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ENHANCING, LEARNING WITH AUDIO
1. Explain the differences between hearing and listening
Do you think there is a difference between hearing and listening? You are right, there is! Hearing
is simply the act of perceiving sound by the ear. If you are not hearing-impaired, hearing simply
happens. Listening, however, is something you consciously choose to do. Listening requires
concentration so that your brain processes meaning from words and sentences. Listening leads to
learning.
Most people tend to be "hard of listening" rather than "hard of hearing. ―What is the
difference between hearing and listening? According to auditory neuroscientist Seth S. Horowitz,
the answer is attention. Hearing, he explains in a recent NY Times op-ed, is a passive action, an
ever-engaged sense that is capable of not just perceiving, but triggering a reaction to, outside
stimuli several times faster than our other senses — including sight. Horowitz equates hearing to
an alarm system, a default setting that "operates out of line of sight and works even while you are
asleep." Listening on the other hand, is a decidedly active behavior, because listening requires
focus.
Writes Horowitz, When you actually pay attention to something you're listening to,
whether it is your favorite song or the cat meowing at dinnertime, a separate "top-down"
pathway comes into play. Here, the signals are conveyed through a dorsal pathway in your
cortex, part of the brain that does more computation, which lets you actively focus on what
you're hearing and tune out sights and sounds that aren't as immediately important.In this case,
your brain works like a set of noise-suppressing headphones, with the bottom-up pathways
[active during passive "hearing" experiences] acting as a switch to interrupt if something more
urgent - say, an airplane engine dropping through your bathroom ceiling - grabs your attention.
Listening, Horowitz ultimately argues, is a skill — one that is capable of being not only
honed, but lost. He then goes on to cite "digital distraction" and "information overload" as
potential threats to an individual's ability to listen, something he suggests has "become an
epidemic in a world that is exchanging convenience for content, speed for meaning."We're not
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sure we agree with Horowitz's conclusion. It's worth pointing out, for instance, that many of the
techniques he suggests for "training our listening" (listen to new, rather than familiar, music;
listen, not to your significant other's words, but to their voice) have been made more practicable
by the same digital distractions he so vaguely condemns. Still, we loved his explanation of
listening versus hearing, and his write up does an excellent job of exploring the neuroanatomical
differences between the two. And while his warning that "listening is a skill... we're in danger of
losing" certainly smacks of melodrama, it is, at least, worthy of consideration. If nothing else, it's
a nice reminder to stop and really listen — to someone, to something — for a change.
2. Identity four areas of breakdown in audio communication and specify the cause of such
breakdown .
Communication Breakdown is a multi-disciplinary art experience designed to take people on a
journey. As the journey progresses a story unfolds. Through soundtrack, short film, visual
installation and any other art form we find to fit, participants discover a story that is hidden
within their surroundings. COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN is an interactive experience that
explores the importance of keeping communication alive.
The idea of sending people on a journey is at the center of Communication Breakdown. The
story can be split into any number of locations around a city, building or outdoor space. With the
aid of a map and a series of clues given at each location, the audience must work out where to
find the next part of the story. By playing the part of detective and audience member it is
possible to navigate a way through a story that makes people visit areas they may never normally
go, or look closer at things that might normally be taken for granted. COMMUNICATION
BREAKDOWN is an intensely site specific piece that fully integrates the unique qualities of
every city it visits and therefore requires at least a week of on site research and development
prior to opening."Consult the map, solve the clues and keep your eyes peeled as you embark on
an utterly unique treasure hunt. COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN takes you on a tour of the
streets where shop windows, TV screens and menus all tell the story of a love affair in pieces."
Communication has been a major function of Management and Organizational Behavior
throughout history. The importance of honing manager‘s communication skills has rarely been
disputed. Understanding communication processes therefore is a salient path for future leaders
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and managers to travel.
There have been many important theories of communication over the past forty years
(Clampitt, 1991; Davis, 1981; Gerbner, 1957; Schramm, 1954; Westley& MacLean, 1957), but
perhaps the most recognizable and accepted is that suggested by Berlow (1960).
