Adaptation techniques in different Biomes

ADAPTATION TECHNIQUES IN DIFFERENT
BIOMES
SUBMITTED BY: - SUBMITTED TO: -
NAME: - KRISHAN KANT DR.RASHMI RANI ANAND
ROLL NO: -3023
SEMESTER: - IV
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
SHAHEED BHAGAT SINGH COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to
my teacher DR RASHMI RANI ANAND, who gave me
the golden opportunity to do this wonderful assignment of
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY on the topic
“ADAPTATION TECHNIQUES IN DIFFERENT
BIOMES”, who also helped me in completing my project.
I came to know about so many new thing. I am really
thankful to them.
Secondly, I would also like to thank my friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing this project within limited
time frame.
KRISHAN KANT

CONTENTS
1) Biomes
-Introduction
-Definitions of Biomes
-Limitations of Defining Biomes
-Classification of Biomes
2) Terrestrial Biomes
-Tropical Forest Biome -Boreal/Taiga Forest Biome
-Savanna Biome -Desert Biome
-Tundra Biome -Alpine Biome
-Chaparral Biome -Temperate Biome
-Temperate Grassland Biome
3) Aquatic Biome
-Freshwater Biome -Freshwater Wetlands
-Marine Biome -Coral Reef Biome
-Estuary Biome
4) Conclusions
5) References

INTRODUCTION:-
Biomes are very large ecological areas on the earth’s surface,
with fauna and flora adapting to their environment.
Or
A biome is a major, geographically extensive ecosystem,
structurally characterized by its dominant life forms.
They are often defined by abiotic factors such as:-
- Temperature
- Climate
- Relief
- Geology
- Soils
- Vegetation
- Latitude
- Fire
- Topography
It is a community of plants and animals that have common
characteristics for the environment they exist in. They can be
found over a range of continents. Biomes are distinct biological
communities that have formed in response to a shared physical
climate. Similar biomes can occur in widely divergent places as
long as the environmental conditions are appropriate for their
development.

Each biome is characterized by similarity of vegetation structure
and to great extent, in species composition and is usually related
to climate.
Biomes are usually recognized by the structure of the vegetation.
Because it is relatively stationary, vegetation is more easily
observed than the animals of the biome.
DEFINITIONS OF BIOME:-
1) A/C TO SIMMONS, 1979:-
A major regional ecological community of plants and animals
extending over a large area, with a uniform climate and
vegetation.
2) A/C TO KERSKI AND ROSS, 2005:-
Biomes are groups of ecosystems that are similar in structure
and function. Wherever a particular biome is found, climate and
soils tend to be similar and organisms tend to have a similar
range of life.
3) A/C TO MATHUR, 1988:-
A biome is a major ecological or biotic community of living
plants and animals that occupies an extensive area.
4) A/C TO GOUDIE, 1995:-
A mixed community of plants and animals occupying a major
geographical area on a continental scale.

LIMITATIONS OF DEFINING BIOMES:-
Although biomes are often thought of as distinctly defined
regions, in reality, they are not clearly delineated.
Biomes do not typically have precise boundaries; instead, there
are frequently transition zones between biomes. These zones are
referred to as ecotones, and they can be naturally occurring or
created by humans.
Further, many biome definitions exclude humans. However,
some scientists believe that human presence is an integral part in
defining biomes, and they posit that most biomes are actually
primarily influenced by humans.
Similarly, scientists are beginning to recognize how the results
of human activities, such as habitat destruction and climate
change, will change how biomes are defined in the future.
CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMES:-
Joseph Kerski and Simon Ross in their publication, The
essentials of the Environment (2009) has identified two broad
categories of the biomes of the world.
Following are the two biomes a/c to them:-
- Terrestrial Biomes
- Aquatic/Marine Biomes
These biomes are further divided into different types a/c to
location, climate and natural vegetation.

1) TERRESTRIAL BIOMES:-
- Tropical Forest
- Boreal Forest/Taiga
- Savanna
- Desert
- Tundra
- Alpine
- Chaparral
- Temperate Forest
- Temperate Grassland
FIG : - TERRESTRIAL BIOMES

2) AQUATIC/MARINE BIOMES:-
- Freshwater: - lakes, ponds, rivers, streams
- Freshwater wetlands
- Marine
- Coral reef
- Estuaries
FIG : - AQUATIC BIOMES

Terrestrial biomes are based on land. The eight major
terrestrial biomes on Earth are each distinguished by
characteristic temperatures and amount of precipitation.
Comparing the annual totals of precipitation and fluctuations in
precipitation from one biome to another provides clues as to the
importance of abiotic factors in the distribution of biomes.
Temperature variation on a daily and seasonal basis is also
important for predicting the geographic distribution of the biome
and the vegetation type in the biome. Vegetation is an important
factor in determining the type of biome.

