Peace Education Manual-UNAC

Peace Education Manual:
Exploring Conflict/Exploring Peace
Created By:
Unification Aid Committee Team
Lauren Brunner
Unification Aid Committee
Buduburam Refugee Camp
PO Box 46 State House
Accra, Ghana

Table of Contents
Section I: Exploring Conflict
A. What is Conflict?
B. What can Conflict be?
C. Levels of Conflict
D. Causes of Conflict
E. What is Violence?
F. Escalation of Conflict
G. Conflict Theories
H. Reactions towards Conflict
I. Stages of Conflict
J. Ways of Managing Conflict
Section 2: Analyzing Conflict
A. What is Conflict Analysis?
B. Ways of Analyzing Conflict
Section 3: Issues Pertaining to Conflict
A. Power
B. Culture
C. Identity
D. Gender
E. Human Rights
Section 4: Exploring Peace
A. What is Peace?
B. Peace Interventions
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C. Peacebuilding Theories
Section 5: Pathways towards Peace
A. Prevention
B. Active Nonviolence
C. Reconstruction
D. Forgiveness
E. Reconciliation
F. Social Change
References
Appendixes
Copyright @ 2006 Buduburam Liberian Refugee Camp, Accra, Ghana
PEACE EDUCATION MANUAL
Section 1: EXPLORING CONFLICT
A. What is Conflict?
Definition: a relationship between two or more parties (individuals or groups) who
have, or think they have incompatible goals (Fisher et. all, 2000, p. 4).
-goals can be incompatible or
-goals can be the same, but means of achieving goals are incompatible
B. What can Conflict be?
 conflict can be real (actual oppression and discrimination) or perceived (a party
believes that the other party is oppressing and discriminating)
 conflict can be good (conflict is intensified intentionally to create awareness,
change, empowerment) or bad (conflict escalates in which harm such as
mistrust, miscommunication, oppression, and violence increases)
 conflict can be open (all parties are aware of and participating in conflict) or
latent (conflict is suppressed or hidden within one or more of the parties)
C. Levels of Conflict
INTRA-PERSONAL: Conflict within the self regarding values, beliefs, choices,
etc.
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INTER-PERSONAL: Conflict between individuals or family members
INTER-GROUP: Conflict between groups of individuals; power differential
between groups may be large or small
INTER-COMMUNAL: Conflict between large identity groups allied through
territory or political history
INTERNATIONAL: Conflict between or among nations
-Adapted from the Karuna Center for Peacebuilding, 2001, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 1, p. 3
D. Causes of Conflict
1. Differences in goals
2. Perception that goals are different
3. Same goals, different means of achieving goals
4. Competition over limited resources
5. Unequal or unfair power, authority, or control over resources
6. Lack of voice or representation
7. Aggressive and violent behaviors
8. Differences in opinions, beliefs, or values
9. Differences in interpretation of information or behaviors
10. Lack of information
11. Differences in communication styles
12. Lack of or poor communication
13. Refusal of acknowledging mistakes or weaknesses-“saving face”
14. Emotions: Fear, Anger, Resentment, Betrayal
15. Cultural Differences
16. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination-unequal treatment of individuals
based on identity
-Adapted from Robert Harris, Ed., 2005, pp. 7-8
E. What is Violence?
Definition: consists of actions, words, attitudes, structures or systems that cause
physical, psychological, social or environmental damage and/or prevent
people from reaching their full human potential (Fisher et. al, 2000, p. 4).
F. Escalation of Conflict
Contentious Tactics: measure used by one party against the other party in order to
gain a preferred outcome. In other words, “Party seeks to impose its preferred
solution on Other”. ‘Party’ usually imposes this solution through force or persuasion.
This force or persuasion is to get ‘Other’ to yield to ‘Party’s’ desires. (Pruitt, D.G., &
Kim, S.H., 2004, p. 63)
Categories of Contentious Tactics
Light Tactics: consequences of tactics on ‘Other’ is favorable or neutral
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Heavy Tactics: consequences of tactics on ‘Other’ are costly or threatened to be costly
-Conflict escalates in which ‘Party’ begins using ‘light’ tactics and then moves onto
‘heavy’ tactics as conflict progresses. ‘Party’ starts using ‘light’ tactics in order to
look like a ‘good’ or ‘reasonable’ person to ‘Other’ as well as to bystanders. ‘Party’
only resorts to ‘heavy’ tactics if ‘Other’ does not concede to ‘light’ tactics.
Types of Contentious Tactics
Ingratiation: ‘Party’ prepares to exploit ‘Other’ by making itself attractive to ‘Other’.
‘Party’ uses ‘Other’s’ ignorance of ‘Party’s’ plan to employ this tactic. If
‘Other’ sees ‘Party’s’ ultimate design, this tactic will not work effectively.
3 Ways ‘Party’ Makes Itself Attractive:
-through flattery and complimenting ‘Other’
-through expressing or pretending to agree with viewpoints of ‘Other’
-through expressing or pretending to have virtues that ‘Other’ finds
attractive
Promises: ‘Party’ informs ‘Other’ that ‘Party’ will reward ‘Other’ if ‘Other’ confirms
to ‘Party’s’ wishes
Promises are most effective when:
- the reward for ‘Other’ is greater than the consequence for ‘Other’ to
fulfill ‘Party’s’ wishes
-the promises of ‘Party’ are credible: ‘Party is both able and willing to
provide reward if ‘Other’ complies and ‘Party’ is both able and
willing to withhold reward if ‘Other’ does not comply
-‘Party’ has sufficient ability to determine whether ‘Other’ complies
Persuasive Argumentation: “technique in whereby ‘Party’ induces ‘Other’ to lower its
aspirations through a series of logical appeals” (Pruitt &
Kim, 2004, p. 68
2 Ways to Persuade:
-‘Party’ convinces ‘Other’ that ‘Party’ has the right to ‘Party’s’
favorable outcome (ie. “If you don’t give me the money, I may die
from not receiving proper treatment. I have should be granted the
ability to live.”)
-‘Party’ convinces ‘Other’ that it is in ‘Other’s’ interest to lower
‘Other’s’ aspirations (ie. “If you give me the money to open my own
soap business, I will be able to make you lots of soap.)
Shaming: ‘Party’ causes ‘Other’ to feel “global condemnation” of the self by publicly
announcing ‘Other’s’ faults or weaknesses
Tit-For-Tat: ‘Party’ rewards ‘Other’ for complying with ‘Party’s’ wishes and
punish ‘Other’ when ‘Other’ does not comply
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Threats: ‘Party’ announces to ‘Other’ that ‘Party’ has the intention of hurting ‘Other’
if ‘Other’ does not comply with ‘Party’s’ desires (ie. “If you do not
conform to my wishes, I will punish you.”)
Coercive Commitments: ‘Party’ has already begun to punish ‘Other’ and refuses to
stop punishing ‘Other’ until ‘Other’ concedes
Violence: See Definition P. 3
2 Types of Violence Regarding Contentious Tactics
-Instrumental Violence: violence is induced by ‘Party’ as a means to
an end. ‘Party’ creates violence in order to advance the conflict in
which inducing violence gives ‘Party’ desired steps towards ‘Party’s’
ultimate goal.
-Emotional Violence: violence is induced by ‘Party’ as an end in itself.
Violence induced by ‘Party’ gives ‘Party’ immediate satisfaction of
releasing anger, hostility, and/or desire of revenge towards ‘Other’
Active Nonviolence: ‘Party’ exerts tactics of resistance and power against ‘Other’,
without the use of violence, in order to get ‘Other’ to concede. In
active nonviolence, ‘Party’ is usually dominated by ‘Other’, and
‘Party’s’ use of tactics is to challenge the status quo and/or
change and unfair social system.
See P. 24 for more Information
-Adapted from Pruitt, D.G., & Kim, S.H., 2004
Conflict Spiral: Contending parties begin eliciting higher levels of harmful and
destructive tactics to one another as conflict progresses. As conflict spirals in an
upward and onward direction, more and more deception, threats, manipulation, and
coercion are employed.
Tactics = actions taken by one party to create harm to the other party. Actions can
include lying, cheating, stealing, manipulating, blaming, name-calling, hitting,
destruction, etc.
Example of Conflict Spiral: Party A calls Party B a name thus,
Party B ruins Party A’s carpet thus,
Party A sets Party B’s couch on fire thus,
Party B sets Party A’s house on fire thus,
Party A punches Party B in the nose thus,
Party B shoots Party A.
G. Conflict Theories
1. Human Needs Theory
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-conflict caused by unmet human needs
Types of Needs:
1. Material-food, water, clothing, safety, health
2. Psychological-competency, autonomy, confidence, esteem
3. Social-respect, belonging, love, relationships
4. Cultural-identity, religion, cultural traditions
*See attachment 1
2. Identity Theory
-conflict caused by threatened identity
Aspects of Identity:
1. Nationality 6. Physical Ability
2. Ethnicity 7. Cultural Background
3. Gender 8. Family Status
4. Sexual Orientation 9. Financial Status
5. Age 10. Talents/Hobbies (ie. Pianist)
*Aspects of identity can be categorized into individual and collective
identities. These categories are not fixed in which each aspect can belong to
either category, depending on the situation
Individual-hobbies, roles at home, physical ability
Collective-nationality, ethnicity, culture
3. Intercultural Miscommunications
-conflict caused by differences in communication style due to cultural
background
4. Community Relations
-conflict caused by mistrust and hostility between two or more groups
within the same community
5. “Us vs. Them”
-two or more groups form due to differences
-formation of miscommunication and mistrust
-more differences than similarities are seen
-misperceptions of other groups needs and intent
-needs of other group are not seen
-dehumanization
H. Reactions towards Conflict
Competition-(Win-Lose) Trying to overcome the other through power
Used when:
-quick decisions must be made
-the other party takes advantage of noncompetitive behavior
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Disadvantages:
-does not allow for exploration of other approaches
-other party loses, goals achieved at expense of others
Accommodation-(Lose-Win) Party forgoes own needs and concerns for those of
other party
Used when:
-party recognized that he/she is wrong
-preservation of harmony and avoidance of disruption are of utmost
Importance
Disadvantages:
-sacrifices party’s point of view
-does not allow for exploration of other approaches
Avoidance-(Lose-Win) Sidestepping the issues, do-nothing approach
Used when:
-issues are not very important
-to postpone action in order to collect more information
Disadvantages:
-restricts input of problem
-solution is temporary
Compromise-(Win/Lose-Win/Lose) Give up something, but not everything, Parties
meet each others desires half-way
Used when:
-concerns of both parties are too important
-temporary solution is needed
-relationship is important
Disadvantages:
-can lose sight of the larger issue at hand due to figuring out
compromising strategies
-solution is temporary
Collaboration (Win/Win) Problem solving behavior, everyone wins to a full degree
Used when:
-concerns of both parties are too important to be compromised
-relationships are important
-exploring multiple options are important
Disadvantages:
-lengthy, time-consuming
-high stress involved in developing trust between parties
I. Stages of Conflict
1. Pre-Conflict
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-incompatibility of goals arises between parties, tension arises, parties tend
to wish to avoid each other conflict is latent, parties are
aware of potential future confrontation
2. Confrontation
-conflict becomes open and at least one of the parties are certain there is a
problem at hand, at least one of the parties begins confrontational behavior,
some fighting and low levels of violence may occur, parties begin to form
alliances
3. Crisis
-full blown conflict, tension and violence most intense, outright accusations
between the parties, communication has broken down between parties
4. Outcome
-outcome of conflict occurs whether one party defeats the other, parties
come to an agreement, or one party surrenders to the other
5. Post-Conflict
-violence and tension have ended, normal relationships between parties are
restored, issues of conflict may have been addressed-if not, the cycle may
begin again
-Adapted from Fisher et al, 2000, p. 19
J. Ways of Managing Conflict
Conflict Prevention-aims to prevent the outbreak of violent conflict
Conflict Management-stopping present violence/avoiding future violence by finding
and immediate solution, main goal is to stop violence, building
relationships not of focus
 Force: usually violence to end violence
 Arbitration: both parties have the freedom to choose a third party to intervene
and have the freedom whether to abide by third party’s
recommendations
 Adjudication: third party, usually a judge, intervenes and has all of the authority
to make decisions, conflict parties have no say in outcome
Conflict Resolution-coping with conflict by getting to the root of the conflict and
by changing relationships, communication between parties
 Negotiation: enabling conflicting parties to discuss possible problem-solving
options face to face
-parties recognize their interdependency
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-parties are willing to work together
-parties are able to establish enough power balance to problem-
solve
-parties are able to cooperate
-parties use persuasive communication tactics but resist
manipulation and domination
-parties are able to establish ground rules
-parties do not use force but do not use avoidance
-parties offer suggestions and offers without losing face
2 Types of Negotiation
1. Competitive Negotiation-each party is trying to maximize gain and
minimize loss; parties have no concerns
regarding future relationships with each
other (Win/Lose)
2. Collaborative Negotiation-each party works towards addressing the
needs of both the self and the other party
in which both parties attempt to
maximize joint benefits, relationship is
valued
-Adapted from Wilmot & Hocker, 2001
 Mediation:use of a third party to bring conflicting parties together to enable
them to form their own agreement and resolution, goal is to find a
settlement
Mediator’s Role
-Facilitates communication
-Does not make suggestions or decisions
-Plays a neutral roles
-Controls mediation process-discourages negative behaviors from
parties
When best to use mediation rather than negotiation
-other problem solving approaches have not worked
-parties are more prepared to negotiate
-there are multiple issues to discuss
-there are many options available to resolve conflict
-there is not a great imbalance of power between conflicting
parties
-relationship is important
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Mediation Process
*See attachment 2
Conflict Transformation-utilizing the wider social and political causes of conflict to
cope with conflict, negative energy is
transformed/changed into social change
 Active Listening-listening with the intent to understand and reflect what
the speaker is expressing
Methods of Active Listening
1. Reflecting-restating the words that the speaker just spoken
“What you said is….” “You are saying that…..”
2. Validating-indicating that the listener respects and values what
the speaker is expressing
“Of course” “It’s okay to think that” “Thank you for sharing”
3. Reframing-taking an idea or concept of what the speaker expressed
and stating the central theme back to the speaker
“It sounds as though you really miss her”
4. Empathy-Listener puts self in the speaker’s shoes and expresses
to the speaker the speaker’s emotions and feelings
5. Summarizing-Listener makes a brief presentation of all of what
the speaker expressed
-Adapted from Sofia Rose-Marie Vrdlund, 2005
 Questioning-part of the active listening process used to:
-gather information about the speaker
-show the speaker that the listener understands
-encourage speaker to generate more ideas
Methods of Questioning
1. Open-used to receive a broad range of information from the
answer “What do you think should be done?”
2. Closed-yes/no question used to receive direct answers for
clarification “Did you tell him?”
3. Focus-used to receive specific and relevant information
“How long will it last for?”
4. Leading-a statement where the answer is embedded in the
question “Don’t you think women and children should be
protected?”
-Adapted from Sofia Rose-Marie Vrdlund, 2005
 Dialogue-actively engaging in two-way conversation for the purposes of
gaining a mutual understanding
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Involves:
-active listening -expressing oneself
-sharing of personal stories -clarifying viewpoints
-understanding -focusing on
relationships
-building tolerance of others -trying new behaviors
-helping participants find a common ground
-inviting participants to be changed by the process
-new and unexpected responses to complex problems
Does not Involve:
-arguing viewpoints -always agreeing
-debating -using contentious tactics
-premature solutions
-polarization or hard fixed positions
7 Principles of Dialogue
1. Create Safe Space
2. Agree that the Purpose is Learning
3. Use Appropriate Communication Skills
4. Surface what is Hidden
5. Focus on the Relationship
6. Stay through the Hard Places
7. Be Willing to be Changed by the Situation
-Institute of Multi-Track Diplomacy, 1993, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 3, p. 3
5 Models for Good Dialogue
1. SEEK TRUTH-seek truth, do not try to make accommodations
for the sake of peace and justice
2. AVOID PANACEAS-do not try to solve the entire problem or
find a magic solution
3. NEVER TRY TO MANIPULATE OTHER PARTY-don’t try to
force the other party to see it your way
4. KEEP WHOLE SOCIETY IN MIND-you must be willing to
move out of your own viewpoint to consider others’
within your society
5. FIRST STEP- realize that dialogue is only the first step towards
action
-Adapted from Jonathan Kuttab, The Pitfalls of Dialogue, 1998, Conflict Resolution Notes, Vol15, No. 3,
found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 3, pp. 5-6
Section 2: ANALYZING CONFLICT
A. What is conflict analysis?
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Definition: a practical process of examining and understanding the reality of the
conflict from a variety of perspectives in which strategies can be
developed and actions can be planned (Fisher et. al, 2000, p. 17).
B. Ways of analyzing conflict
1. Recognize Causes of Conflict
a) Psycho-Social
+ Enemy Images + Greed
+ Misperceptions + Trauma
+ Prejudice + Identity
+ Fear + Ego
b) Structural
+ Culture + Military Structure
+ Resources/Land + Ideology
+ Gender Roles
*If you keep a system of injustice and inequality, violence will occur
2. Determine Type of Conflict
Intractable=Never Ending, Unmovable, Stuck
Tractable=Movement Possible
Intractable:
Lasted long time, often more than one generation
Leaders believe goals are incompatible
Certain Groups have a stake in the continuation of conflict
De-humanization and disconnection
Tractable:
Find common ground in interests and identity
Recognize minimal rights and recognize needs on the other side
Humanization and connection
Stalemate sufficiently hurts both sides
Consideration on nonviolent methods of conflict resolution
-Unknown Source, Karuna Center for Peacebuilding, 2005, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 1, p. 6
3. Develop Specific Tools for Analyzing Conflict
a) TIMELINE
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Definition: graphic representation on events plotted against time
Purpose: To understand the perceptions of each conflicting party of
how and when things occurred. Timeline is to be ‘subjective’
in which it represents parties’ viewpoints, not ‘objective’ in
which the timeline is represented exactly how things occurred
Uses: +To prompt discussion and learning
+To help each party understand each others’ perceptions
whether they agree with each other or not
-Adapted from Fisher et al, 2000, pp. 20-21
b) CONFLICT MAPPING
Definition: graphic representation of conflicting parties in relation to
each other and to the issues at hand
Purpose: +To gain an understanding of each party’s perception of the
conflict
+To determine as a third party where and how to enter into
the conflict
How to Map: 1) Choose a particular moment in a particular situation
2) Decide who the main parties in the conflict are
3) Decide what other parties are involved: marginalized
groups, external parties, alliances, etc.
4) Decide how each party is connected to each other and how
they can be represented on a map (ex. Strong relationships
= double straight line, fair relationship = one straight line,
broken relationship = zigzag line)
5) Decide how the key issue should be represented on the map
Party A ------------------------------- Party B =============== Party C
Party D
-Adapted from Fisher, et. al, 2000, p. 23
c) ONION
Definition: graphic representation of the positions, interests, and needs
of each of the parties involved in conflict
Positions-that which we publicly announce as the achievements
we wish to gain (Top Peel of Onion)
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Interests-the underlying achievements we truly wish to gain
(Underlying Peel of Onion)
Needs-human needs that must be satisfied (Core of Onion)
Purpose: + to move beyond each party’s public position and to
understand their underlying needs and interests
+ to find a common ground between/among each conflicting
party
“In more volatile or dangerous situations, when there is mistrust between people, we may want to
keep our basic needs hidden…actions may no longer come directly from needs. People may look at
the more collective and abstract level of interests and base their actions on these. When those
