1. Kimberly Ballard
SOCI 3103
March 4, 2015
Merton’s Middle-Range Theory
Structural functionalism, which deals with large scale relationships in society, was studied by both Talcott
Parsons and Robert Merton. Merton was a student of Parsons’s at Harvard so naturally their theories on
structural functionalism share similarities; however, there are differences worth noting.
One of the main differences was the scale of their study of society. While Parsons focused on large scale
issues within society, Merton advocated what he referred to as “middle-range” theory. In his book, Social
Theory and Social Structure, Merton describes middle-range theory as trying to cover the area between the
grand view of society and the minute details of society. It has been said that middle-range theory is a
combination of grand theory and empirical research.
Merton consistently demonstrated the need for middle-range theory through critique of certain aspects of
earlier functionalism. There are three main postulates he critiqued: Functional unity of society, universal
functionalism, and indispensability.
The first postulate, functional unity of society, states that all beliefs and actions are functional for both
society and the individuals within society. The idea is that all of the different components of society work
together so that if something serves to function for society as a whole, it reasons that it must function for
the individuals as well. Merton argues that while this may be true of smaller societies which rely upon each
other for even the basics in life, it is not necessarily true of larger societies where the individuals tend to be
more autonomous.
The second postulate, universal functionalism, states that all cultural beliefs and structures have positive
functions. Merton argues that this obviously isn’t true because not every belief, idea, custom, has a positive
effect on society or the individuals.
The third postulate, indispensability, states that not only do all beliefs and actions have functions for society
but they represent a piece of the whole society which is indispensable, making them necessary for society to
function. The argument is that no other belief or structure could work as well as the current one; however,
Merton argues that this is wrong because there are always alternatives which could work just as well or even
better.
Merton’s theory argues that the focus of structural functionalism should be on social functions and not the
individuals and their motives. Functions are defined as consequences that help people and society adapt.
Merton mentions that it is important to understand that one structure can have negative consequences for
another structure. To counter that, he came up with what he termed as dysfunctions. Dysfunctions have a
negative effect on a system to adapt. An example of dysfunctions would be technology. People have become
so dependent on technology that we are unable to do certain things for ourselves anymore. Merton also
came up with the idea of non-functions which are consequences that have no relevance on the system or its
ability to adapt. They may have been important in the past, but they tend to be useless today. An example
of non-functions would be the KKK organization. It was considered important by many people in the past,
but has no relevance in today’s society. Merton also discussed the idea of manifest and latent functions.
Manifest functions are intended consequences while latent functions are unintended consequences. To use
my earlier example of technology, a manifest function would be increased productivity and a latent function
would be the lack of skilled workers.

2. Merton’s critique of traditional structural functionalism allowed him to develop some key arguments which
have had a profound influence on the way many sociologists do their work today. His middle-range theory
has changed the way we study society and his developments of functions, non-functions, dysfunctions,
latent functions and manifest functions have caused us to reconsider the effects of certain beliefs, actions
and structures.