TROPICAL FOREST
LOCATION:-
Tropical rainforests are mainly located between the latitudes of
23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5°S (the Tropic of
Capricorn)—the tropics. Tropical rainforests are found in
Central and South America, western and central Africa, western
India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.
FIG: - TROPICAL RAINFORESTS-LOCATION
CLIMATE:-
- Lush and warm all year long.

-Temperature: - ranges from 70 to 85°F (21 to 30°C)
-Humidity: - 77% to 88% year-round
-Rainfall: - 80 to 400 inches (200 to 1000 cm)/year
-Very little seasonal variation
FIG:-TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION (PERU)
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Highest biodiversity and primary productivity of any of the
terrestrial biomes

-Estimated to contain over half of the terrestrial species on Earth
-Approximately 170,000 of the 250,000 described species of
vascular plants occur in tropical biomes
-Dominant Plants:- Orchids, Philodendrons, Ferns, Bromeliads,
Kapok Trees, Banana Trees, Rubber Trees, Bamboo, Trees,
Cassava Trees, Avocado Trees
-Dominat animals: - Anacondas, Monkeys, Toucans, Macaws,
Herens, Cougars, Pumas, Orangutans, Gorrilas, Sloths, Parrots
and Frogs
ADAPTATION TECHNIQUES:-
- Plants Adaptation:-
a) Lianas : - These are woody vines that have roots in
the ground but climb up the trees to reach the sunlight. Their
leaves and flowers grow in the canopy.
b) Tree trunks : -These are tall and thin to allow
trees to reach the sunlight. The bark on these trees is smooth to
allow water to flow down to the roots easily.
c) Drip tips : - Plants have leaves with pointy tips.
This allows water to run off the leaves quickly without
damaging or breaking them.
d) Buttress roots : - Large roots have ridges which
create a large surface area that help to support large trees.

e) Epiphytes : - These are plants which live on the
branches of trees high up in the canopy. They get their
nutrients from the air and water, not from the soil.
-Animals Adaptation:-
a) The sloth uses camouflage and moves very slowly
to make it difficult for predators to spot.
b) The spider monkey has long, strong limbs to help
it to climb through the rainforest trees.
c) The flying frog has fully webbed hands and feet,
and a flap of loose skin that stretches between its limbs, which
allows it to glide from plant to plant.
d) The toucan has a long, large bill to allow it to
reach and cut fruit from branches that are too weak to support
its weight.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) Man had come up with some forms of adaptation
that allowed him to live and reproduce.
b) Man adapts genetically, physiologically,
behaviourally, and culturally to this physical environment.
c) These different forms of adaptation were not merely
a response to the environmental changes. Basically, these
forms of adaptation were related to how human beings
organised themselves and interact with each other together
with their physical environment.

BOREAL FOREST/TAIGA
LOCATION:-
It extends in a broad band across North America, Europe, and
Asia to the southern border of the arctic tundra. It is also found
at cool, high elevations in the more temperate latitudes, for
example, in much of the mountainous western region of North
America.
FIG: - TAIGA BIOME
CLIMATE:-
- Long, cold winters, and short, mild, wet summers are typical
of this region.

- Avg. Temperature :- 32°F (0°C)/Year
- Avg. Summer Temperature :- 50°F (10°C)/Year
- Avg. Winter Temperature :- 26.6°F (-3°C)/Year
- Rainfall :- 10 - 30 inches (25 - 75 cm)Yearly
- Precipitation is relatively high in the taiga and falls as snow
during the winter and rain during the summer.
- Hot and humid
FIG:-PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE ( CANADA )

FLORA AND FAUNA:-
- Low biodiversity and dominated by mosses, lichens, and low-
growing perennial shrubs.
-About 3% of the world’s flora.
-Dominant plants: - Confers (Evergreen, Spruce, Fir and Pine)
Blueberry Bushes, Cowberry Bushes, Bilberry Bushes, Lichens,
Mosses, some Maple, Elm, Willow, and Oak trees
-Dominant Animals: - Snowshoe Hare, Lynx, Wolves, Foxes,
Elk, Deer, Wolverine, Eagles, Falcons, Siberian Tigers, River
Otter, Bobcat, insects including mosquitos and ants.
a) Coniferous trees have thick bark to protect
against the cold.
b) They are cone-shaped, with flexible branches
which help them to cope with heavy snow fall.
c) Pine cones protect the seeds during the harsh
winter.
d) The thin waxy needles reduce water loss.
e) Their evergreen nature means that the needles
can photosynthesis whenever there is sufficient sunlight.
f) The dense forest creates warmth during the
harsh winter.

