1. 1
Implementing Environmental Change: Education in
Lesser-Developed Countries
Kristyn Ostanek
Abstract
Education on marine conservation determines the success of a conservation
program in any country. As seen in many studies, proper education can lead to
heightened awareness of the state of the ocean ecosystems in a particular area. Lesser
Developed Countries, also called LDCs, heavily depend on the ocean and its resources.
Many LDC’s primary source of protein, like fish, comes from the ocean. This source of
protein heavily drives these coastal communities’ economies and usually comprises much
of the work force. This paper explores the different aspects of marine conservation
education within communities in coastal LDCs. Within these small communities,
availability of resources, and government relationships all greatly factor into the
implementation of a marine conservation program.
Key Words
Education, government, perception, management, conservation.

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Introduction
LDCs are found all over the world with the majority located on coasts. The Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that aquaculture
alone assures the livelihoods of ten to twelve percent of the world’s population. More
than ninety percent of those employed work in small-scale operations in developing
countries. Nevertheless fish proves to be the main source of protein for coastal
developing countries around the world.
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
marine protected areas are managed by the federal government and bring work together
at the regional and national levels to achieve objectives concerning the conservation of
the natural and cultural resources. Marine protected areas are usually managed either by
limitation or prohibition. The limitation and prohibition of these areas can be through
zonal management, equipment restrictions, quotas, and licensing or permits (Protect
Planet Ocean). Marine protected areas usually consist of a small single area, a large
single area, or a network of areas as determined by the conservation needs within a
certain area.
Marine protected areas serve as a great method for the conservation of natural
resources. However, as we explore through this paper, we find that many lesser-
developed countries with marine protected areas do not end up with successful programs.
This problem is due to many factors including the perception and attitude of communities
and government personnel, the lack of resources and education, and the relationships
between the government and the communities. These factors all strongly impact not only
the program, but also the health of the local ecosystems.
Oceania
R.E. Johannes of the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology studied the different
conservation methods in three different areas in Oceania: Polynesia, Melanesia, and
Micronesia. All of these typical LDCs obtain most of their protein from the ocean and its
resources. Johannes uses the residents of Oceania to describe conservation methods
before and after the introduction of western practices.
Before western influences, Oceania’s conservation practices represented a system
of centuries old traditional influences. Johannes states, “The most widespread single
marine conservation measure employed in Oceania…was reef and lagoon tenure”
(Johannes 1978). For the management of small communities the simplistic system
employed those of a family, chief, or clan as the head of authority. The authoritative
figure represented the community, and therefore, it was best for that person to create
strong ties within the people of the community. The people of Oceania knew that their

3. 3
fisheries could be easily depleted due to natural disasters such as tsunamis, typhoons, and
droughts. The chief, clan, or family would then use this knowledge to create rules and
regulate the fish harvest to maintain high sustainable yields in order to continue to benefit
the community. The locals had a strong awareness of their fish stocks and other marine
resources. Many fishermen even would pass on their knowledge to an apprentice to
continue and expand the community’s knowledge on their local resources.
Many of the fishing regulation practices came from traditions such as religion and
superstitious beliefs. Johannes explains that some practices were forbidden among certain
people based on gender, age, or particular clans. These actions lead to ecological effects.
The authoritative figure would implement closed seasons for the fishermen in the
communities. This was usually declared for ritual reasons like marking a funeral and
ensuring a large catch at the time of celebrations. Also, the enforcement of gear
restrictions also allowed for fishermen to use less effort catching the same amount of fish.
After some time, chiefs were introduced to new ways of managing their
communities thanks to the western influences. Johannes states the three influences that
correlate to the breakdown of traditional conservation practices from western influences:
I. The introduction of money economies.
II. The breakdown of traditional authority.
III. The imposition of new laws and practices by colonial powers.
Before the westernization, Oceania had a system of shared goods. If a man in the
community needed fish, he would in turn provide labor for the fisherman from whom he
was receiving the fish. Then the Europeans introduced their system of bought and sold
goods. Men were given incentives depending on an optimal catch set by the Europeans.
The more fish they caught, then the more money they would make. This exchange led to
a dramatic increase in competition within the community. Johannes found that leaders
within these communities allowed this new system for fisheries because they lacked the
essential knowledge on the economic order. As a result of this lack of education,
moneylending was introduced to the communities. Moneylending allowed for a
fisherman to borrow money for his purchases. Most of the fishermen that borrowed
money fell into debt, and thus, employment opportunities diminished.
Johannes concludes his study by explaining that conservation education cannot
influence the community enough under the current competitive conditions; therefore, a
necessity exists for some government control. Furthermore, if a local custom is included
in the new legislation, then it is most likely to gain public support and succeed. Johannes
explains, “Laws that freeze traditional customs prevent the evolution of tenure systems to
fit contemporary needs. If a valuable new fishery develops in an area where marine
tenure has not been exercised, it is only natural that people who customarily use this area
will want to control the fishery” (1978). Johannes research proves that traditional ties
may be vital in a community needing new legislation for conservation programs
(Johannes 1978).