interests are under attack, they may take up and defend a position that is still further removed from
their basic needs.” (Fisher et al, 2000, p. 28).
-Adapted from Fisher et. al, 2000, p. 28
d) TREE
Definition: graphic representation of causes and effects of the core
issue of the conflict
Purpose: + To discuss causes and effects of a conflict and to help the
parties agree on a core problem
+ To help parties decide about priorities for addressing the issue
+ To relate causes and effects to each other
How to Create a Tree:
1) Draw a picture of a tree including roots, trunk, and several
branches
2) List the core problem/issue on the trunk
3) Write several root causes of the problem on the roots
4) Write several effects of the problem on the branches
5) Discuss both causes and effects to see if you wish to make
changes
Position
Interest
Needs
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e) FORCE-FIELD
Definition: graphic representation of positive and negative forces in a
conflict
Purpose: + To identify forces that both hinder and help a plan of action
towards addressing conflict
+ To assess the strength of each of these forces and our abilities
to influence them
+ To determine ways of increasing or decreasing forces
How to Create a Force-Field:
1) Name specific action you wish to take to address conflict or
change you would like to see occur-Write on top of page
2) Draw a line down the center of the page
3) List forces that support your objective on the left side of the
line. Next to each force, draw an arrow pointing towards the
center of the line. Each line will vary in length or thickness
according to the strength of each force.
4) List forces that hinder your objective on the right side of the
line. Next to each force, draw an arrow pointing towards the
center of the line. Each line will vary in length or thickness
according to the strength of each force.
Objective: Peaceful Elections
Public Opinion ------> Infighting between NGO’s
Peace Committees <-------- Provocateurs in the Police
National Leadership Resistance in the Army
f) PYRAMID
Definition: graphic representation of levels in which stake-holders occupy
Purpose: + To identify key actors and leaders at each level
+ To decide where to intervene in a conflict and which
approaches towards conflict may work best
+ To identify potential allies at each level
Levels: 1-Top Leaders: Military, Political, International Organizations
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2-Middle Leaders: Religious Leaders, Academic Leaders
3-Lower Leaders: Local Leaders, Community Workers
--
Section 3: ISSUES PERTAINING TO CONFLICT
A. Power
Types of Power
Distributive Power-an individual or group goes against the resistance of
another, usually through force and aggression, in order
to accomplish an objective
Integrative Power-one party shares power with the other party in order to
achieve mutually acceptable goals
Designated Power-parties place the power within the relationship rather
than within themselves, power is not designated to any
persons or groups
Power Orientations
Top
Military/Political/
Government/Inter
national
NGO’s/Religious
Middle
Sector Leaders/NGO
Leaders/Religious/
Professionals/ Ethnic
Lower
Local Leaders/Elders/
Community Workers/
Health Officials/
Activists
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Either/Or Power-contest of wills, one trying to go against the other’s will in
order to gain power, each party believes that the other
party has more power thus each party tries to win power
from the other party
Both/And Power-sharing power with one another in order to find solutions,
relationship is important
Power Denial-parties refusing to accept that power is an issue involved
within their conflict, refusal of exercising power, some
parties even refuse to talk about power
4 Ways to Deny that You Exercise Power
1. Deny that you are doing the communication.
“Being drunk makes me act this way.”
2. Deny that something was communicated.
“Did I really say that? I forgot that I said that.”
3. Deny that you communicated something to a particular person.
Talking to a salesperson: “Everyone bothers me about buying their stuff.
Oh, I’m not talking about you, but I’m tired of people bothering me.”
4. Deny what has been said applies to this particular situation
“Oh, I’m used to people saying unjust things about me like this. It’s not
big deal.”
Important Factors about Power
 “Power is not owned by an individual but is a product of the social
relationship in which certain qualities become important and valuable to
others” (Wilmot & Hocker, 2001). In other words, in interpersonal
relationships, power is not the quality or trait of a person. It is a context
of a social relationship(ie. Ruth has power with her friends when she
suggests to do things because her friends really like Ruth and because
Ruth often suggests things that they like to do. So when Ruth suggests to
go somewhere, her friends readily agree. If someone does not like or
value Ruth as much or does not like or value many of the things Ruth
suggests to do, than the power is lessened with that person and that
person is not likely to do what Ruth suggests to do.
 Power within an interpersonal relationship depends upon the resources
one person has that another coverts. (ie. “Person A has power over
person B to the extent that B is dependent of A for goal attainment”
(Wilmot & Hocker, 2001).
 Changing your goals is one way to reduce power others have over you
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 Communicating to others that you have value to offer them is one way to
increase your power over others. Others will then become more
dependent on you.
 In the middle of a conflict, “Each person firmly believes that the other
person has more power.” (Boulding, 1989, p. 65, found in Wilmot & Hocker,
2001).
Ways to Posses Power
Resource control-one has control over distribution of resources (such as
money, freedom, privacy; clothes) to others as a form of
reward or punishment
Interpersonal linkages-one maintains a position within a larger system, a
liaison, connections with others, power maintained
by who one knows, one serves as a bridge between
two or more groups
Communication skills-one maintains a high capacity to speak, listen,
persuade, interact, and express caring and warmth
towards others. These types of individuals gain much
value.
Expertise-one has knowledge or skills in a particular area that is of value to
another
- Adapted from Wilmot & Hocker, 2001
Collaboration vs. Competitive Power
*Collaboration, which is normally the best method of using power, depends
on shared power, where both high-power and low-power parties realign
power balances.
Collaboration is best to use when:
-High-power person is not abusing power in which high-power is taking
away all possibility of low-power to exert influence
-One of the persons is not lying or distorting nor is he/she suffering from a
character disorder (ie. schizophrenia)
-Long-term gains are worth the emotional and economic output
Competitive power is best to use when:
-Vital needs of one of the persons is at stake (ie. protection of children,
economic survival)
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-It allows one person to take the person using the competitive power more
seriously and to allow the playing field to become more level
How to Balance Power
1. Restraint-higher-power party does not use all of their ‘ways’ or ‘abilities’
to utilize power that they have at their disposal (ie. Party does
not use resource control, conversational skills and expertise at
one time)
2. Interdependence Focus-lower-power party focuses on ways that the
parties are dependent on each other rather than
demanding attention from the higher-power party
to pay attention to their own individual needs
3. Calm Persistence-Lower-power party persists with making their own
request
4. Empowerment of Low-Power Party by High-Power Party-higher power
party enhances the power of the lower-power party
5. Meta-communication-both higher-power and lower-power parties work
together to preserve the relationship by talking
about how they will handle their conflicts and by
agreeing about what types of behaviors will not be
allowed by each party
B. Culture
-Culture influences our perceptions and worldviews and determines how we
act and relate (communicate) to others. In turn, culture influences what
goals we wish to establish for ourselves and how we wish to reach these
goals.
-‘Culture of Conflict’ means that each society has norms, practices, and
institutions that determines why people enter into disputes, with whom
they dispute, how disputes evolve, and how disputes end.
-It is vital to consider cultural norms and practices when addressing conflict.
(Ex. Approaches of trauma experienced by Liberians combine counseling, a
more modern approach, as well as traditional methods of communal
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storytelling, thus it may be appropriate to use storytelling as a method to
approach conflict)
-In cross-cultural conflict, it is important to understand how each culture
communicates. Two vital factors to observe when dealing with different
cultural groups are religion and human rights. These two factors vary in all
cultures.
-Adapted from Fisher et al, 2000
C. Identity
-Identity is formed by culture and close relationships
-Humans have the tendency to place individuals and groups into categories
(stereotyping) because humans do not have the time to assess each and
every individual or group
-The majority group has the tendency to impose identity (ex. color) on the
minority. Governments sometimes use minority groups as a scapegoat to
escape governmental problems and instabilities. (ex.. Jews in Germany)
-Different aspects of identity are given greater emphasis in different
contexts. (Ex. At home a women may consider herself as a mother whereas
at work, she may consider herself as a trainer)
-During a conflict, one aspect of individual identity usually becomes more
prominent in which the other aspects tend to fade out. It is usually the
prominent aspect of identity that is targeted
-When society tells an individual that his/her identity is bad, the individual
usually begins to believe it (internalization)
-The fact that all humans share the ‘species identity’, the fact that we are all
human beings, is not enough to prevent or end violence
D. Gender
-It is important to consider gender issues when approaching conflict because
men and women can have different perspectives, needs, interests, and
roles. Thus men and women can respond to conflict differently.
-Gender issues play a role in every conflict (Ex. Men go off and fight in
wars while the women are often widows/Men who flee from violence often
go alone and women refugees often take their children into hiding)
-Gender roles may change during a conflicting situation (Ex. During WWII
in the United States, women became professional baseball players as a
result of the men fighting in the war)
21