a) Many birds of the Taiga will migrate south to
avoid the cold winters. Other animals will burrow
underground (rodents, shrews).
b) The Snowshoe Hare adapts by changing
color according to the season as a type of camouflage
(brownish in the summer and white in the winter) to protect
itself from predators.
c) Many of the birds will feed upon the conifer
seeds and berries.
d) Birds like the geese, water fowl, woodpecker
and ducks will migrate south to avoid the long, cold winter.
e) Some of the animals of the Taiga will store
extra layers of fat and fur to help keep them warm over the
cold winters. Many of the animals have developed large feet
or hooves to help them move in the often deep and abundant
winter snow.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) There are a few large cities in the
southern parts of the taiga, such as Moscow and Toronto, but
most of it is relatively unpopulated.
b) There are also a few native communities of
people who still live indigenously in the taiga.

c) Taiga ecosystems are threatened by direct
human activity.
d) The most serious threat to taigas does not
come from hunting activity, however. Civilization is
dependent on sturdy buildings for homes, industry, and
schools. The trees of the taiga are cut down
for lumber projects, as well as paper, cardboard, and other
supplies.
e) These activities have had negative impacts
on areas of this biome and may continue to negatively affect it
in the future. A majority of the logging in the taiga is done by
clear-cutting, using heavy machinery to remove much of the
surrounding forest.
f) Mining is a concern because it may result in
pollution of surrounding soils and water, specifically acid rain.

SAVANNA BIOME
LOCATION:-
- They cover half the surface of Africa, large areas of Australia,
South America, and India.
 Africa: Kenya, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, and
Namibia
 Australia
 Central America: Belize and Honduras
 South America: Venezuela and Columbia
 Southern Asia
FIG: - SAVANNA BIOME
- One of the most famous African savannas is Serengeti
National Park in Tanzania.

CLIMATE:-
-Usually warm
-Temperature: - range from 68° to 86°F (20 to 30°C)
-Precipitation: - 10 - 30 inches (25 - 75 cm)/Year
- During the dry season, weather can be extremely hot, and
rainfall will amount to only four inches each month.
- This combination of high temperatures and little precipitation
makes savannas perfect areas for grass and brush fires during
their dry seasons.
FIG: - MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION
VALUES FOR ANDAGOYA, COLOUMBIA

FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Not many trees because of low rainfall.
- Acacia tree- umbrella shape
-Dominant Grass: - lemon grass, Rhodes grass, star grass, and
Bermuda grass
-Dominant Animals: - African elephants, zebras, horses, and
giraffes, wildebeests, buffaloes
a) Most have adapted to the arid conditions, and
have developed underground stores of starches, or have
decreased their surface area in water loss by growing small
'needle like' leaves.
b) Many plants which are present also have a
feature of sorts which makes them that little harder for a
herbivore to eat, such as the acacia tree has thorny branches,
leaves and is tall, which help to deter herbivores- all but those
like the Giraffe, which has evolved a long neck to reach these
leaves and branches, as well as a long, thick tongue which is
near 'impervious' to the spiny foliage.
a) Elephant have wrinkly skin, and large ears, to
increase their surface area and more easily dissipate heat. They

also have learnt to use mud as a way to cool down and protect
their skin from the sun, as well as biting pests.
b) Other animals sleep or rest during the day,
whether that be below ground like meerkats do or under a tree
like prides of lions do.
c) Many herbivores like gazelles, zebras and
wildebeests have adapted to be able to go long distances without
little water and to be able to run quickly cross the savanna from
potential predators, though not the stamina as such to keep these
up for long distances, in which the african painted wild dog
excels at, being able to chase its prey until it eventually
collapses of exhaustion, much like how Human tribes do in
Africa.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) The people living in this biome are mainly
farmers who grow cereals and other plants that can resist long
dry spells, such as millet, sorghum, barley and wheat, as well
as peanuts, cotton, rice and sugarcane, while breeding prevails
in drier savannah areas.
b) The Masai tribe mainly live on sheep-
breeding, but also on farming and trade.