Berlow
conceptualized communication as a process involving several distinct stages: idea generation,
encoding of message, selecting a medium for encoded message, and then decoding of the
message (on the part of the receiver).
Then feedback may occur in instances where the
communication runs both ways as the process continues.
It has been suggested that
communication breakdowns can be found in one of these four stages of communication: idea
generation, encoding, selecting a medium, and decoding (Berlow, 1960; Kreitner, 1995).
Idea generation. In this stage an individual develops an idea or opinion from which action or
communication is initiated. Here, the communicator develops the meaning of a message before
delivering it. Communication can break down in this stage if the idea generated is incorrect or
misguided. Even in the face of a well delivered, properly encoded and decoded message, if the
idea was poor, then effective communication may not be possible (Berlow, 1960; Kreitner,
1995).
Encoding the message. In this stage an individual develops the words, images, sounds, or
gestures which will make up the intended message (Berlow, 1960). This stage relies on the
senders‘ careful selection of verbal and non-verbal cues that the receiver must recognize and
understand. If the message is encoded poorly, it will be impossible for the receiver to derive
accurate meaning. Saying things that come out the wrong way or sending signals (intentional or
not) which arouse conflict are examples of encoding problems (Kreitner, 1995).
Selecting a medium. During this stage, an individual decides the communication setting.
Managers can choose among a number of media: face-to-face conversations, telephone calls,
memos, letters, computer reports and networks, photographs, bulletin boards, meetings,
organizational publications, news releases, press conferences, and/or others. Managers can also
choose from a number of settings: among
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the Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management – Summer/Fall 2000 – Vol. 2(1) Page 26
colleagues, friends, at home, at a neutral location, in public or private, at special occasions, on
regular days, and/or others. Each of these considerations goes into the stage of selecting the
medium. The timing of communication is closely related to the medium as well. Sometimes,
even with the correct media and setting chosen communication can still go awry if the
communication is poorly timed.
If the wrong medium is selected, the receiver risks a
communication breakdown.
Decoding the message. This stage in the process involves the receiver of the message
deriving meaning from the message sent (Berlow, 1960).
It involves interpretation and
attribution on the part of the receiver. If the receiver misinterprets meaning from the message
then communication will breakdown. It is important here that the receiver clarify, if necessary,
to insure that the meaning being perceived is accurate to prevent communication breakdowns.
Decoding problems can often result from receivers‘ jumping to conclusions or bringing their
own agendas to the communication floor (Kreitner, 1995).
Communication is likely to be successful in instances where none of the stages have broken
down.
When necessary, a feedback loop exists in communication, which represents a
continuation of the communication process. After receivers have finished decoding a message,
they may generate an idea that they choose to share, at which point they become the senders.
This changing of roles from sender to receiver and vice versa is encompassed in the
communication process (Berlow, 1960).
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The Communication Process (Berlow, 1970)
Target Audience
The Communication Breakdowns exercise was designed for an undergraduate upper level
organizational behavior course and is also appropriate for any course covering communication.
The exercise has been used in both organizational behavior and organization and management
theory classes ranging from 13 to 48 and worked well across all class sizes. The exercise has
also been used with adults late in their careers and with community extension clientele. In all
cases, the exercise has proved to be a good medium for applying the communication process to
personal and professional settings
1. Describe four techniques for improving listening skills
March was International Listening Awareness Month but every month is a good time to check
how well you listen.What with the endless supply of texts messages, abbreviations and acronyms
we use to communicate, it‘s no wonder our listening skills fall short.Listening is the process of
receiving, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages.
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In the early years of marriage, my husband often accused me of not listening. Of course, I
denied, explained and defended my listening skills repeatedly. Fortunately, I learned that
hearing is not the same as fully listening.According to the International Listening Association,
only about 50% of what we hear is retained immediately after we hear it and only 20% after that.
So in honor of International Listening Awareness Month, I‘ve compiled a list of ways to become
a more effective listener:
1. Maintain eye contact – eye contact keeps you focused on the conversation at hand and
keeps you involved
2. Focus on using inviting body language, such as making eye contact, uncrossing your
arms, and turning your shoulders so you‘re facing the person speaking. Use your body to
show your interest and concern such as nodding year head.
