. Have them write some appropriate
alternative ways of responding to negativity, for future reference.
4. Give students choices, in order to minimize negative reactions (e.g., "Would you rather stay an extra ten
minutes and finish the exercise before lunch, or go to lunch now and finish it when you come back?").
5. Try to have frequent, positive interaction in the class (e.g., praise, group projects, discussions, etc.).
6. Make sure students clearly understand what is expected from them. (In some cases, it's the student's confusion
that causes oppositional behavior.)
7. Handle difficult students individually outside the classroom, so that there is less chance that others will get
involved.
8. Contact the parents, the principal, and/or the counselor to discuss the student's inappropriate behavior.
When we start from this vantage point, classroom management -- and its flip side, student engagement -- comes
more easily. It's an outgrowth of students feeling loved and respected.
1. Love your Students

21. Love them -- and stand firmly against behavior that doesn't meet your expectations or reflect their inner greatness.
Too many students have internalized a profound sense of their own inadequacy, and it is incumbent upon us to
remind them of their infinite value and counteract the many messages that they receive to the contrary. By loving
our students unconditionally, we remind them of their true worth.
Our students know how we feel about them. If we don't like them -- or if we see them as a behavior problem --
they know it. Even if we don't say it, they will know it. And then that student is justified in resenting us, for we
have failed to see the beauty that exists within that child. Maya Angelou said, "I've learned that people will forget
what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel."
2. Assume the Best in Your Students
If a student chose not to meet one of my classroom expectations, they needed to know that I loved them but not
their misbehavior. They needed to know that I cared for them and would not accept their poor choice because it
would ultimately hurt them and didn't reflect how wonderful they truly are.
For instance, a minute and a half into the first day, I gave one student a verbal warning for whispering to another
student as he was searching for his seat. Assuming the best in this young man, I told him, “I know you were
probably talking about your seat, but you can't even talk about that, so that's your verbal warning. Go back to your
seat and silently start your work." By assuming that he was trying to do the right thing -- find his assigned seat -- I
affirmed that he wanted to meet the expectations. And yet I was firm with him that his choice to whisper after he
had been told to silently begin his work was not OK. Similarly, at the end of class, I kept behind a student who was
sighing to herself over the course of the period. By letting her know that I wouldn’t accept her subtle expressions
of boredom or frustration, I also let her know that I thought she was great and her expressions of negativity
wouldn't fly because they'd hurt our collective learning environment -- and because they didn’t square with the
wonderful person I knew her to be.
3. Praise What and When You Can
Call attention to the things your students are doing that meet your expectations. The power of this is stunning for
a number of reasons. Here are two:

22. • It enables you to restate and reinforce the expectations for student behavior in a non-negative way. By
narrating on-task behavior, you enable students who may have misheard you the first time to hear exactly
what you expect of them. It's easier for students to meet your expectations when it's amply clear what those
expectations are.
• It shows your students that you're with it, that you're very aware of what's happening in the classroom. When
they see and hear that you see and hear pretty much everything, they know that you mean business and that
even their smallest actions matter.
4. Do Sweat the Small Stuff
In those first few minutes, hours and days in the classroom, you are essentially creating a world. And you want a
world in which students do things that will keep them or put them on a path to a life replete with meaningful
opportunities. Behaviors or actions that will detract from that world should be nipped in the bud. If you only
"sweat" major misbehaviors, students will get the sense that minor misbehaviors are OK. If, on the other hand, you
lovingly confront even the smallest misbehaviors, then it will be clear to students that, inside the four walls of your
classroom, things that detract from what you're trying to achieve – even in small ways – just don’t fly.
5. Identify Yourself
Tell your students about who you are and why you're there. A classroom where each student deeply trusts the
teacher has the potential to be a great environment for learning. To build that trust, tell your students who you are
and why you chose to be a teacher. Tell them about your background, what you did when you were their age, and
why you want to be their teacher. The more your students know about you and your intentions, the more they'll
trust you to lead them.
6. Forge a Class Identity
Begin the year by forging a positive, collective identity as a class. During the first few days, I often complimented
my classes as a collective. For instance, I'd say something like, "Period 3, everyone I’m looking at is meeting
expectations." In many instances, I praised the entire class so that they began to feel they were part of something
special in that room. They began feeling a sense of pride at being members of Period 3.

23. Conversely, I often chose to redirect individual students rather than the whole class. Instead of saying, “Period 3,
I'm tired of hearing you talking when you shouldn’t be" -- which would introduce an oppositional tone, creating a
divide between teacher and students -- I found more success correcting students individually.
7. Have a Plan
Your lesson plans need to be crystal clear. You need to begin each day with clarity about what students should
know and be able to do by the end of the class period, and every second of your day should be purposefully
moving you toward that end.
In addition to clarity about student knowledge and achievement, you should have a clear sense of the behavior
you expect at each point in the class period. When you see them making the choice to behave as you expect them
to, narrate it. And when you don't see it, confront those misbehaviors clearly, directly and with love.