DESERT BIOME
LOCATION:-
- Antarctica is the largest desert in the world, while the Sahara
in Africa is the largest of the hot deserts.
- Deserts are found in North America, Southern Asian realm,
South and Central America, Ethiopia and Australia.
-Coastal Deserts: - The Atacama Desert in Chile of South
America
-Cold Deserts: - Antarctica , Greenland, etc
FIG: - DESERT BIOMES

CLIMATE:-
- Not the same in all deserts
- Hot Deserts: -
a) Temperature (winters): - 41°F (5°C) or below
b) Temperature (summer): - between 55° and 75°F (12
and 24°C)
c) Rainfall: - 3 - 5 inches (8 - 13 cm)
- Cold Deserts: -
a) Temperature (winters): - -5°F to -110°F (-20.5 to -
79°C)
b) Temperature (summer): - 32°F (0°C)
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
- Hot Deserts: -
a) Dominant Plants: - cactus, grasses, shrubs, and some
short trees
b) Dominant Animals: - meerkats, camels, reptiles such
as the horned toad, scorpions, and grasshoppers
-Cold Deserts: -
a) Domiant Plants: - Grasses, Shrubs and brush plants,
Tufted saxifrage (Saxifraga caespitosa), Big sagebrush
(Artemisia tridentate), etc

b) Dominant Animals: - arctic fox, kangaroo rat, rock
ptarmigan, jackrabbits, etc
a) Thick, waxy skin to reduce loss of water and to
reflect heat.
b) Large, fleshy stems to store water.
c) Thorns and thin, spiky or glossy leaves to reduce
water loss.
d) Spikes protect cacti from animals wishing to use
stored water.
d) Deep roots to tap groundwater.
e) Long shallow roots which spread over a wide area.
a) Long eye lashes, hairy ears and closing nostrils
help to keep out sand.
b) Thick eyebrows which stand out and shade eyes
from the sun.
c) Wide feet so they don't sink in the sand.
d) They can go without water for over a week
because they can drink gallons in one go.

e) They can go months without food - they store fat
in their humps.
f) Body temperature can change to avoid losing
water through sweating.
g) They are well camouflaged.
h) Thick fur helps to keep them warm at night.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) During the midday, people generally stay
sheltered and have an early afternoon rest or if they have to go
outside they cover up with loose clothes to keep themselves
shaded cool.
b) Las Vegas, in the Mojave Desert, is one of the
fastest-growing cities in the USA.
c) The ancient Anasazi peoples of the southwestern
United States and northern Mexico constructed huge apartment
complexes in the rocky cliffs of the Sonoran Desert. These cliff
dwellings, sometimes dozens of meters off the ground, were
constructed with thick, earthen walls that provided insulation.
Although temperatures outside varied greatly from day to night,
temperatures inside did not. Tiny, high windows let in only a
little light and helped keep out dust and sand.

TUNDRA BIOME
LOCATION:-
At the top of the world, near the North Pole.
FIG:- TUNDRA BIOME
CLIMATE:-
- The coldest and the driest of all the biomes
- Avg. Temperature ( winter ): - 34° C (-30° F)
- Avg. Temperature ( summer ): - 3-12° C (37-54° F)
- Rainfall: - 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches)/Year

FIG: - PRECIPITATION AND RAINFALL
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Dominants Plants:- grasses, mosses, and lichens
-Dominant Animals: - musk ox, the Arctic hare, the polar bear,
the Arctic fox, the caribou, and the snowy owl
- Compared to plants in other biomes they use a minimal amount
of energy.
a) Cotton grass is one example of a plant able to
survive these conditions. The features which make it able to

survive are: - low-lying - the snow covers it in winter which
helps insulate it, seeds that scatter in the wind, narrow leaves
helping to reduce transpiration, adapted to a short growing
season (so has a short life cycle), dense flowerheads reducing
heat loss, darker leaves helps absorb energy from Sun.
a) Some animals in the tundra are adapted to the
climate by breeding and raising their young in the summer.
b) Many animals hibernate, or sleep during the
worst part of winter to minimize energy loss.
c) Migration
-Human Adaptation:-
a)Unfavorable environment for human
settlement.
b) The inhabitants are the Eskimos of North
America, the Lapps of Scandinavia, the Samoyeds of Siberia,
the Yakuts of the Lena basin, the Koryaks and Chickchis of
north eastern erstwhile USSR.
c) People lead a nomadic life according to the
availability of food. They migrate with their animals in search of
pastures. They also hunt animals and fishes in the seas and
rivers.