3. Avoid thinking about what you‘re going to say next. Try not to get ahead of the speaker
by finishing his or her thoughts in your mind before the person is finished speaking
4. Participate in active listening by encouraging the speaker with nods and affirmative
words.
5. Paraphrase and repeat what you heard when it‘s your turn to talk. Don‘t interrupt – If
you‘re interrupting the person speaking to get your point across, you‘re not listening
6. Ask questions or request examples for clarification and to get a better understanding of
what is being said.
7. Stop doing other things — fidgeting, texting, reading, etc., — while someone is speaking
to you.
8. Focus on content, not delivery. If you find yourself counting the number of times
someone clears their throat, touches their nose or says uh, your attention is not on the
subject matter and you need to refocus more on the message.
9. Ask open ended questions. Closed questions close the door to further conversation by
giving a yes or no answer. Whereas, open questions allow for access to further dialogue.
For example, the speaker might say, ―I don‘t like my hair‖ The listener might respond,
―What about your hair don‘t you like?‖ or, ―Tell me more about your feelings regarding
your hair‖.
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10. Pay close attention to a speaker‘s body language – posture, eye movement and facial
expressions. This will give you cues to the meaning behind the words being spoken and
what he or she is really trying to convey.
Communication skills can easily be lost in the sea of instant messages, shorthand-speak and
abbreviations we have become accustomed to using. Unfortunately, these shortcut ways of
speaking deprives us of meaningful connections and stimulating conversations.
Even though International Listening Awareness month is over, we can still use these tips to help
improve our listening skills.
4.
Describe the most common types of digital and analog audio formats used for
instruction. Include advantage and limitations of each types.
There are both digital and analog audio sources in use today. most of all of us are used to dealing
with analog connections for audio, but digital is becoming much more common.
Analog audio sources
Probably one of the analog connections that is easiest to recognize is the set of white and red
RCA jacks that we used for so many years on our VCRs, earlier DVD players, camcorders,
etcetera. Another really common one is the headphone connection we all use on our MP3
players. That is another example of an analog audio connection. As i'm typing this, it's running
through my head that I may spark the question "But wait.... aren't MP3s digital?". The answer to
that question is yes, MP3s are digital, but the audio signal being transmitted out of your MP3
player is analog.
What uses digital audio signals then?
There are 3 types of digital audio signals that are the most common at this point. Interestingly,
all 3 of these digital audio formats are used primarily in home theater systems. One format is
found in the HDMI connection. HDMI is a digital interface that transmits both digital video and
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digital audio from an AV source to your display (HDTV or HD projector). The benefit of this
system is that it carries both the audio and video signals in a single connection. The other two
formats are used for almost identical purposes. The first is digital coax, which is a digital signal
transmitted over a copper cable with standard RCA ends on it. This digital connection allows
you to be able to transmit multiple audio channels on a single cable, unlike the analog RCA
connections. The other option is the Toslink audio connection. Toslink is an optical audio
connection. This means that it transmits the audio signal through a fiber optic cable as a series of
pulses of light instead of electricity over copper wires. The fact that the connection is optical
makes it unaffected by any electro-magnetic interference and helps to preserve the highest
quality audio signal. Just like with the digitial coax, the Toslink connection can support all your
audio channels on a single cable.
How do I communicate between the two formats?
Occasionally you may run into the need to convert from one format to another. For example, say
you have a Blu-Ray player with only digital outputs, but you want to go to an older AV receiver
that only has analog inputs. Don't worry, there's a perfectly simple solution. What you'll need is
a digital to analog audio converter. This will take as input either the digital coax or the Toslink
signal and then output an analog audio signal. This will allow you to keep using your analog
stereo equipment with your digital sources.
5. Illustrate one possible use of audio media in you teaching field. Include the subject area,
audience, objective (s), role of the student, and evaluation techniques to be used.
The use of audio is well established in education and has been used for decades. From the
humble audio cassettes of the 1970s, to accompanying nearly all video recordings, audio has a
long history as a teaching and learning aid. Audio as a format has great breadth and depth which
means there is great potential for its use in education.