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Kenya
Timothy McClanahan, Jamie Davis, and Joseph Mania conducted a study that
determined certain factors they believe to be major influences on the perceptions of
marine protected areas of resource users and government employees (Davies et al. 2005).
They hypothesized that the wealth, education, and length of employment impacts the
perceptions towards the management of fisheries exclusion and gear restricted areas.
McClanahan, Davis, and Mania compiled four main issues of marine protected areas:
I. The specific types of restrictions on the use of resources.
II. The level of degradation of resources surrounding protected areas as
demands intensify.
III. The failure of management to deliver promises, leading to disenchantment
and erosion of trust among community members.
IV. A lack of or preferential enforcement of rules and regulations.
They also state the main variables that affect the perceived benefits and attitudes within a
community: age of the protected area, education, occupation, wealth and diet, property
ownership, ethnicity, redistribution of wealth by management authorities, and
relationships with government personnel.
Kenya has two types of management for marine protected areas. Firstly, Marine
National Parks are closed areas in which extraction of resources is not allowed. Secondly,
are the Marine National Reserves, where restrictions on fishing gear are employed.
The study was conducted on three different communities which already have
marine protected areas: Malindi, Mombasa, and Diani. Two different questionnaires were
specifically developed for the government personnel and the fishermen. The different
questionnaires were created because of the already known varying perceptions between
the government and fishermen. One-on-one interviews were conducted with each person
and consisted of asking questions on the perceived benefits of protected areas. All
participants included their age, gear use, experience, diet, and aspect of housing.
Researchers found that sixty-five percent of the government personnel had a
secondary education compared to the eight percent of fishermen. They also found that
only forty-nine percent of fishermen had a primary education and forty-three percent had
no education at all. This data was easily recognized during the questionnaires because
some of the fishermen could not read or write and therefore could not fully participate in
the study. Although they could not fully participate, they still remained a crucial factor in
the study due to the fact that education has a major influence on perception, which is later
described in the article. Overall, government personnel had higher perceived benefits of
protecting areas, which then decreased among the fishermen within the communities.
McClanahan, Davis, and Mania found two highest perceived benefits of both the
government personnel and the fishermen: (1) parks to the nation and (2) reserves to the