ALPINE BIOME
LOCATION:-
The alpine biome usually lies between an altitude of about
10,000 feet (3,000 meters), and the place where the snow line of
a mountain begins. the global mountain ranges that are parts of
the alpine biome include the Rockies, Sierra,
and Cascade mountains in North America, the Andes in South
America, the Himalayas in Asia, the Alps and Pyrenees in
Europe, and the Rift Mountains of Africa.
FIG: - ALPINE BIOME

CLIMATE:-
- One of the coldest biomes in the world. It is so cold because of
its high altitudes.
- Summer Temperature: -between 4.5 to 15.5°C
- In the winter the temperatures are well below freezing
- Avg. Precipitation: - 12 inches/Year
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Dominant Plants:- Bear grass, Moss campion, Pygmy
Bitterroot, Wild potato, Bristlecone pine, etc
-Dominant Animals: - Elk, Sheep, Mountain goats, Snow
leopard, Alpaca, Yak, Butterflies, Grasshoppers, Beetles,
Chinchilla, Ptarmigan bird, Snowshoe rabbit, Himalayan Tahr,
Marmot
- Chinchilla is one of the most interesting animals in the alpine
biome.
a) They protect themselves from the cold and wind
by hugging close to the ground.
b) Most alpine plants are adapted to grow in sandy
and rocky soil.

c) Plants have also adapted to the dry conditions of
the alpine biome.
a) Alpine animals adapt to the cold by hibernating,
migrating to warmer areas, or insulating their bodies with layers
of fat and fur.
b) Their bodies tend to have shorter legs, tails,
and ears, in order to reduce heat loss.
c) Alpine animals also have larger lungs, more
blood cells, and blood that can deal with the lower levels of
oxygen at higher altitudes.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) Humans expand their lungs in order to be able
to take in more oxygen when they breathe, which is scarcer at
the higher alpine altitudes.
b) Sherpas have larger lungs and more
hemoglobin in their blood to cope with the increased pressure
and lack of oxygen at high altitudes.
c) The Indians of the Andes Mountains in South
America have also adapted to living in the alpine biome.

CHAPARRAL BIOME
LOCATION:-
Found in small sections of most continents, including the west
coast of the United States, the west coast of South America, the
Cape Town area of South Africa, the western tip of Australia
and the coastal areas of the Mediterranean.
FIG:-CHAPARRAL BIOME
CLIMATE:-
- Very hot and dry.
-Temperature (winter): - between 10-12 degrees Celsius
-Temperature (summer): - surpass 100 degrees
-Precipitation: - 10-17 inches/Yearly
FLORA AND FAUNA:-

-Dominant Plants: - Olive tree, Blue oak, Coyote Brush,
Common Sagebrush, French boom, Fairy duster, King Poreta,
Manzanita, Mountain mahogany
-Dominant Animals: - Grey fox, Puma, Black-tailed Jack
Rabbit, Golden jackal, potted Skunk, Bezoar Goat
a) Plants in the chaparral often have root systems
designed to get as much water as possible.
b) Shallow roots extend horizontally under the
surface of the soils and are good at catching water when it falls
as rain; taproots extend deep into the soil to capture
groundwater.
a) The have large years to regulate body heat.
b) Long legs and fast speed allows them to outrun
predators.
c) Rarely drink water and get most of their water from
eating plants.
d) Eat their own poop to get more water out of it.

TEMPERATE FOREST BIOME
LOCATION:-
Located in the eastern United States, Canada, Europe, China, Japan,
and parts of Russia.
FIG: - TEMPERATE FOREST BIOME
CLIMATE:-
- Four changing seasons including winter, spring, summer, and
fall.
- Avg. Temperature (summer): - 21°C
- Overrall Avg. Temperature : - 10°C
-Precipitation: - 30 - 60 inches/Yearly

FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Dominant Plants: - beeches, sycamores, oaks, aspens, walnut
trees, lime trees, chestnut trees, birches, elms and in America
tulip trees
-Dominant Animals: - black bears, mountain lions, deer, fox,
squirrels, skunks, rabbits, porcupines, timber wolves, and a
number of birds
a) Each year deciduous trees lose their leaves,
and grow them back.
b) In the summer their broad green leaves
capture sunlight and help the trees make food through
photosynthesis.
c) As temperatures cool in the fall, the
chlorophyll (green pigment in leaves) breaks down, causing the
beautiful red, yellow and orange leaf colors of fall.
e) As temperatures cool in the fall, the
chlorophyll (green pigment in leaves) breaks down, causing the
beautiful red, yellow and orange leaf colors of fall.
f) It is too cold for them to protect their leaves
from the damage of freezing in the winter, so they simply lse
them and seal up the places where the leaves attach to the
branch.

a) Some animals hibernate or migrate during
the winter to escape the cold.
b) Animals who do not hibernate or migrate
must have special adaptations to deal with higher exposure to
predators in the winter.
c) Die and lay eggs - Many insects can't
survive the winter, but they lay eggs that can. Their eggs will
hatch come spring.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) They provide areas for enjoyment as well as
many renewable resources including food, timber and oxygen,
produced from the plants, for us to breathe.