Audio...demonstrated a capacity to facilitate authentic engagement, allowing students to connect
in various ways to the outside world, both as listeners and publishers. The ease and speed with
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which digital audio can be deployed was used to support timely interventions and in some cases
promoted information currency and responsiveness."
Beyond podcasting: creative approaches to designing educational audio ALT-J, Research in
Learning Technology, The diversity of activity that takes advantage of audio hasn't changed
much in many years. However in recent years there has been new exploration into 'digital' uses
for audio, which were anticipating taking advantage of the potential that is unique to digital
audio.
The majority of uses for digital audio, to date, have been replicating traditional activities ( e.g.
recordings of lectures), yet this digital medium has the potential to offer much more. As use of
digital learning technologies continues to grow around infrastructure (e.g. the virtual learning
environment) and as teaching and learning pedagogy evolves within 'uniquely' digital contexts,
we have begun to see new methods for using digital audio recordings within teaching and
learning.
The widespread popularity of audio is due, in the main, to its ubiquity in our culture and ease of
use both from a listener's perspective and more recently in the creation of audio. The tools have
gotten easier to use and better documentation has lowered the entry barrier. Furthermore,
affordable recording devices are readily available, particularly with most mobile phones now
able to record audio to an acceptable standard, giving the majority of people the means to create
and use audio.
Some examples of using audio in education
Audio is a flexible medium which means that there are many applications within an educational
context. The examples of audio uses below show that audio can be used both directly for
teaching, e.g. an activity is formed around an audio resource, or as incidental activity where
audio plays a minor role:
Providing student feedback using a voice recording that is sent to the learner either to
supplement written feedback or as a replacement. An example is the ‗Sounds Good:
Quicker, better assessment using audio feedback‘.
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Student generated recordings which may be used as part of a learner activity or to record
evidence.
Interviews with subject matter experts which can be listened to and used as primary
sources of information or smaller and incidental uses. The Centre for the Study of Social
and Global Justiceat the University of Nottingham has made a selection of their
recordings publicly available.
Public lectures are enjoyed live and face to face. The recordings can be repurposed for
teaching material and used for different contexts and subjects. The University of
Oxfordhas been making many of their lectures publicly available.
Live online discussions can be conducted via audio tools and platforms between two or
more people and this facility is frequently used for distance learning.
Audio source materials from the past and present which can be used as part of a teaching
activity. Oral history materials for example may be used by students to get a rich
description of a past event.
As a demonstration of the ability for audio to play a significant role in education, Diana
Laurillard lays out a scenario around live online discussion centred around audio as a vehicle for
activity:
Pedagogical uses for audio
In order for students to benefit significantly from the provision and creation of audio resources,
they should be at the heart of the pedagogical design.
An example of a common audio tool ‗feature‘ that supports a pedagogical use, is timeline based
comments. Many online audio players allow comments to be tagged along the timeline so that
the listener can skip to parts that the lecturer suggests. This commentator could be the teacher or
fellow group members.
Professor Tony Bates, an expert in distance education, provides examples of contextual uses for
audio such as ‗to bring students primary audio resource material, recordings of naturally
occurring events, e.g. political speeches, to present, analyse or critique complex arguments‘, see
'Pedagogical roles for audio in online learning'.
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Once you have chosen a teaching and learning context you can combine it with any one or more
of the following pedagogical applications:
To define teaching activity (typically task driven)
To support learning through acquisition ―what learners are doing when they are listening
to a lecture or podcast‖, Laurillard (2012) Teaching as a Design Science. Routledge p105
As a basis for an argument
To support learning through discussion – which are recorded for evidence
To support assessment through media enhanced feedback
Audio submitted student evidence - e.g. proof of collaboration
To summarise previous teaching
To enable students through repetition and practice to master certain skills or techniques
To make recordings of naturally occurring events, e.g. political speeches
To represent concepts and ideas
To update the course when the knowledge base changes
To facilitate discussion for distance learners, collaborative learning
For language teaching helping to develop listening and speaking skills
Finding audio
Many people prefer to find and re-use audio materials rather than create their own. There are
many guides that are available for you to discover suitable audio resources and we have a
number of helpful resources to get you started.