E. Human Rights
Definition: “Human rights are concerned with the dignity of the individual-
the level of self-esteem that secures personal identity and
promotes human community” (Some source found in Fisher et al.,
2000, p. 50).
*Human rights among cultures and communities are often debated.
However, it is suggested that there are core human rights applicable to
everyone. These core rights allow for other rights to be enjoyed.
 Right to protection from violence
 Right to safe water, food, and shelter
 Right to health and education
 Right for both men and women to have a say in their futures
Approach to Human Rights
1. Human rights should be the legal obligation of the state or international
community
2. It is important to provide empowerment and capacity building in
communities
3. Regardless of goals and actions implemented, it is vital to make sure all
human rights are not violated
*Violation lies at the root of many conflicts and violent acts
Section 4: EXPLORING PEACE
A. What is Peace?
Peace is a STATE of being: absence of violence, serenity, harmony, happiness,
calmness, getting along with others
Peace is a PROCESS: working together to deal with everyday conflict, working
towards ending and preventing violence, a struggle to
transform violence, an interweaving of relationships
between individuals, groups, and institutions that nurture
diversity and development
2 Possible Types of Peace
Cold Peace-absence of violence
Warm Peace-existence of all aspects of a good society
B. Peace Interventions
22

Peace-Making-ending hostilities by making an agreement, communication and
relationships are not emphasized
Peace-Keeping-monitoring and reinforcing agreements already made
Peace-Building-reaching to the root and underlying context of the conflict; works
with the process of creating peace, not just looking for immediate
peaceful outcomes(long-term stability)
3 Types of Peacebuilding
1. Political Peacebuilding: addresses political needs by building the political
infrastructure
2. Structural Peacebuilding: supports the peace culture by building
economic, military, and social infrastructures
3. Social Peacebuilding: addresses individual and group attitudes, values,
and beliefs in which to build the human
infrastructure
C. Peacebuilding Theories (theories of how to achieve peace)
1. Individual Change Theory
Peace occurs by a substantial amount of individuals transforming their
consciousness, attitudes, and behaviors
2. Healthy Relationships and Connections Theory
Peace occurs by destructing polarization, division, prejudice, discrimination, and
stereotypes between and among groups
3. Withdrawal of the Resources for War Theory
Peace occurs by stopping the supply of people and goods used to create and
implement war (ex-soldiers, weapons, transportation)
4. Reduction of Violence Theory
Peace occurs through reducing the level of violence caused by combatants (ex.
cease-fires, creation of zones of peace, use of active nonviolence methods)
5. Root Causes/Justice Theory
Peace occurs through addressing root causes of conflict such as injustice,
exploitation, threats of identity, etc.
6. Institutional Development Theory
Peace occurs by establishing social institutions that institute democracy, justice,
equity, etc.
7. Political Elites Theory
23