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nation. The questionnaires also revealed that the fishers and community had less
perceived benefits compared to those of the government personnel.
This study revealed a major lack of trust within the community and the
government personnel managing the protected areas. McClanahan, Davis, and Mania
discovered that fishermen believed park service personnel were the least deserving of
handling grants to fishermen whereas the park service personnel believed that the fishers;
had much trust in them to handle a grant. In conclusion, McClanahan, Davis, and Mania
found there to be two very important factors influencing the perceptions of a marine
protected area; The overall perceived benefits were highest for government personnel due
to the lack of trust between the community and the government and the most successful
development programs in the region relied on informal and low-level government
personnel (Davies et al. 2005).
Costa Rica
Susan Jacobson from the University of Florida and Rafael Robles from the
Caribbean Conservation Corporation studied the effects of implementing a tour guide-
training program in Tortuguero, Costa Rica. In this case, Jacobson and Robles focused on
ecotourism and its effects on marine conservation education within a community in a
LDC. Unlike most studies that focus on the impact of the education among visitors, this
study concentrated on the impact of education on the residents in the community.
Jacobson and Robles hypothesized that, “…ecotourism fosters more favorable attitudes
towards protected areas, promotes natural resource conservation, educate school children,
train resource managers, and increases a parks system’s flow of benefits to the public by
serving as an educational resource” (Jacobson et al.1992).
The ecotourism program in Tortuguero aims to increase the awareness of the
importance of conservation of sea turtles. Jacobson and Robles developed surveys to
confront four goals in the development of the tour guide program:
I. Resource management needs of the nesting turtles and other wildlife in the
region.
II. Information needs of tour guides.
III. Information needs of foreign and domestic tourists.
IV. Economic opportunities based on tourism.
In 1990, a pilot tour guide-training program was implemented to address the
problem of tourist disturbance to nesting turtles. This program consisted of a ten-hour
training course emphasizing the sea turtle history, regulations of the park, and techniques
for communication between the tourists and tour guides. This course was made available

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to anyone in the community above the age of seventeen. The knowledge and skills of the
tour guides were tested at the beginning and the end of the first month of tours.
Many resource managers expressed their concern for the sea turtles and the
negative impacts of tourism. Oral questionnaires were conducted on eighteen tour guides
who were enrolled in the pilot training program. Four out of the eighteen men indicated
that the largest obstacle preventing them to earn a decent salary was the need for a better
education in English. All of the tour guides indicated that their families would benefit
from the conservation of resources and the protection and management of the area. On
average, the tour guides were able to answer the tourists’ questions about seventy-five
percent of the time. During the program, Jacobson and Robles found that there was an
increase of concern for the conservation of the sea turtles in tour guides, and they were
eager to learn more by meeting with local researchers. Jacobson and Robles also indicate
that some of the tour guides went on to write letters to government officials for better
protection of the sea turtles.
Jacobson and Robles specify that one of the most important objectives of the tour
guide training program was to extend the opportunity of education amongst the
community in Tortuguero especially for the segment of the population not reached
through traditional school programs and development projects. They gave everyone a
chance to learn and increase their knowledge of the local environment in Tortuguero.
This study showed a significant increase in the motivation to protect the environment not
only among the tour guides and tourists but also within the sector of the community not
directly involved in the ecotourism program (Jacobson et al.1992).
Vanuatu
R.E. Johannes studied the village-based management of resources in Vanuatu, a
nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. Johannes recognizes that typical western
methods of conservation usually fail in LDCs; thus, he suggests different ways to manage
the conservation of the local natural resources.
As seen before, tradition makes a huge impact on the environment in a LDC.
Johannes found that traditional villagers in Vanuatu lacked the education needed for
successful management. He suggests updating traditional management in a way that will
still include the traditions of the community. Wiping out tradition all together has the
ability to destroy the relationships within a community and the managers, which could
result in the failure of a conservation program. Johannes also acknowledges that the
introduction of new gear and practices has the potential to destroy community ties
because they lack the education needed to cope with this change (Johannes 1998).