JISC Digital Media finding section - collection of our guides about 'finding' materials
JISC finding video, audio and images online - how to find materials including links to
digital collections and some helpful guidance
Creating audio
Creating basic audio recordings is relatively easy to get to grips with. Our creating section
encompasses many of the popular areas of audio creation that will help you create your own
materials.
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Creating an Audio Podcast
Free Online Audio Editors
Audio Feedback - A How-To Guide
Recording Audio Voiceovers for Teaching and Learning Materials
Basic Audio Editing
If you can't locate what you are looking for then get in touch with us using our helpdesk service.
For audio to make a lasting impact, an institutional approach to the use of audio may be a helpful
consideration. We are seeing more institutions specifically include digital media as part of their
teaching and learning strategies. Often relatively small investments, such as kitting out all
teaching spaces with speakers to allow multimedia are commonplace and providing access to
centrally available audio kit for portable recording and playback with staff development to
improve audio uptake and appropriate utilisation.
Length of a recording
JISC Digital Media is regularly asked how long an audio recording should be in order to support
teaching and learning. The answer is that recordings should be as short and concise as possible.
An interview recording would typically be the full length of the session rather than only part of
the recording as the context dictates that an interview is provided in its entirety. It is the job of
the interviewer to shape the direction and depth of the questions and answers.
Is the recording of the full one hour lecture useful in its entirety within the context of supporting
revision? Salmon and Edirisingha found that ‗In short, the shorter podcasts help students to
engage more often and less formally – just how they listen to their music…‘ (Podcasting for
Learning in Universities, Open University Press, p164).
To make the recording as useful to as wide an audience as possible you may wish to provide the
full recording to cover all potential uses and an abridged version that may be helpful as a
revision aid for example. Tools that facilitate ease of playback and the addition of comments
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may be particularly useful for students who prefer to listen carefully in small chunks, using the
comments as a guide.
Use and Re-use of audio recordings
Delivery
Once an audio recording is ready you will need to make it available for distribution to the
students. Typically you will either make the recordings downloadable to the student‘s device or
embedded within your chosen online platform such as a VLE or blog. There is no definitive view
on which method is better so it may be helpful to make it available for download and embedded
so that the student can immediately make use of the asset by either method:
Podcasts allow students to ‗subscribe‘ to your audio recordings which will either notify
them of new recordings or automatically download them to their chosen audio player
Virtual Learning Environments (VLE‘s) are commonly used to give students access to
audio recordings. Depending on how the VLE is setup the students will be able to listen
to the audio directly within the VLE or download the recordings. It is possible to setup
podcasts within the VLE.
Third party hosting providers are a popular option for sharing audio. Services such as
audio boo and iTunesallow you to share audio to public and sometimes private groups.
Websites are another option, either personally hosted or using third party services such as
Wordpress, a free blog tool. These tools often provide plug-ins that allow you to setup
podcast services or play audio within the website.
Social tools are starting to be used such as Google Plus for live group audio and video
sessions.
You should also make the recordings as easy for the student to find as possible which will mean
appropriately ‗tagging‘ the recording with keywords. For small projects choosing file names
should also be human readable for the end user, yr1-module-unique-ID is often better than
random numbers or generic names such as file1. At this point you may also wish to include
information such as the creator, institution, and copyright holder information. Our guide
‗Metadata and audio resources‘ covers the topic in detail.
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Popular tools that are well established for audio in education include:
Communication tools such as Skype allow live online chats (and video if you choose).
Frequently used between students due to its cost advantage over other telephony options
but some teaching staff commonly use Skype for one-to-one sessions or live seminars.
Using mobile devices to listen to audio and to record audio which can then be used for a
wide-range of activity such as recording student group meetings as supporting evidence.
Archiving
Once you have produced the final assets you should consider keeping them safe for later re-use
(if appropriate). If possible you should retain all of the objects used in the production, as this will
enable you to update final assets in the future. A common problem is that people discard key
files and are unable to update assets, retaining the master files and objects will remove this
problem.
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