Peace occurs when the necessary steps it take to create peace is in the interest of
political leaders (ex. raise cost and reduce benefits of political leaders to continue
fostering violence and war)
8. Grassroots Mobilization Theory
Peace occurs when enough people mobilize in opposition to war, thus leader
would have to follow (Ex. Nonviolent Action)
9. Economics Theory
Peace occurs by changing economies that foster war
10. Public Attitudes Theory
Peace occurs by using the media to encourage change in attitudes and tolerance in
society
-Adapted from Peter Woodrow, Theories of Peacebuilding, Cllaborative Learning Projects, found in Paula
Green, n.d., Sec. 2, pp. 2-3
Section 5: PATHWAY TOWARDS PEACE
Conflict Intervention
Force (Described Above)
Arbitration (Described Above)
Adjudication (Described Above)
Negotiation (Described Above)
Mediation (Described Above)
Dialogue/Active Listening (Described Above)
Prevention (Described Below)
Nonviolence (Described Below)
Reconstruction (Described Below)
Forgiveness (Described Below)
Reconciliation (Described Below)
Social Change (Described Below)
A. PREVENTION
Definition: preventing conflict from escalating into violence
Prevention Requirements
 Analyses of elements of the conflict-parties, forces, etc.
 Identifying the stages of the conflict
 Identifying indicators of each stage of the conflict
 Identifying available and new structures that would address the conflict
 Planning and designing actions towards addressing conflict
 Creative thinking of new ways of approaching conflict
24

Prevention Mechanisms
 Forming a discussion or dialogue group which includes members, such as
representatives from each ethnic group, from across the line of division
 Sending clan or tribal elders as emissaries
 Inviting religious leaders to intervene through dialogue
 Using ritual to bring people together under common visions and values
 Using respected existing structure or groups to intervene
 Using publicity to signal a need for action
Prevention Guidelines
 Investigate incidents to figure out who is involved in the conflict and what
has actually occurred
 Monitor rumors and correct misunderstandings
 Facilitate dialogue between opposing parties
 Show solidarity and neutrality by listening to individuals from both parties
in the conflict
 Build trust and confidence between each party
 Encourage reconciliation
 Encourage both parties to make pledges that harmful incidences will not
occur
 Ask both parties for compensation and restitution
 Change structures and systems
B. ACTIVE NONVIOLENCE
Careful Considerations
Does nonviolence mean no physical violence only, or no physical or psychological
violence?
Is the opponent an enemy in which he is viewed with antagonism or is their genuine
concern for his welfare?
Is the intent to force the opponent to go against his will (coercion) or to win the opponent
over to the other side (conversion)?
Is nonviolence always preferable over violence? Is nonviolence preferable in all occasions?
25

Is violence part of human nature in which it is our instincts to harm others or is violence
learned through the behaviors of society?
What is the reason for nonviolence? Because the opponent is too strong to beat physically?
Because nonviolence simply works? Or because it is the ethical/moral thing to do?
-Adapted from Mark Shepard, Understanding Nonviolence: From Tactical Nonviolence to Satyagraha, 2003,
found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 4, p. 1
What Is Violence?
Definition: See P. 3
2 Types of Violence
1. Physical
2. Psychological
What is Nonviolence?
2 Types of Nonviolence
Tactical Nonviolence-commitment not to induce physical violence, however,
opponent is seen as the enemy and is coerced to fulfill nonviolent party’s goals
Satyagraha (Gandhian principle)-commitment to prohibit both physical and
psychological violence, active caring towards opponent and intention to convert
rather than coerce opponent, “Satyagraha invlolves a humble search for truth while
converting the opponent into a friend and participant in a problem solving process”
(Jenny Truax, 2005)
Nonviolence IS:
-“a technique of socio-political action for applying power in a conflict without the
use of physical violence”
-“a technique of struggle involving the use of social, economic, and political per,
and the matching of forces in conflict”
-Gene Sharp, 1973, found in Paula Green, 2006, Sec. 4, p 6
-a method of exerting power without applying violence in order to reach one’s
goals
-a method which has the power to create community and societal awareness
-a method which has the power to prevent and stop destructive behavior
Nonviolence IS NOT:
26

-avoidance of conflict
-passivity, cowardice, or submissiveness
-the assumption that all people are innately “good” and that the opponent will
eventually see reason behind nonviolent party’s effort and therefore naturally be
willing to change
-necessarily an act of pacifism or done out of morality; it does not require a
spiritual leader or one to a martyr or saint
-performed out of the belief that the opponent will retaliate nonviolently;
nonviolence can be successful even if the adversary is not “civilized” or
“restrained”
-a guaranteed that no one will be injured or killed
-is not limited to domestic conflicts within democratic systems
Contradictions about Violence vs. Nonviolence
Death of a Leader: Hardly anybody declares that armed struggle is ineffective
when a leader is killed by arms; however, many believe that nonviolence does not
work and that the movement is over when the leader of a nonviolent struggle is
killed.
Casualties: Hardly anybody declares that an armed struggle is ineffective or self-
defeating when a soldier is killed by arms; however, many would say nonviolence
is ineffective when a people who practice active nonviolence are injured or killed.
Campaigns: When an armed campaign or movement fails, no one hardly declares
that violence is ineffective; however, when a nonviolent campaign or movement
fails, one is quick to conclude that nonviolence is ineffective.
Training/Preparation: One is well aware that training and preparation is needed in
order to effectively engage in armed combat, yet one is quick to assume that
engagement in nonviolence does not require training or preparation.
-adapted from the Real World Series, n.d.
Nonviolence = Nonviolence DOES NOT = Nonviolence TAKES:
Action Inaction Courage
Confrontation Avoidance Sacrifice
Power Weakness Discipline
Transparency (actions & intentions of Commitment
Purpose nonviolence are not Patience
Morality hidden from opponent)
Empowerment
Applications of Nonviolence
 Dismantling Dictatorships
27

 Blocking coups d’etat
 Defending against Foreign Invasions and Occupations
 Providing Alternatives to Violence in Extreme Ethnic Conflicts
 Challenging Unjust Social and Economic Systems
 Resisting Genocide
 Developing, Preserving, and Extending Democratic Practices,
 Human Rights, Civil Liberties, and Freedom of Religion
-Adapted from the Albert Einstein Institution, 2003, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 4, p. 7
Nature vs. Nurture
Humans are not born with the instincts towards violent behavior. Violence is a
learned behavior. Anger is instinctual and is the fuel that feeds violence. However,
humans have the ability to channel anger into constructive means
Methods of Nonviolence
1. Protest & Persuasion
2. Economic Noncooperation
3. Political Noncooperation
4. Nonviolent Intervention
5. Social Noncooperation
6. Educational Proposition
*See attachment 3
Obedience
*We give power to those in power through obedience
Why do we obey?
-force of habit
-fear of punishment
-moral obligation
-self interest
-psychological identification
-indifference
-absence of self confidence to disobey
Principles of Nonviolence
It is highly important for nonviolent strategies to “go beyond the achievement of civil
rights and political independence and to bring about a fundamental democaratization of
economic power coupled with a decent measure of social equality”. (-Source Unknown)
“It has been shown that within conflicts, the less bloodshed, the faster the two sides can
work together to solve problems politically” (Jenny Truax, Fall, 2005.)
28