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This study describes “cooperative management” which was implemented in
Vanuatu in 1990. At the beginning and end of everyday, research officers would hold
informal discussions with fishermen and resource owners on the conservation methods
for trochus fisheries. Instead of forcing villagers to adopt the new methods that the
research officers recommended in these discussions, villagers had the right to decide on
their own whether they would adopt the new practice or not. Leaving the final decision
up to the villagers allowed for consideration of local social and economic concerns while
upholding tradition within the community.
Johannes conducted interviews with a large variety of the people living in the
coastal villages on the Islands of Efate and Emai and the villages in the area of Southeast
Malekula. Johannes specifically sought out chiefs and elders or anybody who had a great
knowledge on the local ecosystems and fishing in the community. He found that many of
the villages only received education on the trochus species and thus tried adapting these
specific conservation methods to other species. In some villages, misunderstandings
within the conservation practices have led to the failure of certain programs. These
misunderstandings resulted from the lack of communication between the Local Fisheries
Department and the overall lack of education in the chiefs. Johannes also noticed that the
knowledge of the impacts of excessive fishing and declining stocks lacked in some
villages compared to the rest of the villages.
The announcement of a fishing taboo also had a large impact on the success of the
program. Johannes found that if a chief formally declares a taboo, then the villagers are
more likely to respond in a positive manner and the conservation program will most
likely succeed. If the chief announces it informally, then the villagers will not take the
taboo seriously; thus, the conservation program ultimately will fail. Usually a successful
announcement consisted of the use of ritual and tradition, for instance blessing a taboo
through the killing of pigs, followed by a feast in a church. Some chiefs even created
fines pertaining to certain activities within the taboo regulations (Johannes 1998).
Johannes also acknowledges the effects of inadequate law within the
communities. Much of the law is not understood well by the chief as well as the villagers.
Depending on the coastal community the law also did not recognize specific needs
required by the different areas.
Presently, much of the responsibilities are in the hands of the village fishermen.
The Fisheries Department has evolved into encouraging fishermen to take direct
involvement in the management of their resources. Johannes observed that most of the
villagers are highly motivated to evaluate the effects of their closures on their own.
Although, he does state that most of the village fishermen had little knowledge on the
species, specifically in this case as to how quickly the species grows. This lack of
knowledge impacted the timing of the closures, thus, ultimately affected the fishery
stocks. Consequently, Johannes notes the need for expanded education rather than just
education through experience.

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To improve participation in conservation within the community, Johannes
indicates the need for “Extension Workers” alongside the existing education program.
Johannes describes Extension Workers as people, “…who must obtain information on
village marine management strategies and on local knowledge concerning marine
resources. They then must provide complementary scientific knowledge and education
that villagers need to manage their resources better.” (Johannes 1998). The education
system in Vanuatu exposes the lack of devotion in educators to fully explain the criteria
needed for a successful program. Johannes found that many people are not willing to put
in the time and effort to explain and teach these difficult concepts. Through the
observation of the typical education system versus the system with the use of Extension
Workers, Johannes realized that most of the villagers did not respond well to being told
how to manage their fisheries but rather responded better to suggestions through practical
education on management alternatives. He also found that villagers were more likely to
continue their conservation efforts if they were given credit for their previous
achievements in the new management programs. Most of the credit for the achievement
of these programs tends to be given to government personnel and not the villagers.
In Johannes’ final remarks, he emphasizes the erosion of local authority to outside
tenures. The community usually respects local authority more so than higher up
government officials. The villagers will most likely listen and follow through with the
suggestions given by the local authority because there is a preexisting relationship that
has formed trust within the people. When outside tenures take control away from the
local authorities, villagers are less likely to conform to the new programs and regulations
that these tenures request. Johannes found that the villagers had a lack of respect for these
tenures; thus, did not follow through with any of the new programs, ultimately wasting
crucial time and money needed to implement a successful management program within a
LDC (Johannes 1998).
Discussion
Education proves to be a crucial factor in order to implement any type of change
whether it is introducing a new conservation program or managing a current program.
Without proper education most of these programs fail. The attitude and perception of the
villagers and also the government personnel have a major influence on the success of
environmental change (Johannes 1978; Primavera 2000; Davies et al. 2005).
Furthermore, a very important aspect in the decision making process is making the
community feel meaningful. Once the people within the community feel as if they have a
bigger purpose, a conservation program is bound to thrive. In order for the community to
feel meaningful the villagers must be given more responsibility (Gubbay 1995). Handing
over responsibility from the higher government personnel to a community expands the
knowledge not previously available to local villagers. Using this new knowledge,
villagers can take action and promote environmental change within their community. If