TEMPERATE GRASSLAND BIOME
LOCATION:-
Found in various regions of north and south of the equator
including Argentina, Australia, and central North America.
FIG: - TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
CLIMATE:-
- mild range of temperatures, but they have distinct seasons
- summers are hot and the winters are cold

-Max temperature (summer): -over 100 degrees Fahrenheit
-Min temperature (winter): - -40 degrees Fahrenheit
-Precipitation: - 10 – 35 inches
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
- Trees and large shrubs are rarely found in grassland areas.
- Dominant Plants: - purple needlegrass, wild oats, foxtail,
ryegrass, and buffalo grass
-Dominant Animals: - bison, antelope, birds, gophers, prairie
dogs, coyotes, and insects
- The dominant vertebrates in grasslands are herbivorous or
plant-eating grazers called ungulates.
a) Many animals munch on these grasses, but
they survive because the growth point on the grasses is very
close to the ground.
b) With underground stems and buds, grasses
are not easily destroyed by fire.
c) Shrubs and trees that live in temperate
grasslands are not as good as grasses at coping with the flames,
and often are destroyed by fire.

a) Most grassland bird species try to hide their
eggs as much as possible, depositing them in dense vegetation.
Killdeer (Charadrius vociferous) protect their eggs and young
from predators by engaging into broken-wing display, intened to
draw predators away from the nest.
b) Most gazelles, cattle and antelopes are clad in
colors that match the grass and surroundings of their wide-open
habitats.
c) Many species dig tunnels or burrows that
provide shelter from poor weather, and relief from temperature
extremes.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) Grasslands loss topsoil and nutrients through
agriculture and over-grazing.
b) Non-native grass species are introduced to
grasslands either by accident or on purpose through human
migrations can outcompete native grass species and take over.
c) For example cheatgrass was intoduced
accidentally to the American west in the 1800s and quickly
replaced native plant species.
d) Humans also affect the animal populations
in grassland through hunting and destroying their habitat.

FRESHWATER BIOME
Freshwater ecosystems include lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams.
LOCATION:-
Lake Baikal (central Asia), Lake Tahoe (USA),etc. Russian
lakes contain freshwater biome. They are also found in North
America, particularly in Florida, as well as the Amazon River.
The Florida Everglades is the largest freshwater biome in the
world.
FIG: - FRESHWATER BIOME
CLIMATE:-
-Temperature: - range from 39° to 71° F
-Avg. Precipitation: - ranges from 10 to 80 inches/Yearly

FIG: - PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Dominant Animals: - fishes, crabs, snakes, beavers, crocodiles,
snails, insects, plankton, crayfish, snails, worms, frogs, turtles,
insects, and fishes. Plants include water lilies, duckweed, cattail,
bulrush, stonewort, and bladderwort
-Dominant Plants: - willows, river birch, cottonwoods, water
lilies, duckweed, cattail, bulrush, stonewort, and bladderwort,
tapegrass, water stargrass, willow trees, and river birch
a) Water lilies have stomata that are open most
of the time, because water is in great capacity so there is no need
for it to be retained in the plant. In result guard cells on the plant
are generally inactive. They also have an increased number of
stomata.

They have flat leafs and air sacs to help with flotation. The
have specialized roots to take in oxygen
b) Phytoplankton do not require true leaves,
stems, or roots like most plants. This is because they absorb
water and nutrients directly from the environment.
c) In fast streams and rivers many plants have
special structures that keep them from being carried away by the
water. Some aquatic plants have strong roots that keep them
anchored securely, while others have stems that bend easily with
the movement of the water.
a) Some need the movement of the stream or
river water to survive.
b) In fast moving waters animals that have to
hold onto rocks and the bottom may have suction-cup like
structures on their bodies.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) Humans build dams for electricity
generation which can be used in day to day life.
b) The temperature and precipitation level of
water is normal in freshwater biome which is very good for
human survival.