It is important not only to demonstrate nonviolent resistance, but also to build alternative
institutions
It is important that the leadership of a nonviolent movement be open about his goals and
methods of achieving his goals and be decentralized
Nonviolence is most effective when the social distance between the oppressor and the
lower-power or victim
C. RECONSTRUCTION
Definition: Rebuilding and reuniting a community after war and destitution in which
structures are implemented to build and maintain peace
*The word ‘reconstruction’ can be misleading in that re-creating a society the way
it was before its destruction can cause further violence and damage because it
is the original societal conditions that caused the conflict to begin with.
‘Reconstruction’ should be used in terms of initiating new methods to move
society forward.
*Initiatives should be capacity building rather than ‘give-me’s’(simply handing
money and supplies to the community members) because society needs to learn to
depend upon itself to function
4 Types of Reconstruction
1. Physical Reconstruction
-Repairing the physical infrastructure of civilian life-schools, hospitals, housing,
etc.
-Providing employment opportunities to community members
-Removing landmines and explosives
-Restoring safe water supplies
-Sewage removal
2. Psychological Reconstruction
-Addressing psychological damage caused by war and trauma by helping
individuals deal with the past and recognize the truth of their situation
-Re-experiencing past traumatic events
-Expression of thoughts and feelings
-Acquisition of coping skills
-Forgiveness & Reconciliation
3. Social Reconstruction
-Building relationships within society with the goal of promoting peace by re-
establishing norms and values
29

3 Elements Key towards Rebuilding a Society Socially
1. TRUTH-that which is factual and that which appears to be true from
human experience and perception
-there is no final answer as to what truth is
2. MERCY-ability of people who have been stricken with violence to form
respect for one another and to agree that it is possible to co-
exist
-to share responsibility and vision for the future
-depends upon compassion and overcoming of anger
3. JUSTICE-payback for previous wrongdoings in which the payback
focuses on the healing of social relationships and on building a
society-based on the values of the ones who were wronged
4. Political Reconstruction
-Re-establishing civilian authority where it has been dominated or destroyed by
the military. Civilian authority should be established in which it is fairly
representative of the population.
-Establishing law
-Establishing a police force
-Creating a constitution
-Demobilizing soldiers
-Resettlement of refugees
*It is vital to approach each type of reconstruction in order to build a sufficient society.
D. FORGIVENESS
TRUTH
Acknowledgement
Transparency
Revelation
Clarity
MERCY
Acceptance
Forgiveness
Support
Compassion
JUSTICE
Equality
Restitution
Rights
Responsibility
30

Questions to Consider
1. Is the act of forgiveness done for the sake of the forgiver or the sake of the one to be
forgiven?
2. Can one forgive someone he/she doesn’t know?
3. Can on forgive an entire group of individuals?
4. Does one have the right to forgive another or is forgiveness reserved solely for the
purposes of a higher being?
5. Can one forgive an individual who does not want to be forgiven?
What is forgiveness?
Definitions:
-“Forgiveness is simply an act of the heart, a movement to let go of the pain, the
resentment, the outrage that you have carried as a burden for so long” (Jack
Kornfield found in The Many Facets, Winter, 1999).
-Forgiveness is an altruistic act of setting the perpetrator free from the committed
offense. As a result of this act, the forgiver ultimately finds healing and a release of
resentment.
-Forgiveness is letting go of or waiving one’s right to retaliate against the offender
-Forgiveness is “the foregoing of resentment or revenge when the wrongdoer’s
actions deserve it and giving the gifts of mercy, generosity and love when the
wrongdoer does not deserve them” (Robert Enright and Gayle Reed, 2006).
Forgiveness IS:
 A freely chosen gift, not an obligation
 The ability to see beyond the limits of another’s personality
 A process that requires shifting of one’s perceptions again and again
 A way of life that gradually transforms us from being helpless victims to being
powerful and loving beings
Forgiveness:
 Releases the victim from a continual connection to the offense
 Encourages the wrongdoers to change behaviors
 Gives wrongdoers the permission to release themselves from shame and to
forgive themselves
31

 Allows the forgiver to heal and no longer feel the pain of the past
Forgiveness IS/DOES NOT:
 Condoning the wrongdoer’s behaviors
 Denying anger
 Mean one must take action to change a situation or to protect one’s own rights
 Assume an attitude of superiority
 Mean the forgiver must change one’s own behavior
 Mean the forgiver must directly communicate with the wrongdoer
 Mean forgetting the past (‘Forgive & Forget’ is an inaccurate phrase. It is
important for the victim to remember the violation. Those who forget the
violation end up acting out in revengeful behaviors towards others)
 Require that the wrongdoer returns or compensates anything to the forgiver
 Lessen the grief and pain
Forgiveness Requires:
 Recognizing the humanity of the other
 Recognizing truth
 Remembering traumatic events
 Acknowledgment and ownership of anger and pain
Resentment
-Resentment is a persistent ill will or grievance that remains long after the situation
that induced the anger is over in which the one who resents wishes to pass this ill
will unto the one he/she resents (Robin Casrjian, 1992)
10 Reason to Resent
1. It may give one the feeling of being powerful and in control
2. It may act as a catalyst to get things done
3. It may encourage one to avoid communication
4. It may serve as form of protection
5. It may be used to assert that one is right
6. It may be used t make the other feel guilty
7. It may be used to avoid feelings
8. It may be used to hold on to a relationship
9. It may be used to hang onto the victim role
10. It may be used to avoid responsibility
-Adapted from Robin Casrjian, 1992
The Process of Forgiveness (2 Models)
1. Enright & Reeds Process Model
32

A. Uncovering Phase
-individual becomes aware of the occurrence of negative feelings as a result
of deep injury. The individual must balance how to process the pain while
continuing to function effectively
B. Decision Phase
-individual becomes aware that change must occur in order for healing to
occur. The individual may then decide to forgive the wrongdoer and makes
a commitment to do so
C. Work Phase
-individual begins to actively work on forgiving the wrongdoer. The
individual may decide to put a human face on the wrongdoer and try to
understand why the wrongdoer did what he did. Individual begins to feel
empathy and compassion toward wrongdoer and begins to accept the pain.
Individual also chooses not to pass the pain onto others, including the
wrongdoer.
D. Deepening Phase
-individual gains emotional relief from the forgiveness process and may find
meaning to his/her suffering. Individual also may find a new purpose in life
and feel more compassion for the self and for others
-Adapted from Robert Enright and Gayle Reed, 2006
2. Everett L. Worthington’s Model
A. Recall the Hurt
-actively think about the pain that has occurred as objectively as possible
and admit that a wrong has been done. Do not waste time dwelling on the
victimization or waiting for an apology from the wrongdoer
B. Empathize
-try to see things from the wrongdoer’s point of view and try to identify with
the reasons why the wrongdoer did what he/she did
C. Altruistic Gift of Forgiveness
-consider yourself by thinking about your own role and guilt when you
offended another individual. Think how you felt when you were forgiven
and then extend this gratitude onto your wrongdoer
D. Commit to Forgive
-Make your forgiveness tangible by telling a trusted other that you have
forgiven the wrongdoer or by writing a certificate of forgiveness
E. Holding onto Forgiveness
33

-Tell yourself that a painful memory of the wrongdoer offending you does
not mean that you have not worked hard to forgive that individual. Refer to
your tangible forgiveness to remind you that you have already forgiven the
wrongdoer
-Adapted from Everett L. Worthington, 1997
Forgiveness according to the World’s Religion
Judaism
-The injured party should emulate the forgiveness that God has for His people
-Forgiveness can only be earned when the wrongdoer begins to make changes and
engages in proper relations with the injured party
Christianity
-The injured party should emulate the forgiveness that God has for His people
-The injured party should pardon wrongdoing because it is done through the
ignorance of the wrongdoer (ie-During crucifixion on the cross, Jesus said,
“Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.”)
-God is willing to endlessly, unconditionally forgive those who repent even though
forgiveness is not deserved
islam
- The injured party should emulate the forgiveness that God has for His people
- The injured party should pardon wrongdoing because it is done through the
ignorance of the wrongdoer (ie-The prophet, Muhammad, rejected the angel,
Gabriel’s, offer to cause the mountains to crumble on his persecutors because
“…they do not know.”
-Forgiveness must be balanced with justice in which each wrongdoer is fully
responsible to God for their actions
-According to the Qur’an, a victim has the right to punish and receive compensation
from the wrongdoer
Buddhism
-Wrongdoers do not need forgiveness for their sins from a supreme God and do not
need to emulate the forgiveness or mercy of God
-Wrongdoers must free themselves from their actions by not submitting to desire
-Wrongdoers commit injury not because they are evil, but because they are acting
out of suffering and pain
-One must forgive the self before forgiving others
-No one should feel contempt for another because human beings have done
everything wrong over several lifetimes
-Adapted from Ann Kathleen Bradley, n.d.
E. RECONCILIATION
What is Reconciliation?
34