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credit is given to the villagers, a change in responsibility initiates a chain of inspiration
amongst the people in the community. The people within the community want to take
action as well because they too want to receive credit. This credit boosts their self-esteem
and self-worth thus making them determined to continue their efforts of change (Gubbay
1995; Johannes 1998).
Before credit can be given to any villager, education needs to be provided for the
community. Education for the villagers will not be successful unless the villagers have a
desire to expand their knowledge. Some sort of anticipation to learn needs to exist, which
will then help the education program (Forestell 1993). This anticipation to learn may be
stimulated by incorporating traditional values within the community. Johannes found that
the village fishermen in Oceania were more inclined to expand their knowledge on new
practices if those practices incorporated some sort of tradition. The people of Oceania
lacked the proper education needed to cope with the new economic change; thus, they
abandoned their traditions. The abandoning of their traditions led to the failure of the new
programs that the Europeans introduced. Villagers were not motivated to learn about
these new practices, which in turn, led to the destruction of the local natural resources
(Johannes 1978, 1984). By incorporating tradition and ritual, better education programs
can be constructed for new conservation management (Johannes 1978, 1998; Gubbay
1995). Although traditional systems may prove to be good ways of introducing new
programs, we also need to recognize that sometimes traditions hurt the natural resources
rather than help. When government personnel recognize that these traditions are hurting
the environment, they tend to ignore the traditions altogether when creating new
programs. Instead, government personnel should uphold values of the tradition while
updating them at the same time. By keeping some sort of traditional value within the new
programs the community will be more inclined to participate.
In some LDCs, the government provides education for the communities.
However, due to the lack of essential knowledge, this education does not succeed. In
Kenya, over sixty percent of the government personnel had a secondary education, and
all of them had primary education. Only eight percent of the fishermen had a secondary
education. Half of the fishermen that participated did not have an education at all (Davies
2005). This lack of education correlates to the failure of many conservation programs.
These fishermen lack the basic knowledge needed to grasp new conservation methods.
Without the knowledge of basic biology, chemistry, and other subjects, the fishermen
have no way of fully understanding not only new programs but also information on their
local natural resources. Actions are then not carried out correctly because of these
misunderstandings (Johannes 1978, 1998).
Misunderstandings of the local ecosystems in a lesser-developed country can lead
to devastation among the species and the community. J.H. Primavera studied the
development and conservation of Philippine mangroves. The Philippine government
began taxing the mangroves all along the coasts. Most of the communities could not
afford to pay the taxes so the government destroyed the mangroves and created ponds.
These ponds produced mass amount of brackish water, which destroyed most of the

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surrounding ecosystem. The local government officials in the communities allowed for
this situation to happen because they simply lacked the essential knowledge about the
species in their local ecosystems (Primavera 2000). If they had acquired this information
from the start then they may not have allowed the taxation of mangroves. Local
government officials cannot be successful in their work if they are not educated about
their local species and habitats. Once they are properly educated, government officials
can move forward with crucial policy and management reforms and the community will
participate in solving these environmental conservation issues (Johannes 1978, 1998;
Primavera 2000; Douvere 2008).
In some cases, like on the Islands of Efate and Emai, the government helped with
the management of the local resources by providing an education system. Johannes
explores these preexisting educational practices within the communities of Efate and
Emai. He found that most people who were brought into these communities specifically
to teach the people on the management practices did not have enough time or
determination to teach the concepts. Some of the educators would only complete part of
the information and training. Johannes also discovered that many of the educators did not
have enough determination to want to stay in the communities and educate the villagers.
Johannes’ idea of Extension Workers could be a very valuable approach to the
development of education in LDCs (Johannes 1998). Properly training the educators
leads to proper education. It is important to realize that even though the educators have
been provided with all of the information and skills they need through this “Extension
Worker” program, there may be a lack of dedication and desire to teach individuals. The
Extension Worker can provide to the villagers as much information as they want to
provide. It is crucial that these Extension Workers provide the same amount of dedication
to teaching, as the villagers have for learning, if not more.
Government officials have a huge impact on a community. As noted before, they
can either make or break a new or existing program within a community. Many factors
determine the success or failure of a program. In LDCs, government officials and
villagers have weak relationships. These weak relationships are mainly due to the lack of
trust, as seen in the communities in Kenya (Davies 2005). The key to any successful
relationship is communication. Entitlement destroys the communication needed to build
strong programs within communities. If the government officials feel as if they should
hold all of the power, then the community will feel as if they do not need to participate in
new management programs required by the government. In Kenya, researchers found that
the perceptions of the government officials juxtaposed the perceptions of the fishermen.
This misunderstanding mainly resulted from the lack of communication during the
educational portions of the programs. The researchers also found that many of the
fishermen did not trust the government officials and vice versa. This lack of trust destroys
the ability of any program to thrive. The researchers suggested that to rebuild this trust
and communication, management development programs should rely on low-level and
informal government personnel (Wells et al. 1995; Gubbay 1998; Johannes 1998;
Primavera 2000; Davies 2005). Low-level government personnel tend to accomplish
more within a community in a LDC because they have preexisting relationships with the