FRESHWATER WETLANDS BIOME
LOCATION:-
They can be found along the boundaries of streams, lakes, ponds
or even in large shallow holes that fill up with rainwater. There
are many different types of freshwater wetlands, all of which
have different names. These are all names of different types of
wetlands: marsh, bog, fen, swamp, mire, slough, and prairie
pothole.
CLIMATE:-
The climatic conditions are similar to freshwater biomes.
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Dominant Plants:- milkweed, water lilies, duckweed, cattail,
cypress trees, and mangroves
-Dominant Animals: - Amphibians, birds, reptiles, beavers,
minks, raccoons, and deer
a) A plant that is growing in the dirt can pick
up oxygen from air pockets in the dirt. But in a wetland, the
pockets in the soil are filled with water, so wetland plants have
adaptations to help them get oxygen.

b) Some wetland plants have special air pockets
inside their stems called aerenchyma that allow oxygen to flow
down into their roots.
c) some wetland plants develop special roots
called adventitious roots_ (pronounced ad-ven-tish-es) that
sprout off their underwater stems to help the plants take in
water, oxygen and other needed things.
d) Some wetland plants have long stems that
allow them to float on the surface of the water or reach above
the water's surface.
a) To blend in with this dark and dull
environment, many wetland fish and crayfish are dark and dull
colors.
b) Osmoregulation, Movement
-Human Adaptation:-
a) Cultural adaptations to biting flies and fly-
vectored diseases include spatial and temporal avoidance of
flies, use of smudge, protective clothing or shelters, and
repellents of botanical origin.
b) Many city-states and modern cities have
developed in association with deltas and coastal wetlands where
resources and trade opportunities are prominent, and such cities
are vulnerable to wetland hazards.

MARINE BIOME
LOCATION:-
Marine biome is found in 5 main oceans: the Pacific, the
Atlantic, the Indian, the Arctic and the Southern ocean.
FIG: - MARINE BIOME
CLIMATE:-
- Temperature: - -40 degrees fahreheit to over 100 degrees
-Avg. Temperature: - 39 degrees Fahrenheit
-Avg. Precipitation: - 60-250 inches
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
- Dominant Plants: - Algae, Sea Grasses, Phytoplankton, Coral
Reefs,Seaweed, Marsh Grasses, Sea Anemones, Sea Cabbage
-Dominant Animals: - Whales, sea otters, fish, mollusks,
Crustaceans

a) Through photosynthesis, marine plants and
algae provide much of the worlds oxygen supply and take in
huge amounts of carbon dioxide.
b) Phytoplankton are tiny plants that serve as
food for many of the ocean creatures from the smallest of fish to
large whales.
c) Some scientists estimate that phytoplankton
provide the earth with almost half of its oxygen! Marine plants
live in the euphotic zone of the ocean because they need energy
from the sun for photosynthesis.
a) Most marine mammals have blubber to
survive in the cold water, but sea otters are unique because they
don’t have blubber. Instead, they have fur more dense than any
other mammal, with up to one million hairs per square inch
b) The anglerfish, deals with the darkness by
attracting its prey with a lure lit up by light-producing bacteria.
-Human Adaptation:-
a) People everywhere heavily use the ocean for
food, medicines, oil, other resources, and recreation. Demand
for resources from the ocean is damaging ecosystems and
depleting these resources.

CORAL REEFS BIOME
LOCATION:-
Located in shallow tropical regions of the Western
Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Coral reefs are not able to
endure temperatures that plummet below 18 degrees Celsius.
This means their habitats are limited to waters ranging from
23°N to 23°S latitude. Coral reefs form in waters from the
surface to about 150 feet (45 meters) deep because they need
sunlight to survive.The three types of reefs include fringing
reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls.
CLIMATE:-
-Temperature: - between 70- 80 degrees Fahrenheit
-Precipitation: - 78.75 inches/ Yearly

FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Dominant Plants: -Dinoflagellate, Phytoplankton, ,
Cynobacteria, Zooxanthellae, Sea weed, Sea lettuce, Kelp,
Algae, Neptune grass, Sea grass, Calcareous red seaweed,
Eelgrass, Fuccus serratus, Posidonia australis, Coralline Algae,
Mangrove, etc
-Dominant Animals: - Blacktip Reef Sharks, groupers, clown
fish, eels, parrotfish, snapper, and scorpion fish, jellyfish,
anemones, sea stars, crustaceans, turtles, sea snakes, snails, and
mollusks
a) In order to collect the sunlight needed for
photosynthesis, plants in coral reefs have larger cells. Plants
have also created many symbiotic relationships with other
animals in order to survive.
b)The zooxanthellae provide oxygen and
food to the coral through photosynthesis. The coral polyp gives
the algae a home, and the carbon dioxide it needs through
respiration.
c) Algae and seagrasses are the main types of
plants in the coral reef ecosystem. These plants give food and
oxygen to the animals that live on the reef.