-Rebuilding relationships out of mutual understanding
Elements of Reconciliation
1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RESPONSIBILITY AND LOSS
-Processing the past
-One recognizes losses and harm he inflicted on others as well as losses and harm
that others inflicted upon him
-Taking responsibility for own actions
2. RESTITUTION COMPENSATION
-Fair trial and punishment for those responsible
-Involves fair punishment, not punishment out of revenge
-Compensation to victims
3. POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION
-Changing political, social, and economic structures to create a fairer and more
just society
-Remove or reduce previous causes of conflict
4. RECONSTRUCTION OF PERSONAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
-Restoration of trust
-Restoration of hope
-Restoration of mutuality
-Adapted from an Unknown Source, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 5, pp. 2-3
Steps towards Reconciliation
Acknowledgment of Responsibility
-Speaking openly and honestly about harm one committed towards others
Apology
-Sincere apology for harm and losses caused to others
Atonement
-Sincere remorse for previous harmful actions, commitment not to harm again
Reparations
-Compensation for damages and offering of support to victims and community
Acceptance
-Letting go of anger and hatred resulting from conflict
Forgiveness
-Recognizing the humanity of others
Reconciliation
-Rebuilding relationships out of mutual understanding
F. SOCIAL CHANGE
35

Creating awareness, influencing policy, addressing leaders & officials, practicing peaceful
habits (role-model), resisting policy, change of lifestyle, forming support groups, forming
strategic questioning groups, facilitating workshops, public speaking, testimonies, listening
to understand, campaigns, nonviolent tactics.
REFERENCES
Bradley, Kathleen, Ann. (n.d.) Seeking Forgiveness in the World’s Spiritual Traditions.
(No further information).
Casarjian, Robin. (1992). Forgiveness: A Bold Choice for a Peaceful Heart. (No further
information).
Enright, Robert, & Reed, Gayle. (2006). About Forgiveness. University of Wisconsin-
Madison; Department of Educational Psychology, Retrieved March 6, 2006 from
www.forgiveness-institute.org/html
Enright, Robert, & Reed, Gayle. (2006). Process Model.. University of Wisconsin-
Madison; Department of Educational Psychology, Retrieved March 6, 2006 from
www.forgiveness-institute.org/html
Fisher et. al., (2000). Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action. London:
Zed Books
Green, Paula (n.d.). Initiatives in Peacebuilding. Brattleboro, VT: School for International
Training
Harris, Robert. (Ed.). (2005). Theory and Practice of Conflict Transformation Training
Manual. Amherst, MA, Alliance for Conflict Transformation
Pruitt, D.G., & Kim, S.H. (2004). Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement.
New York: McGraw Hill.
36

Real World Series, The. (n.d.). Violence vs. Nonviolence: A Double Standard? (No further
information).
Truax, Jenny. (2005, Fall). Nonviolent Strategies for Ending Occupation. Journal of the St.
Louis Catholic Worker Community. (No further information).
Vrdlund, Sofia, Rose-Marie. (2005). Personal Notes. Accra, Ghana: Unification Aid
Committee
Wilmot, William, H., & Joyce, Hocker, L. (2001). Interpersonal conflict (6th
ed). New
York: McGraw Hill.
Worthington, Everett, L., Jr. (1997). To Forgive is Human: How to put your Past in the
Past. InterVarsity Press.
37

Appendix 1
Exploring Human Needs in Relation to Conflict
1. All humans have innate human needs. If these needs are not met, humans will not be
able to thrive or, in many cases, even survive.
2. Human needs can be categorized in three groups: material, social, and cultural.
 Material Needs: food, shelter, health care, basic resources needed to survive
 Social Needs: sense of respect, security, predictability in relationships, sense
of participation, self-determination
 Cultural Needs: identity, religion, and culture all of which give meaning to the
world
3. Human needs are pursued at any cost. The drive to satisfy these needs controls human
behaviors-making people that can fulfill them act in “good” ways and those that cannot fulfill
them act in “bad” or “evil” ways.
4. The frustration or denial of human needs leads to conflictual behavior, a sense or trauma,
and violence.
5. A capacity to satisfy human needs leads to constructive conflict behavior and conflict
transformation
6. There are multiple ways of satisfying human needs. While human needs are not
negotiable, the ways to satisfy human needs are negotiable.
7. Violence cannot satisfy human needs, and therefore cannot solve conflicts.
8. Threats, efforts to deter, and punishments for certain behaviors are ineffective at changing
behavior against people trying to satisfy their basic human needs.
9. The only way to change behavior and to transform conflict is to satisfy basic human
needs.
38

10. A key task of peacebuilding and trauma recovery is helping people identify unmet
needs and create a process to develop new ways of satisfying the human needs of all people
involved in a conflict.
11. Human needs and human rights are essentially the same thing: humans have a “right” to
what they “need”. Both human needs and human rights frameworks provide an analytical
tool to help understand why conflict happens, and provide a model for how to transform
destructive conflict.
Adapted from John Burton, Violence Explained and Conflict: Basic Human Needs and Robert J. Burrowes, The
Strategy of Nonviolent Defense: A Gandhian Approach. New York: State University of New York Press: 1996.
Appendix 2
Mediation Process
Pre-Mediation
 Decide how to work together as a team
 Determine the seating arrangements for the mediation based upon the information
provided by the case intake coordinator
Welcome and Introductions
 Welcome parties, introduce yourself, try to connect informally with each one, and
begin establishing a safe an respectful environment
 Explain the mediator’s role and how the process works
 Go over ground rules and gain agreement from each party
 Talk about confidentiality and remind parties that participation is voluntary
Storytelling
 Let each party talk about what happened without interruption for the other party
 Use communication skills to help you understand what each party is telling you
 Build rapport and trust between the parties
 After the initial storytelling happens, allow the parties to talk to each other as long as
it is productive
 Shift the focus to issues and needs by making a bridging statement that highlights
common issues the parties may share
Identifying the Real Issues and Needs
 Help the parties identify the underlying issues of the conflict and each person’s
specific needs
 Ask each party to talk about their issues and needs. Reframe language as necessary in
order to maintain a safe and respectful environment
 Continue to clarify issues and needs until parties understand each other
39

Problem Solving
 Review issues and needs with the parties, and prepare them to brainstorm for
solutions
 Ask the parties to brainstorm possible solutions to the conflict that may meet their
own and the other party’s needs
 Remind the parties there will be no evaluating of suggestions until brainstorming is
finished
 Evaluate brainstormed solutions to learn which will work to solve the conflict; if none
work, continue brainstorming or revisit issues and needs
 Select solutions that the parties agree will resolve the conflict
Agreement
 Make the solutions as specific as possible
 Write the solutions into an agreement to be signed by the parties and the mediators
 Make sure the agreement is balanced so that each party is doing something
 Ask the parties what they will do if one or more of the solutions do not work,
encourage them to return to mediation if they need more assistance
-Robert Harris, Ed., 2005, p. 23
40