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villagers. The villagers can trust the low-level government officials because they are
more relatable and the source of entitlement disappears.
One of the most practical and beneficial sources of education comes from
ecotourism. Ecotourism not only provides an outlet of education but also profits the
economy of communities in LDCs. Ecotourism creates a drive for further education and
often is the source of inspiration in many communities (Jacobson et al. 1992; Evans
1997; Gossling 2003; Halim 2012;). As seen in Costa Rica, all of the people in
Tortuguero received an equal opportunity at education (Jacobson et al. 1992). The
training program offered an approachable opportunity to expand one’s knowledge
without feeling the pressure induced by the government programs. Creating an
approachable program offers much more to a community than expected. An approachable
program makes everyone in the community feel as if they are important and thus
deserving to take advantage of this opportunity to learn more about their local natural
resources. Along with education comes the economic side of ecotourism. Ecotourism
boosted the economy of Tortuguero and provided financial stability for many of the
villagers. The tour guides were all equally paid, and therefore, no competition was
created. Even people outside of the tour guide-training program did not feel as if they
would need to compete with the tour guides but rather were inspired to join the program
and make their own source of income. Instead of feeling as if they needed to compete
with other fishermen to make a larger profit like in the case of Oceania, the villagers of
Tortuguero were provided with an equal opportunity with no competition at all (Johannes
1978; Jacobson et al. 1992).
All of these factors concerning marine conservation in lesser-developed countries
relate to a larger issue: the depersonalization of the Earth (Forestell 1993). Over many
decades, the Earth and its natural resources have been depleted and misused. The
exploitation of the natural resources is now favored over conservation. PH Forestell
suggests that in order to reverse this idea, the earth must be given a “soul” (Forestell
1993). Giving the earth a soul creates a more relatable view for the communities in
LDCs. Concepts are easier to grasp when one is able to relate to the ideas. Therefore
education of natural resources and management programs will thrive if the concepts are
introduced in a relatable manner to the audience being taught.
Conclusion
The Gain Hypothesis greatly influences the conservation of natural resources
around the world. According to Forestell it “…challenges us to recognize that planetary
balance derives from the local activity of individual organisms” (Forestell 1993). The
reformation of the marine conservation system can become infectious if we first start

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locally and then expand these practices globally. By putting effort into building up a
conservation network in one community at a time, greater accomplishments will be
achieved. For this reason, the main factors contributing to education in a LDC are crucial
for the reformation of societal views on marine conservation. In order to succeed in any
marine conservation or management program, education must be based off fundamental
properties: positive attitudes, strong relationships, and insuring that the community has a
sense of purpose. In order for these fundamental properties to prosper in a community,
outside tenures must first learn about the community and the people within the
community. Once they have learned every aspect within a certain community, especially
their traditions and rituals, then the educator will be able to successfully create and
implement an educational program tailored to the community’s specific needs.

13. 13
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