a) Due to the complex structures of coral reefs,
with their many nooks, crannies, and hiding spaces, fish have
adapted a body structure to easily maneuver through the coral.
b) In open water fish have adapted bodies to swim
faster, but within the coral reefs fish have adapted bodies that
are flat (like a pancake) and maneuverable. Also the pectoral
and pelvic fins have switched places.
c) Fish found in coral reefs also have bright
coloring to help with mating or camouflage. Due to the wide
variety of prey found in coral reefs, the fish have developed a
generalized feeding structure to take advantage of the
biodiversity.
d) Sessile animals, such as coral, have
adapted toxins to keep away predators.

ESTUARY BIOME
LOCATION:-
An estuary is an area where seawater mixes with freshwater.
Estuaries can be found along the coast. Each day as the tide
rises, saltwater is brought into the estuary. Freshwater comes
down the rivers and creeks and mixes with this saltwater.
During the dry season there may not be much freshwater
flowing down the rivers.
CLIMATE:-
- Local steppe climate
- Lttle rainfall throughout the year
- Avg. Annual Temperature: - 3.9 °C

- Rainfall: - 12.4 inch/Year
FIG: - TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION
FLORA AND FAUNA:-
-Dominant Plants: - Purple Loosestrife, spike grass, Smooth
Cordgrass, Sea Lavender, Salt meadows, cord grass
-Dominant Animals: - shore and sea birds, fish, crabs, lobsters,
clams, and other shellfish, marine worms, raccoons, opossums,
skunks and lots of reptiles

a) Some plants, like pickle weed, can absorb the
salt water and store the salt in special compartments, called
vacuoles, in the leaves.
b) Other plants, like salt grass and alkali heath,
are able to push the salt out onto the surface of the leaves. The
salt crystals can be seen if you look very closely.
a) Many of the fish we eat depend upon
estuaries. They are sheltered places where fish can have their
young and the young fish can grow before moving out into the
open ocean.
b) Occasionally, water in certain areas of the
estuary can dry up and all that is left is a mud flat. It may seem
like there is no life in this mud flat at all, but there are all kinds
of mussels, shrimp, worms and other invertebrates living in the
mud.

CONCLUSION
The term BIOME was suggested in 1916 by Clements,
originally as a synonym for biotic community of Möbius
(1877).A large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna
occupying a major habitat is called a biome. The biomes of the
earth are divided into terrestrial and aquatic biome.
All biomes in the world have different types of plants and
animals. The most dominant thing is the adaptation techniques
in different biomes. Animal adaptation doesn’t happen
immediately – it’s taken many years of new generations of
animals being born with characteristics that have suited their
habitat better. Animals also adapt to their habitat through having
special built-in things about themselves that protect themselves
from predators. Camouflage is one way animals have adapted to
their environment. Animals have had to adapt to the climate they
live in, too. If it’s always very cold, they sometimes have an
extra layer of fat to help keep them warm (like polar bears do).
If a habitat gets too cold during the winter, some animals have
adapted by just leaving it! They come back when it warms up
again. This is called migration. Animals can also adapt by
working together with other animals – this is called symbiosis.
Plants adapt to their environment, too. For example, cacti in the
desert have adapted by not needing much water to survive.

REFERENCES
1) Cunningham William & Cunningham Mary Ann - Principles
Of Environmental Science
2) Singh Savindar - Environmental Geography
3) Shankar IAS Academy – Environment
4) Ladislav Mucina (2019), Murdoch University - Biome:
evolution of a crucial ecological and biogeographical concept
5) A Balasubraniam ( Feb 2013), University of Mysore – The
Tundra Biome
6) Iain Colin Prentice (March 1992), Imperial College of
London etal. – Special paper: A Global biome model based
on plant pshycology and dominance, soil properties and climate
7) Roland c de Gouvenain,Rhode Island Collede (Jan 2017) –
Temperate Forest
8) http://kids.nceas.ucsb.edu/biomes/index.html
9) https://thewebsiteofeverything.com/habitats/Estuaries.html
10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome
11) https://www.theschoolrun.com/homework-help/animal-
adaptation
12) https://phylodiversity.net/kdexter/PEOPLE.html
13)bbc.co.uk

Adaptation techniques in different Biomes

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