Appendix 3
198 Methods of Nonviolent Action
Methods of Nonviolent Protest and
Persuasion
Formal Statements
1. Public Speeches
2. Letters of opposition or support
3. Declarations by organizations and
institutions
4. Signed public statements
5. Declarations of indictment and intention
6. Group or mass petitions
Communications with a Wider Audience
7. Slogans, caricatures, and symbols
8. Banners, posters, displayed
communications
9. Leaflets, pamphlets, and books
10. Newspapers and journals
11. Records, radio, and television
12. Skywriting and earthwriting
Group Representations
13. Deputations
14. Mock awards
15. Group lobbying
16. Picketing
17. Mock elections
Symbolic Public Acts
18. Displays of flags and symbolic colors
19. Wearing of symbols
20. Prayer and worship
21. Delivering symbolic objects
22. Protest disrobings
23. Destruction of own property
24. Symbolic lights
25. Displays of portraits
26. Paint as protest
27. New signs and names
28. Symbolic sounds
29. Symbolic reclamations
30. Rude gestures
Pressures on Individuals
31. “Haunting” officials
32. Taunting officials
33. Fraternization
34. Vigils
Drama and Music
35. Humorous skits and pranks
36. Performances of plays and music
37. Singing
Processions
38. Marches
39. Parades
40. Religious processions
41. Pilgrimages
42. Motorcades
Honoring the Dead
43. Political mourning
44. Mock funerals
45. Demonstrative funerals
46. Homage at burial places
Public Assemblies
47. Assemblies of protest or support
41

48. Protest meetings
49. Camouflaged meetings of protest
50. Teach-ins
Withdrawal and Renunciation
51. Walk-outs
52. Silence
53. Renouncing honors
54. Turning one’s back
Methods of Social Noncooperation
Ostracism of Persons
55. Social boycott
56. Selective social boycott
57. Lysistratic nonaction
58. Excommunication
59. Interdict
Noncooperation with Social Events,
Customs, and Institutions
60. Suspension of social and sports
activities
61. Boycott of social affairs
62. Student strike
63. Social disobedience
64. Withdrawal from social institutions
Withdrawal from the Social System
65. Stay-at-home
66. Total personal noncooperation
67. “Flight” of workers
68. Sanctuary
69. Collective disappearance
70. Protest emigration
Methods of Economic Noncooperation:
Economic Boycotts
Actions by Consumers
71. Consumers’ boycott
72. Non-consumption of boycotted goods
73. Policy of austerity
74. Rent withholding
75. Refusal to rent
76. National consumers’ boycott
77. International consumers’ boycott
Action by Workers and Producers
78. Workmen’s boycott
79. Producers’ boycott
Action by Middlemen
80. Suppliers’ and handlers’ boycott
Action by Owners and Management
81. Traders’ boycott
82. Refusal to let or sell property
83. Lockout
84. Refusal of industrial assistance
85. Merchants’ “general strike”
Action of Holders of Financial Resources
86. Withdrawal of bank deposits
87. Refusal to pay fees, dues, and
assessments
88. Refusal to pay debts or interest
89. Severance of funds and credit
90. Revenue refusal
91. Refusal of a government’s money
Action by Governments
92. Domestic embargo
93. Blacklisting of traders
94. International sellers’ embargo
95. International buyers’ embargo
96. International trade embargo
Methods of Economic Noncooperation:
The Strike
Symbolic Strikes
97. Protest strike
98. Quickie walkout
Agricultural Strikes
99. Peasant strikes
100. Farm Workers’ strike
Strikes by Special Groups
101. Refusal of impressed labor
102. Prisoners’ strike
103. Craft strike
104. Professional strike
Ordinary Industrial Strikes
105. Establishment strike
106. Industry strike
107. Sympathetic strike
Restricted Strikes
108. Detailed strike
109. Bumper strike
110. Slowdown strike
111. Working-to-rule strike
112. Reporting “sick”
113. Strike by resignation
114. Limited strike
115. Selective strike
Mult-Industry Strikes
116. Generalized strike
117. General strike
Combination of Strikes and Economic
Closures
42

118. Hartal
119. Economic shutdown
The Methods of Political
Noncooperation
Rejection of Authority
120. Withholding or withdrawal of
allegiance
121. Refusal of public support
122. Literature and speeches advocating
resistance
Citizens’ Noncooperation with
Government
123. Boycott of legislative bodies
124. Boycott of elections
125. Boycott of government employment
and positions
126. Boycott of government depts.,
agencies, and other bodies
127. Withdrawal from government
educational institutions
128. Boycott of government-supported
organizations
129. Refusal of assistance to enforcement
agents
130. Removal of own signs and
placemarks
131. Refusal to accept appointed officials
132. Refusal to dissolve existing
institutions
Citizens’ Alternatives to Obedience
133. Reluctant and slow compliance
134. Nonobedience in absence of direct
supervision
135. Popular nonobedience
136. Disguised nonobedience
137. Refusal of an assemblage or meeting
t disperse
138. Sitdown
139. Noncooperation with conscription
and deportation
140. Hiding, escape, and false identities
141. Civil disobedience of “illegitimate”
laws
Action by Government Personnel
142. Selective refusal of assistance by
government aides
143. Blocking of lines of command and
information
144. Stalling and obstruction
145. General administrative
noncooperation
146. Judicial noncooperation
147. Deliberate inefficiency and selective
noncooperations by enforcement agents
148. Mutiny
Domestic Governmental Action
149. Quasi-legal evasions and delays
150. Noncooperation by constituent
governmental units
International Governmental Action
151. Changes in diplomatic and other
representations
152. Delay and cancellation of diplomatic
events
153. Withholding of diplomatic
recognitions
154. Severance of diplomatic relations
155. Withdrawal from international
organizations
156. Refusal of membership in
international bodies
157. Expulsion from international
organizations
Methods of Nonviolent Intervention
Psychological Intervention
158. Self-Exposure to the elements
159. The fast
a) Fast of moral pressure
b) Hunger strike
c) Satyagrahic fast
160. Reverse trial
161. Nonviolent harassment
Physical Intervention
162. Sit-in
163. Stand-in
164. Ride-in
165. Wade-in
166. Mill-in
167. Pray-in
168. Nonviolent raids
169. Nonviolent air raids
170. Nonviolent invasion
171. Nonviolent interjection
172. Nonviolent obstruction
173. Nonviolent occupation
Social Intervention
43

174. Establishing new social patterns
175. Overloading of facilities
176. Stall-in
177. Speak-in
178. Guerrilla theater
179. Alternative social institutions
180. Alternative communication system
Economic Intervention
181. Reverse strike
182. Stay-in strike
183. Nonviolent land seizure
184. Defiance of blockades
185. Politically motivated counterfeiting
186. Preclusive purchasing
187. Seizure of assets
188. Dumping
189. Selective patronage
190. Alternative markets
191. Alternative transportation systems
192. Alternative economic institutions
Political Intervention
193. Overloading of administrative
systems
194. Disclosing identities of secret agents
195. Seeking imprisonment
196. Civil disobedience of “neutral” laws
197. Work-on without collaboration
198. Dual sovereignty and parallel
government
The Albert Einstein Institution: Research,
Publications and Consultations of Nonviolent
Struggle, 198 Methods of Nonviolent Action,
Found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 4, pp. 2-3.
44

Appendix 4
Tips for Conflictants in Peacebuidling
 Accept conflict is natural
 Bring hidden conflicts out into the open
 Disagree with ideas, not with people
 When talking about a problem or issue, refer to it as shared
 Identify and focus on the most important, central issues of the conflict
 Do not polarize the issue (either you are for me or against me). There may by many
options
 Do not compromise too quickly. Allow full exploration of the problem
 If you are not centrally involved, do not take sides too quickly
 Try to be aware of your own feelings an opinions during a conflict
 Ask for a few minutes of silence when the atmosphere gets too argumentative
 If the issue is not resolved in the discussion process, set up a special, structured
process for dealing with it
45

Building United Judgment, Center for Conflict Resolution, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 2, p. 14.
46

Peace Education Manual-UNAC

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